“Theme: Medieval architecture

Notes :

The New Elements Added by Muslims to Indian Architecture :
1.The Indo-Islamic architecture inculcates the elements of Saracenic, Turkish and Arab architecture.
2.The Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and traditions and combined them with their own architectural practices. So, a mix of many structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejection or modification of architectural elements.
3.The first new element added in the Indian architecture was the use of shapes instead of natural forms. This apart, use of calligraphy as inscriptional art was also a new element added to by Muslims.
4.Muslim added the inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed tiles.
5.The Dome was a new element added by the Muslims. In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which was of the trabeated order i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic architecture was arcuate i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. Here, we have to note that the arch or dome was not an invention of the Muslims but was borrowed and improvised from the architectural styles of
the post-Roman period.
6.The Muslims used the cementing agent in the form of mortar / Limestone / Chuna for the first time in the construction of buildings in India.
7.The Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones.
It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic
monuments in India.”

Theme : Buddhism and Jainism

Notes :

Ksitigarbha
Ksitigarbha is usually depicted as a Buddhist monk in the Orient / East Asia. Ksitigarbha means Earth Womb. he is regarded as Bodhisattva of Earth or Hell beings or Mortals. He is regarded as the guardian of children and patron deity of deceased children and aborted fetuses in Japanese culture. he carries a staff.
Ksitigarbha, Samantabhadra, Manjusri, and Avalokitesvara are the principal
Bodhisattvas of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism.

“Theme : Post Mauryan Period

Notes:

Themes of Sangam Literature On the basis of interpretation and context, the Sangam literature can be described into two types viz.
Agam (inner) and Puram (outer). The topics of Agam are related to personal and human aspects such as love and sexual things. The topics of Puram are related to human experiences and emotions such as Heroism, Valor, Ethics and Philanthropy. The poems have also been classified on nature themes
which are known as Thinai. The themes are as follows:
Kurinji (Mountianous Theme).
Mullai (Forests Theme)
Marutham (Agricultural Land Theme)
Neithal (Coastal Theme)
Paalai (Desert Theme)”

Theme : Miscellaneous
Similar Question was asked in Prelims 2014 and 2015

Notes:

Classical Languages
Tamil was the first Classical Language of India. The government declared Tamil (in 2004), Sanskrit (in 2005). These two languages are undoubtedly parental sources for many languages belonging to the Indo-European family and the Dravidian family of linguistic groups. Later the government declared Kannada and Telugu (in 2008) as classical languages of India.In 2013, Malayalam was also given status of classical language. In 2014, Odiya was also given the status of Classical language.
With this the following six languages are included in the list of Classical Languages:
1. Tamil (since 2004)
2. Sanskrit (since 2005)
3. Telugu (since 2008)
4. Kannada (Since 2008)
5. Malayalam (since 2013)
6. Odiya (since 2014)”

“Theme : Mauryan Period

Similar question was asked in Prelims 2013.

Statement 1 is incorrect: They are in four languages Prakrit ,Sanskrit, Greek and Aramaic.
Statement 2 is incorrect : Inscriptions discuss about Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare efforts

Notes :

Edicts and Inscriptions

Geographical dispersion
The edicts and inscriptions of Asoka are dispersed in modern India, Pakistan and Nepal.

Languages and Scripts
They are in four languages depending on their location viz. Prakrit (Magadhi / Ardhamagadhi), Sanskrit, Greek and Aramaic. The Prakrit and Sanskrit inscriptions have been written in Brahmi script. The inscriptions in Pakistan region were written in Kharoshthi script. Rest were written in Greek or Aramaic scripts. However, the Kandahar Rock Inscription is bilingual.

Subject Matters
Most inscriptions discuss about Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism, his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare efforts

Tikdam :
The above question can be solved using Tikdam technique as well.Both statements are extreme statements as they uses term ‘all’ and ‘only’.Using this logic,both the statements can be eliminated and correct answer arrived at.”

“Theme : Temple Architecture

Similar question was asked in Prelims 2014 and 2017.

Statement 2 is incorrect : Khakhara Deula style of temple is essentially of a female deity.

Notes:

Different Temple Architecture Styles
The temples can be distinguished with the Shikhara or Vimana. On this basis, there are two types of temple viz. Nagara which is North Indian and Dravida, which is South India.
The northern-style (Nagara), Shikhara is shaped like a beehive and is made up of layer upon layer of architectural elements called kapotas and gavakshas. The temple also has a very unusual, open ambulatory around the sanctum, with pillars and no wall on the outside.
In Dravida style, tower consists of progressively smaller storeys of pavilions.
The Vesara style has characters of both Nagara and Dravida.
The Gadag style is a feature of the Western Chalukya temples and it is characterized by ornate columns.
The Kalinga architecture is has Rekha Deula,Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula types of temples. Out of them the Khakhara Deula is essentially of a female deity such as Durga or Chamunda. Konark Sun temple is a Pidha Deula.

Tikdam
The given question can be solved by Tikdam technique as well.Most students would know about Vesara style being an amalgamation of Nagara and Dravadian architecture. Only option b has statement 3 as correct. Thus even if other two statements are not known,correct answer can be arrived at.”

“Theme : Vedic Period

Statement 2 is incorrect : It rejects ritualism of Vedas and does not believe in existence of God.

Notes:

Charvaka School
This system was originally called Lokayat or Brahaspatya. This school may be called one of the oldest school of Indian materialism. It rejects Vedas, rejects ritualism of Vedas and does not believe in god or any other super natural power. Ajita Kesakambali is thought to be the first Caravaka while Brihaspati is called its founder. Most of its literature is now lost and it is also not a living tradition as of now.”

Theme : Indian Paintings

Similar question was asked in UPSC 2014,2016 and 2017

Notes :

Madhubani Paintings
Madhubani painting originated in a small village, known as Maithili, of the Bihar .Initially, the womenfolk of the village drew the paintings on the walls of their home, as an illustration of their thoughts, hopes and dreams. With time, the paintings started becoming a part of festivities and special events, like marriage. Slowly and gradually, the Madhubani painting of India crossed the traditional boundaries and started reaching connoisseurs of art, both at the national as well as the international level.The traditional base of freshly plastered mud wall of huts has now been replaced  by cloth, handmade paper and canvas..”

“Theme : Bhakti and Sufi Movement
Similar Question was asked in Prelims 2013 and 2015

Statement 1 is incorrect : Saguna Saints remained committed to the scriptural authority of the Vedas.

Notes:

Nirguna and Saguna God
The Bhakti saints emphasized on two ways of imaging the nature of the God viz. Nirguna and Saguna.
Nirguna is the concept of a formless God, which has no attributes or quality. Saguna has form, attributes and quality. Both of these can be traced to the famous Vedic Hymn “Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti” – Truth is one; sages call it many names. It is the same God, but is viewed from two perspectives. One is Nirguni, which is knowledge focussed and other is Saguni which is love-focused.Thus, the Nirguna poetry is Gyanshrayi (has roots in knowledge) while Saguna poetry is
Premashrayi (has roots in love).Those belonging to Saguna School worshiped the anthropomorphic manifestations of the divine being, particularly Rama and Krishna. Both Rama and Krishna were regarded as incarnation of God on earth. This school remained committed to the scriptural authority of the Vedas and emphasised the need of a human guru as religious mediator between God and man. The conformist saints like Ramananda and Chaitanya, espoused the doctrine of incarnation and worshipped the saguna Ram and Krishna
respectively.Those who followed Nirguna school conceived as Ishvara, the personal and purely spiritual aspect of godhead, beyond all names and forms (nama-rupa), and is to be apprehended only by inner (mystical) experience. This was radical non-conformist group, headed by Kabir, Nanak and Dadu. Kabir was the most radical of them. They created a religious school which rejected the scriptural authority and every form of idol worship and institutionalised rites and rituals. They fought against social discrimination and strove for Hindu-Muslim reconciliation.”

“Theme : Medieval Period
Similar question was asked in prelims 2014.

Statement 3 is incorrect : In the Khalisa lands the revenue was collected directly by the state.

Notes:

Revenue Reforms of Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin Khilji made several sweeping reforms in the field of revenue system. Some of his important
fiscal and revenue measures were as follows:
His first revenue regulation (zabita) related to the measurement of cultivable land as the principle for determining and revenue. Biswa (1/20th of a bigha) was declared to be the standard unit of measurement.
The state demand was fixed as half of the produce per Biswa and assessment was done on the basis of paimash (measurement).
Bhaga (land-revenue), Bhoga (cesses) and Kar (taxes) became the basis for the assignment of land to the nobles.
The sultan deprived the village chiefs and Hindu revenue collectors, such as Khuts,Maqaddams, and Chaudhuris of their privileges. They were forced to pay land revenue and other peasants were taxed.
Besides the land revenue, house tax (Ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were also imposed on the agrarian population.
Most of the small iqtas were abolished and such lands were brought under Khalisa (crown lands). Doab was also brought under Khalisa.
In the Khalisa lands the revenue was collected directly by the state.
To support his market control system, revenue was mostly collected in kind and peasants were made to sell the surplus produce at their fields only so that they could not hoard the food grains.
To ensure full realization of dues or arrears from the collectors, Alauddin Khilji established a new department called the Diwan-i-Mustakharaja.”

“Theme : Medieval Period
Similar question was asked in prelims 2014.

Notes:

Ghanima
The booty captured during war was called Ghanima, of which the state was to receive 1/5th share called the Khums; and the rest 4/5th was to be divided among the soldiers. Alauddin reversed this and the state was now entitled to 4/5th Khums, 1/5th being distributed among the soldiers.

Theme : Gupta Era

Notes:

The Carpenter’s Cave / Vishvakarma Cave at Ellora
All except one of the Buddhist Caves at Ellora are Viharas. The sculptures include those of the Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints. In many of these caves, sculptors have endeavoured to give the stone the look of wood. The Cave number 10 also known as Vishwakarma Cave is the only chaitya.

Kailasnath Temple, Ellora The grand climax of rock-cut architecture in India was the making of Kailashnath Temple at Ellora.
It is a vast multi-storey structure, carved inside and outside, made out of the heart of a rock. This temple is a remarkable example of the Dravidian architecture with Pallava influence. It was designed to recall Mount Kailas and was carved out of one single rock. It was built in the 8th century by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.

Indra Sabha (Jaina)
The five Jain caves at Ellora belong to the Digambara sect. These caves show dimensions of Jain philosophy and tradition and reflect a strict sense of asceticism. They are known for detailed work in sculpture. The notable Jaina caves are Chhota Kailash, Indra Sabha and Jagannath Sabha. Out of them, the Indra Sabha is a two storeyed cave with one more monolithic shrine in its court. It has a very fine carving of the lotus flower on the ceiling. Its name is a misnomer and derives from the sculpture of a Yaksha Matanga on the elephant, which was mistaken for Indra. It possesses an imposing image of Ambika, the yakshini of Neminath, seated on her lion under a mango tree, laden with fruits.

Theme : Temple Architecture
Similar question was asked in Prelims 2014 and 2017.

Statement 3 is incorrect: They denote the early Dravidian architecture.

Notes :

Group of monuments at Mahabalipuram

Mahabalipuram is known for its world heritage site complex ofG roup of monuments of the Pallava Period. Most of the monuments at Mahabalipuram are rock cut and monolithic. They denote the early Dravidian architecture and have inculcated in themselves the Buddhist elements of architecture.

The monuments at Mahabalipuram include the following:

1.Thirukadalmallai
This is first and foremost of Mahabalipuram sculptures. It is one of the 108 Divya desam. This temple, dedicated to Lord Vishnu, was built by Pallavas to safeguard the sculptures from the ocean. It is told that after building this temple, the remaining architecture was preserved and was not corroded by sea. It’s not a rock cut temple but was built as free standing temple.

2.Descent of the Ganges or Bhagiratha’s Penance
This is a giant open-air bas relief. It depicts Bhagiratha bringing down the Ganges to earth. It is world’s largest open air bass relief.

3.Varaha Cave Temple
Varaha Cave Temple or the Adivaraha Cave Temple is a rock-cut cave temple located at Mahabalipuram. This rock cut temple dates back to 7th century and is considrered to be one of the finest testimonial to the ancient Vishwakarma Sthapathis. The most prominent sculpture in the cave is that of Lord Vishnu in the incarnated form of a Varaha or boar lifting Bhudevi, the mother earth goddess from the sea.

4.Shore Temple Shore Temple is granite made temple at Mahabalipuram built during the reign of Narsimhavarman.
This group of temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is oldest strucutral temple (in contrast with rock cut temples) in India. Its a beautiful 5 storyed temple, which is a combined complex of 3 shrines; 2 dedicated to Shiva and one to Vishnu.

Theme : Buddhism and Jainism

Similar question was asked in UPSC 2014,2016 and 2017

Notes:

Vikramashila University
Vikramashila University was established by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty during late 8th century and flourished for 400 years till 12th century. It was located in the Bhagalpur district of modern day Bihar. It gave direct competition to Nalanda University. This university was well-known for its specialized training on the subject of Tantra (Tantrism). One of the most popular graduates from this University was Atiśa Dipankara, a founder of the Sarma traditions of Tibetan Buddhism who also revived the Buddhism in Tibet.

Theme : Medieval Period
Similar question was asked in prelims 2014.

Statement 2 is incorrect : Total collection of revenue was done only in cash.

Notes:

Dahsala System :
Raja Todar Mal, as finance minister of Akbar, brought new system of revenue collection known as zabti system and dahshala system which was a system of taxation. Under the system he took a careful survey of crop yields and prices cultivated for a period of 10 years. The Dahsala system as instituted by by Akbar, the average produce of different crops as well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten years was calculated and one-third share of the average produce was apportioned to the state. In fact, historians believe in Mughal period, it was the most significant method of assessment. The origin of this practice is traced in Sher Shah’s reign. During Akbar’s reign, the system was revised a number of times before it took the final shape. The system was adopted only in the major provinces of the Empire covering Multan, Delhi, Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, and Lahore.

The striking features of the zabti or dahshala system as have been described by the historians were:
• measurement of land was must under the system
• Fixed cash revenue rates known as dastur for each crop fixed.
• Total collection of revenue was done only in cash.

Theme : Miscellaneous

Pair 2 is not matched correctly : Hiuen-Tsang visited during the reign of Harshavardhana.
Pair 3 is not matched correctly : Marco Polo visited during the reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai

Notes :

1.Megasthenes
Period: (302-298 B.C.)
Who: Greek ethnographer & ambassador.
Ambassador of Seleucus Nicator, who visited in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
Wrote an interesting book Indica.

2.Hiuen-Tsang
Period: (630-645 A.D.)
Who: Chinese Buddhist Monk Visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana.
– Came through Tashkent and Swat Valley.
– Book is “Si-Yu-Ki or the records of western world”.

3.Marco Polo
Period: (1292-1294 AD)
Who: Venetian Traveller Visited South India in 1294 A.D during the reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Madverman, Kulshekhara (1272-1311)
His work “The Book of Sir Marco Polo” which gives an invaluable account of the economic history of India.

Theme : Bhakti and Sufi Movement

Similar Question was asked in Prelims 2013 and 2015

Notes:

Vallabhacharya Another offshoot of the Bhakti Movement was the Krishna cult of Vallabhacharya. He belonged to a Telugu Brahmin family and was born in 1479 Banaras, when the family was on pilgrimage to the place. He was looked upon as prodigy. After finishing his education he went on his travels. At the court of Krishna Deva Raya of Vijyanagar, he scored a triumph over the Saivas in public debate.
After visiting Mathura, Brindavan and other places he finally settled in Banaras. He composed many works including Bhagvata Tika, Subodhami. He taught the doctrine of Suddha Advaita which denied any distinction between God and individual soul and regarded Bhakti as the means for the soul to escape its bandage due to delusion. In spite of Vallabha’s stress on self-control and renunciation, his doctrine came to be known as “Pushti Marga” for his successors laid stress on the physical side of Krishna’s sports so that the creed came to be called as the “Epicureanism of the East“.
He laid emphasis on the worship of Krishna as an incarnation of the Almighty God. e preached that there was no difference between the Atma and Parmatma (God). “It is by means of Bhakti alone that one can get salvation and merge with him.

Theme : Dance Forms of India

Similar question was asked in Prelims 2012,2013 and 2014

Notes:

Odissi
Odissi is known as the oldest dance form of India on the basis of archaeological evidence The reason is the bass reliefs of 1st century BC in the Udaygiri caves. The Natya Shastra speaks of the dance from this region and refers to it as Odra-Magadhi. Characterized by various Bhangas (Stance), which involves stamping of the foot and striking various postures as seen in Indian sculptures. The common Bhangas are Bhanga, Abanga, Atibhanga and Tribhanga.
The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga. The chowk is a position imitating a square – a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced.

The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees. There are three traditions of the Odissi Dance viz. Mahari, Gotipua and Nartaki Schools.

Theme : Post Mauryan Period

Notes :

Earliest Extant Tamil Work: Tolkāppiyam
Tolkāppiyam is a work of Tamil Grammar, which is said to be the earliest extant work of Tamil Literature. There are three books in Tolkāppiyam viz.E zhuttadikaram, Solladikaram and Poruladikaram, and each of them are composed of nine chapters. This work has divided the Tamil Language into two types’ viz. Sentamil (Classical Tamil) and Kotuntamil (Spoken Tamil). Sentamil is used in almost all literary works of the Tamil Language.”

Theme : Bhakti and Sufi Movement

Similar Question was asked in Prelims 2013 and 2015

Notes:

Major Impacts of Bhakti Movement

Surge in vernacular Literature
Bhakti Movement resulted in a surge in Hindu literature in regional / vernacular languages mainly in the form of devotional poems and music.

Development of Philosphies

The Bhakti Movement led to development of different philosophies within the Vedanta school, ranging from dvaita to advaita.

Devotional transformation of society and Inclusiveness
It led to devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society and pushed the early means to achieve salvation {Vedic rituals and ascetic lifestyles} to background and brought individualistic relationship with personally defined God on forefront. Thus, Salvation which was hitherto considered achievable only for Brahmins, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, was not available to everyone. Thus, this movement provided inclusive path to spiritual salvation to women and members of Shudra and untouchable community

New forms of Worship
Bhakti Movement led to emergence of new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals etc. many of which are in vogue even today. It also led to new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva {service}, Dana (Charity) and Community Kitchens {Bhandra / Langar etc.}. Some of the temples and Gurudwaras adopted social functions such as helping poor, providing education by establishing charity schools, charity hospitals, relief in the aftermath of natural disasters etc.