• The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings.
• During this period the themes are multiple but the paintings are smaller in size. Hence, statement 1 is incorrect.
• Hunting scenes predominate. The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows. The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments. Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard, squirrel and at times birds are also depicted.
• The Mesolithic artists loved to paint animals. In some pictures, animals are chasing men. In others they are being chased and hunted by men.
• Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style, humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner. Women are painted both in the nude and clothed. The young and the old equally find place in these paintings. Children are painted running, jumping and playing. Hence, statement 3 is incorrect.
• Community dances provide a common theme.

• The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by the Harappans.
• Their bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures were first covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then the wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole made in the clay cover. The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the original shape of the object. Once the metal cooled, the clay cover was completely removed.
• In bronze we find human as well as animal figures, the best example of the former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.
• Bronze casting was popular at all the major centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

• Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, mostly made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc. Hence, statement 1 is incorrect.
• The purpose of producing seals was mainly commercial. Hence, statement 3 is correct.
• It appears that the seals were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards.
• The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, made from steatite.
• Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is yet to be deciphered. Hence, statement 4 is incorrect.
• Some seals have also been found in ivory. They all bear a great variety of motifs, most often of animals including those of the bull, with or without the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures were also depicted. Hence, statement 2 is correct.

• The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as nagara.
• In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
• While the earliest temples had just one tower, or shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
• There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara.
– The most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the ‘latina’ or the rekha-prasada type of shikara.
– The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers.
– The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what is generally called the valabhi type. These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon-vaulted buildings’.

• The shrines of the early temples were of three kinds—
(i) sandhara type (with pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (without pradakshinapatha), and
(iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides).
• Some of the important temple sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran, Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
• These temples are simple structures consisting of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear.

• Deogarh (in Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh) was built in the early sixth century CE. This makes it a classic example of a late Gupta Period type of emple. Hence, statement 1 is incorrect.
• This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). Hence, statement 2 is correct.
• The tall and curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple. Hence, statement 3 is correct.

• The greatest achievement of Rashtrakutas in architecture is the Kailashnath temple at Ellora, a culmination of at least a millennium-long tradition in rock-cut architecture in India. Hence, statement 1 is incorrect and statement 2 is correct.
• It is a complete dravida building with a Nandi shrine—since the temple is dedicated to Shiva—a gopuram-like gateway, surrounding cloisters, subsidiary shrines, staircases and an imposing tower or vimana rising to thirty metres. Hencer, statement 3 is correct.
• Importantly, all of this is carved out of living rock. One portion of the monolithic hill was carved patiently to build the Kailashnath temple.

• The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are:
– right faith
– right knowledge
– right conduct.
• Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of
Mahavira.
• Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that there is no God and that the world has been existing without a
creator and that all objects possess a soul.
• Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows:
– not to injure life
– not to lie
– not to steal
– not to acquire property
– not to lead immoral life.

Sangam Society
• Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal
(coastal) and Palai (desert).
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
– Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
– Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
– Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
– Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
– Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
• Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar.
– The ruling class was called arasar.
– Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
– Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
– The vellalas were agriculturists.
• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive
tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.

• There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the Sangam age.
• Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature.
The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems.
• Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women.
• Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
• However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
• The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.

• Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta dynasty.
• The Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account of his reign. It refers to three stages in his military campaign:
1. Against some rulers of North India
2. His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian rulers
3. A second campaign against some other rulers of North India. The inscription mentions that Samudragupta defeated twelve rulers in his South Indian Expedition.
• Samudragupta’s military achievements remain remarkable in the annals of history. He was equally great in his other personal accomplishments.
• The Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skill and his proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his ability in composing verses.
• His image depicting him with Veena is found in the coins issued by him. It is the proof of his proficiency and interest in music.
• He was also a patron of many poets and scholars, one of whom was Harisena. Thus he must be credited with a share in the promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of his dynasty.
• He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.

• The court of Chandragupta II was adorned by the celebrated Navratnas.
• Kalidasa remain the foremost among them. His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala. It is considered one among the ‘hundred best books of the world’.
– He wrote two other plays – the Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvasiya. His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava. Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two lyrics.
• Visakadatta was another celebrated author of this period. He was the author of two Sanskrit dramas, Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
• Sudraka was a renowned poet of this age and his book Mrichchakatika is rich in humour and pathos.
• Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva.
• Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita.
• Another important work of this period was Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu.
• The Panchatantra stories were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period.
• The Buddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa.

• The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period.
• The caste system became rigid.
• The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the temples.
• The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Movement.
– They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi.
• The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.

• Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas.
• The Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music.
– The Kudumianmalai inscription referred to musical notes and instruments.
– The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes.
• Dance and drama also developed during this period.
– The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures.
• The Sittannavasal paintings belonged to this period.
• The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.

• The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages. The first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami.
• Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.
1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
• Among the temples at Badami, the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for their architectural beauty.
– A group of four rock-cut temples at Badami are marked by high workmanship. The walls and pillared halls are adorned by beautiful images of gods and human beings.

• The second stage is represented by the temples at Pattadakal. There are ten temples here, four in the northern style and the remaining six in the Dravidian style.
– The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style.
– The Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style.
– The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.

• The Slave dynasty was also called Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk was the Quranic term for slave. The Slave dynasty ruled Delhi from
A.D. 1206 to 1290.
• The Khalji Dynasty ruled from A.D. 1290 to 1320.
• Then came Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414).
• They were succeeded by the Sayyids (1414-1451).
• The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans. They ruled from A.D. 1451 to 1526.

• The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his administration.
• He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
• He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.
• As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims.
• He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax. But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and wells.
• He also developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed.
• A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and widows.
• Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.

• The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and officials in his administration.
• The post of Naib was the most powerful one. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and exercised general control over all the departments.
• Next to him was the Wazir who was heading the finance department called Diwani Wizarat.
• The military department was called Diwani Ariz. It was headed by Ariz-i-mumalik. He was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military department.
• Diwani Rasalat was the department of religious affairs. It was headed by chief Sadr. Grants were made by this department for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs and madrasas.
• The department of correspondence was called Diwani Insha. All the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt with by this department.

• Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty.
• Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.
• Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
• The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir.
• In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.

• Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and their accounts are also valuable.
– The Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta,
– Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti,
– Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the
– Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.