Theme: MonsoonNotes:

North-East Monsoon:

During the winter season, North-East trade winds prevail
over India. They blow from land to sea and that is why that for the most part of
the country, it is a dry season. A part of North-East trade winds blows over the Bay of Bengal. They gather moisture which causes rainfall in the Coromandal coast while the rest of the country remains dry. Strictly speaking, these winds are planetary winds known as Northeast Trades. In India, they are essentially land bearing wind

El-Nino and North-East Monsoon:

El Nino usually causes less than normal rainfall in the case of south-west monsoon. However, it does the reverse in the case of the northeast monsoon. It causes above-normal rainfall during the North-East monsoon. This is due to the difference in seasonal wind patterns between the two monsoons.

Both statements are correct.

Theme: Manufacturing Industries

Statement 1 is incorrect: Plantation, agriculture and hydropower provide an industrial base to this region.

Notes: Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region

This industrial region is spread over Thiruvananthapuram,
Kollam, Alwaye, Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts.Plantation, agriculture and
hydropowerprovide industrial base to this region. Located far from the
mineral belt of the country, agricultural products processing and market-oriented light industries predominate the region.
Among them, cotton textile, sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser
and fish-based industries are important. Food processing, paper,
coconut coir products, aluminium and cement industries are also significant.
Location of a petroleum refinery at Kochchi has added a vista of new industries to this region. Important industrial centres are Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kachchi, Alappuzha and Punalur.

ComparativeTheme​:​ ​Natural Vegetation

Similar question on Natural Vegetation was asked in UPSC
prelims 2015.

Statement 1 is incorrect​: Tropical Semi-Evergreen
Vegetation occurs in areas adjoining tropical wet evergreen and form a transition between evergreen and moist deciduous forests.

Statement 2 is incorrect:​ Tropical Semi-Evergreen
Vegetation have a mixture of evergreenand moist deciduous trees. The under growing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests.

Note: Tropical Dry Evergreen Vegetation​:

● Distribution​: This type is confined to the
Tamil Nadu coast and the areas which receive rainfall of about 100 cm mostly from the north-east monsoon/winter monsoon(October-December).

● The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low
rainfall arouses great botanicalinterest. This vegetation may be due to the seasonal distribution of rainfall (winter rainfall).

● Characteristic Features of this vegetation​:1. Short height trees (<12m)2. A closed but low canopy of grasses and shrubs.3. No canopy layer differentiation.4. Bamboos are rare /absent.

● Important Species​ found in these forests:
Neem, Jamun, Tamarind, Machkund, Khirni, Kokko, Ritha, Gamari Canes.

● Most of the land under these forests have been
cleared for agriculture or casuarinas plantations  (Eucalyptus tree plantations).

Theme: Mineral and Energy Resources of India

Similar question on mineral and energy resources was asked
in UPSC Prelims 2013,2016 and 2018.

Correct Answer

a) Kudremukh Mines- Karnataka

b) Dhalli Rajhara Mines – Chhattisgarh

c) Chiria Mines – Jharkhand

d) Gurumahisani Mines – Odhisa

Notes: Important Iron Ore Mining Zones In India.

India’s the fourth largest iron ore producing country in the
world. More than 95% of deposits are concentrated in Orissa, Karnataka,
Chhattisgarh, Goa and Jharkhand.

1. Orissa- It is India’s top iron ore producing state. The most important deposits are found in these regions – Bonai in Sundargarh district; Gurumahisani, Sulaipat, and Badampahar in Mayurbhanj district; and Kiriburu and Bagiaburu in Keonjhar district. Joda and Koira are two of the most prolific ore producing regions spread across Keonjhar and Sundargarh districts. The state is expecting to produce 70 million tonne of iron ore in 2015-16.

2. Karnataka- Karnataka, known for its high-quality ore,
has the largest iron ore reserves in India. According to the Indian Bureau of
Mines, the state is home to 2,269 million tonnes of hematite iron ore reserves,
which is the fourth largest in India. Major mines are located at Bababudan in
Chikmagalur district, Donai Malai in Bellary-Hospet, Arasul in Shimoga
district, and Kudremukh in Chitradurga district

3. Chhattisgarh- Chhattisgarh has 18 per cent of India’s iron ore reserves. The iron ores in this state is extensively distributed, with the major deposits being in Bastar and Durg districts. Important mines located in the regions are in Bailadila in Bastar district and Dhalli Rajhara in Durg district. The ore found in Bailadila sector has Fe (iron) content of more than 64 per cent.

4. Jharkhand- Jharkhand has a quarter of India’s iron ore
deposit. Chief mines are located at Budaburu, Noamundi and Gua. It’s believed
that Chiria mine in Jharkhand has the largest iron ore deposits in the world;
reserves of 2,000 million tonnes of iron ore is located here.

5. Goa- It is India’s top iron ore exporting state. Iron
ore mined here is exported to countries such as China and Japan. Important
deposits are found in these regions – Pirna, Sirigao, Sanquelime, Kudnem in
North Goa. Goa produces iron ore with Fe content of 55-58 per cent ( it’s a
low-grade ore).

InteractiveTheme : Major crops of India Statement

3 is incorrect : The crop has a long gestation
period of five years.Notes:Importance of oil PalmThe import bill for edible oil is around $10 billion which
is India’s third-highest overseas spending after oil and gold. This has many
problems. It widens the current account deficit and it poses a challenge to the
economy. There is a dire need to increase domestic production of edible oils.
This can be done by two ways.

One is to increase the productivity of existing
oilseeds such as mustard, groundnut etc. or promote the cultivation of a crop which surpasses all of them in productivity. Such crop is oil palm. The palm oil plant is known for its high yield of edible oil. While productivity in other oilseed plants is less than 1 tonne per hectare; oil palm gives around 4 to 6 tonnes per hectare of palm oil and 400 to 500-kilo palm kernel oil from its 4th year to 25th year. It has a price advantage and good digestibility make it readily acceptable as a cooking medium. It is also used as a raw material to manufacture oleochemicals used in making soaps,
candles etc.

Production worldwide.

Although the plant originated in West Africa, it has
naturalized in the tropical regions within 20° of the equator. The plant is
most abundant in South East Asian countries because of favourable climatic
conditions there.Global production of palm oil is around 50-52 million tonnes
of which 85% is produced by Indonesia and Malaysia. With 28.4 million tonnes of
palm oil production in 2013, Indonesia is world’s largest producer currently.
These two countries also supply most palm oil imports of India.The importance of Palm oil in global edible oil economy can
be gauged from the fact that it accounts for one third of total global edible
oil production from only 6 % of the total global Oilseeds Harvested Area. It
has about 60% share of the world’s trade in Edible Oil.Consumption and Import in IndiaCurrently, India is world’s largest importer of edible oil.
The demand supply gap is such huge that India has 60-65% import dependency in
case of edible oils. The import bill for edible oil is around $10 billion which
is third-highest overseas spending after oil and gold. Palm Oil, imported from
Indonesia and Malaysia, accounts for about 80 % of total Edible Oil imports.Production in IndiaIndia’s share of palm oil production is small, accounting
for 0.2% share in the total world produce on 1% of the global acreage. However,
the acreage has been growing at a significant rate of 20% in last few years.
Under various government schemes, palm oil production in India has also grown
but as of now, India will remain net importer of this oil.Currently, area devoted to oil palm is around 200,000
hectares and output is around 70,000 tonnes a year. Largest area was under
Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana). These states & UTs include Andaman
& Nicobar Islands, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Kerala, Maharashtra, Mizoram, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Tripura. By 2013 figures,
Andhra Pradesh is the leading palm oil producing state in India contributing
approximately 86 % of country’s production, followed by Kerala (10%) and
Karnataka (2%).

Theme: Agriculture

Statement 1 is incorrect: BGREI is a flagship programme under
Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY).

Notes: Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India (BGREI) :

1.Green Revolution that turned India from ‘begging bowl’ to a leading producer of food-grains.

2.BGREI is about binging similar benefits to eastern India
that largely remained untouched of the wonder that converted the north-west
into a ‘grain bowl’.

3.BGREI is flagship programme under Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana (RKVY).

4.It is intended to address the constraints limiting the
productivity of “rice based cropping systems”.

5.The BGREI program was announced in the Union Budget,
2010-11.

6.BGREI focuses on bringing the second Green Revolution in
eastern region, which has rich water resources.

7.Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal
and eastern Uttar Pradesh (Purvanchal) are the seven states.

Objectives of BGREI

1. Harness the water potential for enhancing agriculture
production in Eastern India which was hitherto underutilized.

2.Yield maximization of rice and wheat per unit area by
improving agronomy, Water harvesting and conservation; and Water utilization (recycling of conserved water – surface water as well as groundwater).

3.Promotion of recommended agriculture technologies and
a package of practices by addressing the underlying constraints.

Interactive Theme: Monsoon

Similar question on monsoon was asked in UPSC prelims 2017

Statement 1 is incorrect: MJO is eastward-moving oscillation system, not westward-moving.

Notes

Madden-Julian Oscillation is a major fluctuation in tropical
weather on weekly to monthly timescales of 30-60 days or 40-50 days. The MJO can be characterized as an eastward-moving “pulse” of cloud and rainfall near the equator that typically recurs every 30 to 60 days and is a feature of the
tropical atmosphere. MJO effects are most evident over the Indian Ocean and
western equatorial Pacific. It influences the timing, development and strength
of the major global monsoon patterns, including the Indian and Australian
monsoons. In the tropics weather is not as predictable as in mid-latitudes. In
1971 two scientists, Roland Madden and Paul Julian stumbled upon a 40-50 day
oscillation when analysing zonal wind anomalies in the tropical Pacific. They
used ten years of pressure records at Canton south of Pacific and upper level
winds at Singapore. The oscillation of surface and upper-level winds was
remarkably clear in Singapore which became known as the Madden and Julian
Oscillation (MJO).

Factual Theme : Peninsular Plateau

Similar question on Peninsular Plateau was asked in UPSC
Prelims 2015.

Statement 1 is incorrect : Ranchi plateau lies in the south
and Hazaribagh plateau in the north. Chotanagpur PlateauChotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection
of the Indian Peninsula. Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of Chhatisgarh and
Purulia district of West Bengal. The Son River flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga. The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m above sea level. This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks. The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in
different directions and presents a radial drainage pattern. {Drainage Pattern}Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnrekaha, the North Koel,
the South Koel and the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins. The Damodar river flows through the middle of this region in
a rift valley from west to east. Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which
provide bulk of coal in India. North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain due to large scale erosion. The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises
to about 600 m above mean sea level. Most of the surface is rolling where the
city of Ranchi (661 m) is located. At places, it is interrupted by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in
Australia) and conical hills. The Rajmahal Hills forming the northeastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly made of basalt and are covered by lava flows
{Basaltic Lava}.They run in north-south direction and rise to average
elevation of 400 m (highest mount is 567 m). These hills have been dissected
into separate plateaus.

Theme: Major Waterfalls in India

Notes:

1.Sahastradhara Falls: Located near Dehradun, Formed by
liquidification of limestone rocks.

2.Elephanta Falls: Located at Shillong (Meghalaya), since
it looks like the face of elephant, it was named as Elephanta waterfall by
the Britishers.

3.Chuliya Falls: Kota on River Chambal

4.Dhuandhar Falls: Located at Jabalpur (Madhya
Pradesh) on river Narmada. An example of nick point & represents
rejuvanation.

5.Rajrappa Falls : Located at the confluence of the Damodar
& Bhairavi (locally called Bhera) rivers – Ramgarh (Jharkhand)

6.Hundru Falls: On river Suvarnrekha at Ranchi (Jharkhand)Represents nick point & rejuvenation.

7.Joranda Falls : At Shimlipal National Park of Mayurbhanj
district of Orissa.

8.Duduma Falls : On river Machkund, nearby Koraput district
(Orissa).Also known as Matsya Tirth.

10.Kapildhara Falls : Located in Amarkantak district of
MP. Lies at a distance of 6 km from the Narmada Kund. Cascade gets its name from the famous sage Kapil, who had written ‘Sankhya Philosophy’ an advance
treatise on mathematics in the Kapil Ashram.

Factual Theme: Rock Systems of India.

Statement 2 is incorrect: The Cuddapah Rock System and the Vindhyan Rock System are two sub-categories of Purana Rock System.

Notes:

1. The Purana Rock System (Late Pre-cambrian): The Archaean gneiss and the Dharwar rocks underwent further erosion leading to the formation of the Purana Rock system. The Purana rock system is further subdivided into

(i) the Cuddapah and (ii) the Vindhyan

1. The CuddapahThese rocks are generally without fossils. These formations, named after the Cuddapah district in Andhra Pradesh are sedimentary metamorphic formations. These are found in Andhra Pradesh, southern Chhattisgarh, Odisha and along the main axis of Aravallis. The metallic content in ores of Cuddapah rocks is low and at places uneconomical for extraction.

2. The VindhyanThis system derives its name from the Vindhyan mountains consists of enormous sedimentary deposits. In some tracts, Vindhyan rocks are buried under the Deccan lava. It stretches from Sasaram in Bihar to Chittorgarh in Rajasthan with the exception of the central tract of Bundelkhand gneiss. The well-known diamond mines of Panna and Golconda lie in the Vindhya region. This rock system is well known for red sandstone, sandstone, durable stones, ornamental stones, raw materials for lime, glass, cement and chemical industries.

Theme: Agriculture

Statement 2 is incorrect: The productivity pattern in India
do not always reflect strong physiographic control. For instance Bihar with
good rainfall regime and fertile soil, produces around 1000kg/ha rice whereas
Punjab which suffers from moderate agricultural limitation produces 6000kg/ha.

Notes: Productivity Level of Indian Ag­riculture:

Productivity Level of Ag­riculture defines as the amount of
crops production in per hectare land.

Agriculture productivity = Total agriculture crop
production/Total land area (hectares)Productivity levels in Indian agriculture in very low as compared to the productivity levels of other countries. India being one the largest producers of most of the agricultural crops (both food grains and non-food grain) but ranks are very low in terms of productivity.

Factors Responsible for low Productivity:

There are several factors responsible for the low productivity
of Indian agriculture.

(i) Rural Environment: In India, the rural social environment is itself an important cause behind low productivity. Indian farmers are illiterate, have a primitive outlook, conservative, unfit and unresponsive to the modern method of cultivation. According to G.S. Sahato, the marginal productivity of farmer is
zero in agriculture due to family-based cultivation process.

(ii) High Land-Man Ratio: Indian agriculture is characterized by huge population pressure. According to 2001 Census, about 72.2% of the total population lived in rural areas and about three-quarters of total rural working population, i.e., nearly 228 million workers (out of 310.7 million workers) was engaged in the agriculture sector. Due to the rise in population, uneconomic subdivisions of land take place. All these lead to low productivity.

(iii) Degradation of Land: According to Government of India, about 329 million hectares (half of the land) have already been degraded. This results in 33 to 67 per cent of yield loss. Moreover, 5% of the land has been damaged so badly that it cannot be used further.

(iv) Existence of Big Farmers: Although the Zamindari system had been abolished in India, but the rural big farmers are still playing their shadow roles. These big landowners are regulating rent, tenure system and rights of tenancy etc for tenants. Thus the position of tenants is going worse day by day. In this type of tenure system, it extremely difficult to raise productivity by only applying modern technologies,

Factual Theme: Major National Highways of IndiaSimilar question on National Highways of India was asked in UPSC prelims 2014.

Pair 3 is incorrectly matched: NH-3 connects Agra to Mumbai.

Notes: Major National Highways of India:

National Highways Connectivity

NH -1 Delhi to Amritsar (via Ambala and Jalandhar)

NH-1 A Jalandhar to Uri (via Madhavpur, Jammu, Srinagar and Baramula)

NH-2 Delhi to Kolkata (via Mathura and Varanasi)

NH-3 Agra to Mumbai (via Gwalior, Indore and Nasik)

NH-4 Thane (Mumbai) to Chennai (via Pune, Belgaum, Hubli, Bangalore and Ranipet )

NH- 5 Behragoda (Near Kolkata) to Chennai (via Cuttack, Visakhapatanam and Vijaywada)

NH-6 Hazira to Kolkata (via Nagpur, Raipur and Sambalpur, Dhule)

NH-7 Varanasi to Kanyakumari (via Nagpur, Bangalloru and Madhurai)

NH-8 Delhi to Mumbai (Jaipur, Ahmadabad and Vadodara)

NH-9 Pune to Machilipatnam (via Sholapur and Hyderabad, Vijaywada)

NH-10 Delhi to Fazika proceeding to Indo-Pak border

NH-14 Beawar to Radhanpur (Sirohi)

NH-15 Pathankot to Kandla (Near Thar Desert)

NH-24 Delhi to Lucknow

NH-39 Numaligarh to Indo-Myanmar
Border

ConsolidationTheme: Drainage System

Statement 1 is incorrect:

An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin.

Statement 3 is incorrect: The boundary line separating one
drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed.

Note: A river drains the water collected from a specific area,
which is called its ‘catchment area’. An area drained by a river and its
tributaries is called a drainage basin. The boundary line separating one
drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed. The catchments of
large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills
are often referred to as watersheds. There is, however, a slight difference
between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small in area while the
basins cover larger areas. River basins and watersheds are marked by unity.
What happens in one part of the basin or watershed directly affects the other
parts and the unit as a whole. That is why, they are accepted as the most
appropriate micro, meso or macro planning regions.

FactualTheme: Mineral and Energy Resource of India

Similar question on Mineral and Energy Resource of India was
asked in UPSC Prelims 2013 and 2016.

Statement 2 is incorrect: The two main types of iron ore
found in our country are haematite and magnetite.

Notes: Iron Ore :

1. India is endowed with fairly abundant resources of
iron ore. It has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. The two main types of
ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. It has
great demand in international market due to its superior quality.

2. The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coalfields in the north-eastern plateau region of the country which adds to
their advantage.

3. The total reserves of iron ore in the country were about
20 billion tonnes in the year 2004-05. About 95 per cent of total reserves of
iron ore is located in the States of Orissa, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. In Orissa, iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.

4. The important mines are Gurumahisani,
Sulaipet,Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu(Kendujhar) and Bonai
(Sundergarh). Similarhill ranges, Jharkhand has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel plants are located around them. Most of the important mines such as Noamundi and Gua are located in
Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts. This belt further extends to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila. Dalli, and Rajhara in Durg
are the important mines of iron ore in the country.

5. In Karnataka, iron ore deposits occur in Sandur-Hospet
area of Bellary district, Baba Budan hills and Kudremukh in Chikmagalur
district and parts of Shimoga, Chitradurga and Tumkur districts.The districts of
Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Karimnagar,Warangal, Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts of
Andhra Pradesh, Salem and Nilgiris districts of Tamil Nadu are other iron
mining regions.

6.Goa has also emerged as an important producer of iron ore.

Factual Theme: Mineral and Energy Resource of IndiaSimilar question on Mineral and Energy Resource of India was asked in UPSC Prelims 2013 and 2016.

Statement 2 is incorrect: Jharia is the largest coalfield followed by Raniganj.

Notes: Coal

1.  Coal is one of the important minerals which is mainly
used in the generation of thermal power and smelting of iron ore. Coal
occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana
and tertiary deposits.

2. About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade. The most important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley.They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal
coal belt and the important coal fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia,
Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.

3. Jharia is the largest coalfield followed by Raniganj.
The other river valleys associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi and Sone. The most important coal mining centres are Singrauli in
Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coalfield lies in Uttar Pradesh),
Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Orissa, Chanda–Wardha,
Kamptee and Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and Pandur in Andhra
Pradesh.

4. Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji,
Mewlong andLangrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and Nazira in upper
Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and Kashmir).5.Besides, the brown coal or lignite occur in the coastal
areas of Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry,Gujarat and Jammu and Kashmir.

Theme: Population

Notes: Growth of Population in India:

Phase I: The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of the stagnant or stationary phase of growth of India’s population, since in this period growth rate was very low, even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921. Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low. Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of food and other basic necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.

Phase II: The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the
period of steady population growth. An overall improvement in health and
sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate. At the same time, better transport and communication system improved distribution system. The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to a higher growth rate than the previous phase. This is impressive at the backdrop of GreatEconomic Depression, the 1920s and World War II.

Phase III: The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the
period of population explosion in India, which was caused by a rapid fall in
the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population in the country. The
average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent. It is in this period,
after the Independence, those developmental activities were introduced
through a centralised planning process and the economy started showing up ensuring the improvement of the living condition of people at large. Consequently, there was a high natural increase and a higher growth rate. Besides, increased international migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis,
Nepalese and even people from Pakistan contributed to the high growth rate.

Phase IV: In the post-1981 till present, the growth rate of
the country’s population though remained high, has started slowing down gradually. A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for
such population growth. This was, in turn, affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of females in the country.

InteractiveTheme:

Rivers of India.

Rivers are always a hot topic and similar question on rivers
has been asked consecutively from 2013 to 2017

Statement 3 is incorrect: Malaprabha is a tributary of the Krishna river.

Note: The Godavari is India’s second-longest river after the Ganga.

Its source is in Triambakeshwar, Maharashtra. The Godavari basin extends
over states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Union territory of
Puducherry.

The principal tributaries of the river are the Pravara, the Purna,
the Manjira, the Penganga, the Wardha, the Wainganga the Pranhita, the
Indravati, the Maner and the Sabaria.

Interactive /Tikdam

Theme : Indian Desert

Statement 2 is incorrect: The Bagar region has a thin layer
of sand.

Notes :Chief Characteristics of Indian Deserts:

● The desert proper is called the Marusthali
​(dead land) as this region has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. In general, the Eastern part of the Marushthali is rocky, while its western part is covered by shifting sand dunes.

● Bagar​: Bagar refers to the semi-desert area
which is west of Aravallis. Bagar has a thin layer of sand. It is drained by Luni in the south whereas the northern section has a number of salt lakes.

● The Rajasthan Bagar region has a number of short
seasonal streams which originate from the Aravallis. These streams support agriculture in some fertile patches calledRohi​.

● Even the most important river ‘Luni​’ is a seasonal stream. The Luni originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and flows
towards the southwest into the Rann of Kutch.

● The region north of Luni is known as the Thali or
sandy plain​.

● There are some streams which disappear after flowing
for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa e.g. the Sambhar Lake​. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main
source of obtaining salt.

● Well pronounced desert land features:○ Sand dunes​: It is a land of undulating
topography dotted with longitudinal dunes, transverse dunes​ and barchans​. [Barchan– A crescent-shaped sanddune, the horns of which point away from the direction of the dominant wind; Longitudinal dune – A sand dune with its crest running parallel to the direction of prevailing wind].

○ Mushroom rocks○ Shifting dunes (​locally called Dhrians)

○ Oasis​ (mostly in its southern part)

Theme : Eastern GhatsSimilar question on western ghats was asked in UPSC Prelims 2017.

Notes:

Eastern Ghats or Pūrbaghāṭa are a discontinuous range of mountains along India’s eastern coast. They run from West Bengal through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south passing some parts of Karnataka. They are eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri. The mountain ranges run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. The Deccan Plateau lies to the west of the range, between the Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats.

Comparative

Theme : SoilsSimilar question on Soils was asked in UPSC Prelims 2013

Statement 1 is incorrect: Saline and Alkaline Soils
developed in areas with dry climatic conditions accompanied by lack of proper
drainage.

Statement 2 is incorrect:

Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of Saline and Alkaline Soils.

Arid Soils

● Formation: ​These are derived from the
disintegration of adjacent rocks and are largely blown from coastal regions and Indus valley.

● Areas: ​Arid soils are characteristically
developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibitcharacteristic arid topography.

● Soil Colour: ​Arid soils range from red to
brown in colour.

● Soil Texture: ​They are generally sandy to
gravelly in texture and have a high percentage of soluble salts.

● Other characteristic features:○ These are saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water.○ Due to the dry climate, high temperature and
accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus.○ These soils are deficient in nitrogen and humus. The phosphate and iron content is normal. These soils are rich in minerals but the main limitation is the lack of water.

Saline and Alkaline Soils

● They are also known as Usara soils. Various local
names for saline soils are Reh, Kallar, and Chopan, Rakar, Thur, Karl etc.

● Formation:○ These soils have developed in areas with dry
climatic conditions (in areas having a little more rainfall than the areas of
desert soils) accompanied by lack of proper drainage. In this situation, salts
of sodium, calcium and magnesium are deposited on the upper layer of the soil
by capillary action.

● Areas​: They occur in arid and semi-arid
regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas. These are more widespread in
western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West
Bengal.

● Soil Texture​: Their texture ranges from sandy
to loamy.

● Other characteristic features​:○ Because of capillary action, the salts are sucked up in solution to the surface and form white encrustations on the surface.

○ The salt efflorescence of calcium, magnesium and sodium makes these soils infertile.

○ Saline soils contain an excess of neutral soluble salts of chlorides and sulphates whereas sodic or alkali soils contain sodium
carbonates/ sodium bicarbonates.

○ They lack in nitrogen and calcium and have low water
bearing capacity