In the news

• Pakistan’s decision to resume its National Day (March 23) celebrations in New Delhi after a four-year gap due to the pandemic and strained bilateral relations reflects a significant diplomatic gesture.
• Let’s delve into the historical significance of Pakistan National Day, centered around the Lahore Resolution, and understand how it is observed in New Delhi.

Observance of Pakistan National Day in New Delhi

• Diplomatic Event: The Pakistan National Day is observed at the Pakistan embassy complex in New Delhi, typically attended by foreign diplomats and Indian dignitaries.
• Symbolic Gestures: The event features the playing of national anthems of both countries and addresses by the Pakistan high commissioner and invited guests, fostering diplomatic ties.

About the Lahore Resolution (1940)

• Historical Context: The Lahore Resolution was adopted by the All-India Muslim League during its session in Lahore from March 22 to March 24, 1940.
• Core Objective: It formally called for an independent state for India’s Muslims, laying the groundwork for the creation of Pakistan.
• Constitutional Transformation (1956): Pakistan officially adopted its first Constitution on March 23, coinciding with the Lahore Resolution, signifying the transition from the Dominion of Pakistan to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
• Symbolic Structure: The Minar-e-Pakistan, erected at the site of the Lahore Resolution, commemorates this historic event, with the resolution’s text inscribed at its base.

Key Elements of the Lahore Resolution

• Geographical Division: The resolution emphasized the formation of “Independent States” in regions where Muslims were in a majority, particularly in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India.
• Safeguarding Minority Rights: It called for the protection of religious, cultural, economic, and political rights of Muslims and other minorities throughout India.

Historical Context and Lead-up to the Lahore Resolution

• Growing Dissent: The resolution reflected the culmination of growing demands for Muslim autonomy within India, amid concerns over representation and safeguarding of rights.
• Impactful Events: The session coincided with the Khaksar tragedy and featured a pivotal address by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, solidifying his leadership role in the movement for a separate Muslim state.
• Government of India Act, 1935: The Lahore Resolution emerged against the backdrop of the GoI Act, 1935, which granted separate electorates to Muslims and served as a catalyst for the demand for Muslim autonomy.

Try this PYQ from CSP 2012:

Q.The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (1929) is very important in history, because-

1. The Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence
2. The rift between the extremists and moderates was resolved in that Session
3. A resolution was passed rejecting the two-nation theory in that Session

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(c) 1 and 3

(d) None of the above

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Introduction

• On January 26, India celebrates Republic Day, marking the day when its Constitution came into effect in 1950.
• However, the roots of this celebration trace back to January 26, 1930, when India made the historic “Poorna Swaraj” declaration, signifying its quest for complete independence from British rule.

Context of the 1920s

• Non-Cooperation Movement: The 1920s witnessed the aftermath of the Non Cooperation Movement and the Chauri Chaura incident, which prompted Mahatma Gandhi to temporarily halt non-violent protests.
• Rise of Leaders: This period saw the emergence of notable leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Vallabhai Patel, and C. Rajagopalachari, setting the stage for India’s future freedom struggle.

Simon Commission and Nehru Report

• Simon Commission: In 1927, British authorities appointed the Simon Commission to discuss political reforms in India, sparking nationwide protests with slogans like “Simon Go Back.”
• Nehru Report: In response, the Indian National Congress (INC) established its own commission under Motilal Nehru, advocating dominion status for India within the British Empire.

Internal Disagreements: Dominion or Republic?

• Dominion Status Debate: While the Nehru Report called for dominion status, leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru favored complete independence, fearing that dominion status would align India with colonial exploitation in the British Empire.
• Change in Gandhi’s Views: Initially supporting dominion status, Mahatma Gandhi’s stance evolved as he began advocating for complete independence.

Irwin Declaration and Backtracking

• Irwin Declaration: In 1929, Viceroy Irwin vaguely promised dominion status for India, which sparked hope among Indians but faced opposition in Britain.
• Backtracking: Under pressure from Britain, Irwin retracted his promise during a meeting with Indian leaders, leading to growing unity within the INC for complete independence.

Declaration of Poorna Swaraj

• Lahore Session of INC: In December 1929, during the Lahore Session of the INC, the “Poorna Swaraj” resolution was passed, calling for complete independence from British rule.
• Official Promulgation: On January 26, 1930, this declaration of independence was officially announced, marking a pivotal moment in India’s freedom struggle.
• Nonviolent Protest: The resolution also affirmed the Gandhian principles of nonviolent protest, which became integral to the subsequent struggle for independence.

Republic Day in Post-Independence India

• Celebrating Independence: From 1930 until India’s independence in 1947, January 26 was celebrated as “Independence Day” or “Poorna Swaraj Day,” symbolizing India’s commitment to sovereignty.
• Constitution Adoption: When India adopted its Constitution, leaders chose January 26 for Republic Day, as it held historical significance and aligned with the ideals of complete independence as articulated in the “Poorna Swaraj” declaration.
• Symbolism: Today, Republic Day commemorates India’s journey to self-rule and reflects the principles enshrined in its Constitution.

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Central Idea

• On January 1, 1948, the town of Kharsawan in present-day Jharkhand witnessed a massacre reminiscent of what happened in Jallianwala Bagh in 1919.
• Police opened fire at a crowd gathered for a protest and the weekly haat (market), killing hundreds, or by some accounts, thousands of Adivasis.

Kharsawan Massacre: A Background

• Since the creation of the Bihar and Orissa Province in 1912, Adivasis in the region sought a separate state, reflecting their unique culture and grievances.
• This demand gained momentum over the years, with the Simon Commission acknowledging the distinct nature of the region in 1930.
• In 1938, the Adivasi Mahasabha was established to further this cause, led by prominent leader Jaipal Singh Munda.

Kharsawan’s Merger Controversy

• Merger with Orissa: In 1947, Kharsawan, a princely state with a significant Odia-speaking population, decided to join Orissa during India’s princely states’ integration.
• Adivasi Opposition: However, most Adivasis opposed this merger, desiring a separate state instead.

The Massacre

• Protest Gathering: On January 1, 1948, a large gathering was organized in Kharsawan to protest the merger, coinciding with the weekly market day. Over 50,000 people, including those from distant villages, assembled, many to see Jaipal Munda, who was expected but did not arrive.
• Police Open Fire: The large crowd and tense atmosphere led the Orissa military police to open fire, resulting in a massacre. The exact number of casualties remains unclear, with estimates ranging from a few dozen to several thousand.
• Aftermath: The bodies were disposed of in a well and the jungle, and many injured were left untreated. The incident remains a dark and unresolved chapter in Indian history.

Legacy

• Uncertain Death Toll: Official records state 35 deaths, but other sources, like P.K. Deo’s “Memoir of a Bygone Era,” suggest numbers as high as 2,000.
• Lack of Accountability: No definitive report or accountability for the massacre has been established.
• Memorial and Remembrance: A memorial in Kharsawan serves as a reminder of this tragedy, with political leaders often visiting to pay respects.

Conclusion

• The Kharsawan massacre is a poignant reminder of the complexities and tragedies during India’s transition to independence, particularly for marginalized communities like the Adivasis.
• It underscores the unresolved issues of tribal rights and recognition in India’s history.

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Central Idea

• On December 28, 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) was established, marking the beginning of a significant journey in Indian politics.
• The INC’s journey from influencing British policy to leading India’s nationalist movement, dominating post-independence politics, and its current decline offers a rich political narrative.

Indian National Congress: Inception in 1885

• Founding by AO Hume: Allan Octavian Hume, an English bureaucrat, founded the INC to advocate for greater self-governance in India.
• First Session: The inaugural session in Bombay saw 72 reformers, journalists, and lawyers unite, aiming not for independence but to influence British policies favorably for Indians.
• Safety Valve Theory: The INC initially served as a platform for Indians to express grievances, seeking to unify diverse population segments and regenerate the nation across various dimensions.

Politics of Petitions

• Early Challenges: The Congress faced criticism from both the British and Indians; the former for disrupting the status quo and the latter for its passive resistance approach.
• Composition and Critique: Dominated by educated, upper-class individuals, the INC was often seen as too moderate and not sufficiently representative of all Indians.
• Internal Divisions: By 1906, ideological differences led to a split between the moderates (Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea) and the extremists (Bal Gangadhar Tilak), particularly over responses to the Bengal Partition.

Leadership under Mahatma Gandhi

• Reunification and Transformation: The INC, under Gandhi’s influence from 1915, transformed into a mass movement, focusing on social issues like caste discrimination and poverty.
• Diverse Membership: Despite its Hindu upper-caste dominance, the party included members from various ethnic and religious backgrounds.
• Purna Swaraj Declaration: At the 1929 Lahore session, the INC, under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, committed to complete independence, a goal achieved in 1947 but marred by Partition.

Dominance in Post-Independence India

• Electoral Success: The INC’s legacy and organizational strength led to victories in the first six general elections.
• Policy Direction: Under Nehru, the party promoted secularism, socialist economics, and non-aligned foreign policy.
• Internal Power Struggles: Post-Nehru, internal conflicts emerged, notably between Indira Gandhi and the party’s old guard, leading to a split into Congress (R) and Congress (O).

Onset of Decline

• Electoral Setbacks: The Emergency period (1975-77) led to the INC’s first national electoral defeat in 1977.
• Fluctuating Fortunes: While it regained power, the 1989 loss marked the end of its dominance, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerging as a strong alternative.
• Recent Struggles: The INC’s significant reduction in parliamentary strength in the 2014 and 2016 elections underscores its ongoing decline.

Back2Basics: Important Sessions of INC

• 1896, Calcutta: Presided over by Rahimtulla M. Sayani, where the national song “Vande Mataram” was sung for the first time.
• 1906, Calcutta: Presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, where the goal of Swaraj (self-rule) was formally adopted.
• 1917, Calcutta: Annie Besant became the first woman president of the INC.
• 1924, Belgaum: The only session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi.
• 1937, Faizpur: The first session held in a rural area, reflecting the INC’s commitment to rural issues and agrarian reform.
• 1938, Haripura: Subhas Chandra Bose elected as President, which marked a shift towards a more radical approach in the freedom struggle.
• 1940, Ramgarh: Last session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi; emphasized on individual Satyagraha.
• 1955, Avadi (Madras): Adoption of the ‘Avadi Resolution’ which called for a socialist pattern of society.
• 1964, Bhubaneswar: First session after the death of Jawaharlal Nehru, marking a new era in the party’s leadership.

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Central Idea

• A recent Bollywood movie ‘Dunki’ addresses the complex issue of immigration.
• The term “donkey journey” in the title refers to the perilous routes taken by people lacking legal permits or financial means to immigrate.
• The film highlights that the current system of visas and passports is a relatively recent development, dating back about 70 years.

Historical Perspective on Passports

• Early Forms of Passports: Passports, serving as identity proofs and travel permits, have existed in various forms for centuries.
• Biblical Reference: The Book of Nehemiah mentions King Artaxerxes of ancient Persia providing letters for safe passage, akin to modern passports.
• European Documentation: In France and the United Kingdom, systems similar to modern passports were in place well before the French Revolution of 1789.

The French Passport System

• Internal and Overseas Passports: France required internal passports for domestic travel and overseas passports for foreign trips.
• State Control and Regulation: The system was also used to regulate skilled workers and prevent the entry of potential troublemakers.

Emergence of Modern Passports

• Shift in India: Before World War I, India did not issue passports, but the British government introduced mandatory passports under the Defence of India Act (1914 to 1918).
• Global Changes Post-World Wars: The need for secure borders during the World Wars led to a global shift in the perception and use of passports.
• British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act: This 1914 Act in Britain consolidated laws related to citizenship and introduced modern passport features.

Standardization and Regulation

• League of Nations’ Involvement: In 1920, the League of Nations aimed to standardize passport systems, with the British model becoming widely adopted.
• US Immigration Laws and Passports: The US introduced passport laws in the 1920s, coinciding with immigration restrictions from Asia.

Public Reception and Cultural Impact

• Personal Discomfort: In the US and UK, some people found the detailed physical descriptions and identity verification in passports intrusive.
• Media Attention: The requirement for prominent individuals, including President Woodrow Wilson, to have passports garnered significant media interest.

Conclusion

• Beyond Wartime Necessity: Initially intended as a wartime tool, passports have become an integral part of modern citizenship and international travel.
• Continued Evolution: The history of passports, as explored in ‘Dunki’, reflects the ongoing evolution of identity verification and border control in response to global socio-political changes.

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Central Idea

• A serious security breach occurred in the Indian Parliament when two individuals jumped into the Lok Sabha chamber, releasing yellow smoke.
• Police sources indicated that the act, involving a total of six individuals, was apparently inspired by the revolutionary Bhagat Singh.

Bhagat Singh’s Historic Act in 1929

• Central Assembly Incident: Over 94 years ago, Bhagat Singh, along with Batukeshwar Dutt, threw bombs and pamphlets in Delhi’s Central Assembly, challenging the British Empire.
• Objective: Their act was not aimed at causing harm but to protest against the lack of autonomy under the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms and to voice against repressive measures.

1929 ‘Indian Parliament’ and Revolutionary Motives

• Political Climate: The period saw Indian nationalists dissatisfied with the limited power under British rule, leading to revolutionary movements.
• HSRA’s Stance: The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA), led by Chandrashekhar Azad and involving Bhagat Singh, sought to oppose the facade of an Indian Parliament run by the British.
• Pamphlet’s Message: The HSRA aimed to ‘make the deaf hear’, using their act as a symbolic protest against the British administration.

Fateful Day: April 8, 1929

• Viceroy’s Proclamation: The incident coincided with the Viceroy’s enactment of controversial bills, despite opposition in the Assembly.
• Well-Planned Action: Bhagat Singh and Dutt conducted reconnaissance and executed their plan while dressed in khaki, throwing bombs and pamphlets into the Assembly.
• Immediate Arrest: Following their slogan-shouting and bomb-throwing, both revolutionaries were arrested as per their plan.

Aftermath: Trial and Sentencing

• Response to Criticism: Bhagat Singh and Dutt defended their actions, emphasizing the sanctity of human life and the moral justification of their cause.
• Trial and Sentencing: A month later, both were sentenced to life imprisonment. Bhagat Singh later faced additional charges leading to his execution in 1931.

Conclusion

• Echoes of History: The recent security breach in the Lok Sabha, inspired by Bhagat Singh’s act, reflects a continued legacy of protest in India.
• Legacy of Bhagat Singh: The incident serves as a reminder of Bhagat Singh’s enduring influence in Indian history, symbolizing resistance and the fight for justice.
• Contemporary Relevance: While the motives of the recent perpetrators are still under investigation, their actions highlight ongoing issues in India, from regional concerns to farmers’ rights, resonating with Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary spirit.

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Central Idea

• A veteran leader’s centenary who was associated with Netaji Bose’s All Indian Forward Bloc (AIFB), was celebrated.

All Indian Forward Bloc (AIFB)

Try this PYQ:

Who among the following were the founders of the “Hind Mazdoor Sabha” established in 1948?

(a) B. Krishna Pillai, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and K.C. George

(b) Jayaprakash Narayan, Deen Dayal Upadhyay and M.N. Roy

(c) C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, K. Kamaraj and Veeresalingam Pantulu

(d) Ashok Mehata, T.S. Ramanujan and G.G. Mehata

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Central Idea

• A movie-maker has issued an apology for the unintended distress caused by its rendition of the iconic song “Karar Oi Louho Kopat” penned by Bengali poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in 1922.

Who was Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899-1976)?

• Kazi Nazrul Islam was born on May 24, 1899, in Churulia, a village in the Burdwan district of West Bengal, India.
• He was a famous poet, writer, and musician from Bengal.
• He is well-known for his songs, which are called “Nazrulgeeti.”
• These songs are very popular and loved by in West Bengal, Bangladesh, almost as much as Rabindrasangeet of Rabindranath Tagore.
• Nazrul is often called the “Vidrohi Kavi (Rebel Poet)” because he wrote more than 4,000 songs, and many of them were about protesting and fighting against unfair rules and powerful rulers.
• These songs inspired the freedom fighters of Bengal who were fighting against the British colonial rule.
• He is celebrated as the national poet of Bangladesh and is also revered in West Bengal, India.

Understanding “Karar Oi Louho Kopat”

• Nazrul was an ardent supporter of India’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule. He used his poetry and writings to inspire and mobilize people against British oppression.
• Published in 1922 in “Banglar Katha” and later included in Nazrul’s “Bhangar Gaan,” the song was penned as a call to break down the iron gates of prison, symbolizing resistance against British oppression.
• He wrote the song of revolution after the British threw Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das (1870-1925) in prison in 1922.

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Central Idea

• The Battle of Colachel in 1741, where King Marthanda Varma led the Travancore army against the Dutch East India Company, marked a significant turning point in India’s history.
• It was the first instance of an Asian kingdom defeating a European power, effectively halting Dutch colonial ambitions in India.
• This battle also had profound implications for the formation of the unified Travancore state.

Travancore’s Complex Landscape Before 1741

• Fragmented Territories: Travancore, formerly known as Thiruvithamcode, was not a unified state but a network of south Malabar temple states and settlements, characterized by fragmented territories and chieftaincies.
• Marthanda Varma’s Leadership: Born in 1705, Marthanda Varma ascended to power and set his sights on unifying the kingdom by annexing neighboring regions and eliminating internal opposition.
• Territorial Expansion: His ambition to expand threatened neighboring rulers in Kayamukulam, Kollam, Attingal, and others, leading them to seek Dutch intervention against Varma.
• English Connection: Varma’s military relations with the English, who supplied weaponry, further strained Dutch-Travancore relations.

Factors Leading to the Battle

• Dutch Resistance: The Dutch, perturbed by Varma’s expansion and territorial disputes, prepared their forces in Colachel to counter Travancore.
• Internal Conflicts: Some Dutch officials, including Carl August Duijvenschot, defected to Travancore due to internal conflicts within the Dutch ranks.
• Neighboring Rulers’ Instigation: Cochin and Kayamukulam rulers instigated the Dutch against Varma to safeguard their borders.

Battle of Colachel: Unfolds

• Dutch Aggression: In February 1741, the Dutch initiated attacks on several villages and the Travancore army, committing atrocities and plundering the region.
• Varma’s Response: Marthanda Varma deployed his military commander, Rama Iyer Dalawah, to confront the Dutch and protect his kingdom.
• International Support: The French supported Varma against the Dutch, and even the English participated in the siege of Colachel alongside Varma’s forces.

Siege and Surrender

• Long Siege: The continuous attacks and siege depleted Dutch supplies and manpower, leading to a dire situation.
• Explosion and Surrender: On August 5, 1741, a gunpowder explosion occurred in Colachel, devastating the Dutch. Two days later, they surrendered.
• Outcome: Only 24 Dutchmen survived, and Travancore captured 389 muskets, cannons, and swords.
• Mukkuvar Community: The Mukkuvar fishermen community, by refusing to assist the Dutch with fortifications and supplies, played a crucial role in Travancore’s victory.

Aftermath and Legacy

• Resilience to Colonial Rule: The victory at Colachel bolstered Varma’s expansion plans and resistance to colonial rule.
• Dutch Retreat: The Dutch never fully recovered from their defeat and signed the Treaty of Mavelikkara in 1753, ending their dominance on the Kerala coast.
• De Lannoy’s Contribution: Eustachius De Lannoy, captured during the battle, played a vital role in training Travancore’s army and fortifying the region. He was conferred the title ‘Valia Kappithan’ (senior admiral) and served Travancore for 36 years.

Back2Basics: Colonization of India

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Central Idea

• October 2 is a day of double celebration as India remembers the birth anniversaries of two iconic leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, the ‘Father of the Nation,’ and Lal Bahadur Shastri, former Prime Minister.
• Both leaders made significant contributions to India’s freedom struggle and early years of nation-building.

Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Man of Humble Origins

[A] Rising from Modest Beginnings

• Early Struggles: Born in 1904 in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh, Shastri faced adversity early in life, with his father passing away shortly after his birth.
• Simplicity: Raised in a lower-middle-class environment, he possessed only two kurtas and dhotis, symbolizing his humble beginnings.
• A Change of Name: In a demonstration of his early social consciousness, Shastri dropped his birthname “Varma.” In 1925, he acquired the title of ‘Shastri’ (one who knows the Shastras) from the Kashi Vidyapeeth in Benaras, adding it to his name.

[B] Resignation and Accountability

• A Serious Accident: While serving as the Union Minister for Railways and Transport in 1956, a tragic railway accident in Telangana resulted in the loss of 112 lives.
• Owning Responsibility: Deeply affected by the tragedy, Shastri took moral responsibility and tendered his resignation to Prime Minister Nehru. Although Nehru initially did not accept it, Shastri resigned again after another railway accident in Tamil Nadu in November 1956, further solidifying his moral stature.

[C] Championing the Slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’

• A Return to Cabinet: Shastri made a comeback to the Union Cabinet, serving in roles such as Home Minister and Commerce and Industry Minister.
• Language Assurance: In response to concerns about Hindi domination, he assured the continued use of English as an official language alongside Hindi.
• Economic Challenges: In 1965, faced with economic stagnation and growing food demand, Shastri called upon farmers to increase production, traders to maintain fair prices, and consumers to exercise restraint. He coined the famous slogan, ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan (Hail the soldier, hail the farmer!).’

[D] Leadership during the 1965 India-Pakistan War and Tashkent Agreement

• Unforeseen Conflict: The 1965 war with Pakistan erupted as Pakistan launched attacks in Jammu and Kashmir, believing India to be vulnerable after the 1962 war with China.
• Firm Response: Shastri approved an Indian counterattack, leading to hostilities on both sides.
• Tashkent Declaration: Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin invited Shastri and Pakistan President General Ayub Khan to Tashkent, Uzbekistan, where they signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, committing to long-term peace.
• Sudden Passing: Tragically, Shastri passed away due to a heart attack the following day in Tashkent, leaving behind speculation about the circumstances. However, available evidence suggests it was a natural death, dispelling doubts of external factors.

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Central Idea

• Bhagat Singh, born on September 28, 1907, in the village of Banga (now in Faisalabad, Pakistan), is celebrated as a charismatic revolutionary who sacrificed his life for the cause of Indian independence at the young age of 23.

Five Lesser-Known Aspects of Bhagat Singh’s Life

[1] A Family of Progressive Freedom Fighters

• Anti-Colonial Roots: Bhagat Singh’s father, Kishan, and uncle, Ajit, were actively involved in anti-British activities. Kishan faced imprisonment in 1910 for disseminating seditious literature, while Ajit was deported to Mandalay in 1907 for his inflammatory speeches against the Punjab Colonisation Bill. Both played significant roles in the freedom struggle, influencing Bhagat Singh’s upbringing in an anti-colonial environment.
• Dissent within the Family: Despite the family’s strong anti-British stance, Bhagat Singh publicly criticized his father for submitting a mercy plea to the Viceroy when he and other revolutionaries faced the gallows, revealing his unwavering commitment to the revolutionary cause.

[2] A Scholar and Writer

• Prolific Writer: Bhagat Singh contributed to Urdu and Punjabi newspapers in Amritsar during the 1920s and authored pamphlets and ‘seditious’ literature condemning British colonial rule.
• Eclectic Reading: His jail notebooks revealed his interests extended beyond politics, encompassing literature from renowned poets and writers, including Rabindranath Tagore, William Wordsworth, Wajid Ali Shah, Mirza Ghalib, and Iqbal.

[3] An Atheist and Marxist with Anarchist Leanings

• Religious Critique: Bhagat Singh was an avowed atheist who criticized religion in his essay ‘Why I am an Atheist’ (1930), rejecting the concept of one true religion. He viewed religious beliefs as divisive and demoralizing.
• Inspirations: Bhagat Singh drew inspiration from Marxist thinkers such as Marx, Lenin, Trotsky, and Bakunin. In his final testament, ‘To Young Political Workers’ (1931), he advocated for “social reconstruction on new, i.e., Marxist, basis.” However, he did not fully align with orthodox Marxist views, particularly on authoritarianism.

[4] Support from Jinnah

• Jinnah’s Defense: While Mahatma Gandhi refrained from intervening in Bhagat Singh’s trial, MA Jinnah ardently defended him. Jinnah vehemently opposed a proposed Bill that would have allowed trials in absentia, delivering a compelling speech in the Central Assembly in 1929.
• Successful Opposition: Jinnah’s staunch stance led to the foiling of the attempt to pass the law, but Bhagat Singh’s trial continued under dubious circumstances, resulting in his death sentence in 1930.

[5] Jawaharlal Nehru’s Support

• Nehru’s Critique: Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the British legal process and the injustice inflicted on Bhagat Singh. He admired Bhagat Singh’s courage and self-sacrifice.
• Historic Visit: Nehru, along with other leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose, visited Bhagat Singh in prison. Despite their differences in methods, Nehru’s respect for Bhagat Singh remained unwavering.
• Congress Resolution: After Bhagat Singh’s execution, Nehru moved an official resolution in a Congress session, condemning the execution and demanding commutation, even though the Congress officially rejected violence as a means of achieving independence.

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Central Idea

• Mahatma Gandhi used fasting as a potent tool to press for change during India’s struggle for independence.
• He employed it both as a form of personal penance and as a means to pressure the British authorities to meet his demands.

The Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate

• The 1932 Turning Point: In September 1932, within the walls of the Yerawada Central Jail in Pune, Gandhi initiated a hunger strike against the idea of separate electorates for the harijans (lower castes). This action brought him into a fierce debate with another prominent leader, B.R. Ambedkar.
• The Debate’s Legacy: The “Gandhi-Ambedkar debate” revolved around their differing views on caste and ultimately influenced the reservation system that India has today.

Gandhi’s Changing Views on Caste

• Early Beliefs: In his early years, Gandhi held orthodox views on caste, supporting prohibitions on inter-dining and inter-marriage. He considered caste a crucial part of Hinduism.
• Evolution of Beliefs: As Gandhi became a central figure in India’s freedom movement, his views evolved. Partially influenced by the emerging Dalit movement, he advocated unity and opposed untouchability, referring to untouchables as “harijans” or children of God.
• Important Quote: Gandhi wrote in 1936, “I do know that it [untouchability] is harmful both to spiritual and national good.”

Ambedkar’s Radical Views on Caste

• Ambedkar’s Perspective: B.R. Ambedkar’s stance was more radical than Gandhi’s. He believed that mere reform wouldn’t undo centuries of discrimination. He argued that change would only come when the oppressed themselves rejected their condition, including the divine authority of the shastras (holy scriptures) that upheld caste.
• Political Empowerment: Ambedkar emphasized that political power was essential for lower castes to address their grievances and proposed separate electorates as a form of affirmative action.
• Separate Electorates Explained: Ambedkar’s proposal involved separate electorates for lower castes, allowing them to vote for candidates from their own community as well as in the general electorate. He believed this would empower lower castes.

Gandhi’s Opposition to Separate Electorates

• Gandhi’s Perspective: Gandhi opposed separate electorates, arguing that they did too little for lower castes. He believed that lower castes should aspire to lead, not settle for a small share of seats.
• Concerns: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society further and play into the hands of British colonial rulers who exploited internal divisions.
• Challenging Times: The rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims at the time also fueled Gandhi’s concerns. Separate electorates for lower castes alongside those for Muslims would weaken the unity of the Hindu community.

The Yerawada Fast and the Poona Pact

• Gandhi’s Hunger Strike: In September 1932, Gandhi embarked on a hunger strike in Yerawada Jail against separate electorates for castes. He called it a “God-given opportunity” to sacrifice his life for the downtrodden.
• Ambedkar’s Dilemma: Ambedkar faced a challenging decision. Giving in to Gandhi’s demands was difficult, as it conflicted with his own ideas. However, Gandhi’s immense popularity and the potential for violence against Dalits pressured him.
• The Poona Pact: Eventually, under duress, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact, securing reservations for lower castes while putting the idea of separate electorates to rest.

Legacy of the Fast

• Mixed Perspectives: Gandhi’s fast is seen by some as preventing British “divide and rule” tactics. Others view it as coercion, as Ambedkar had little choice but to concede. Ambedkar questioned why Gandhi didn’t fast against untouchability itself.
• Unresolved Tensions: The debate’s legacy endures. While the Poona Pact addressed immediate concerns, it left lingering issues of political representation and social transformation within India’s caste system.
• Ambedkar’s View: Ambedkar later wrote, “The Joint Electorate is… a ‘Rotten Borough’ in which the Hindus get the right to nominate an untouchable to set nominally as a representative of the untouchables but really as a tool of the Hindus.”

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• September 13, 2023, marks the 75th anniversary of Operation Polo, a significant military action undertaken by the Indian Army in 1948 to integrate the princely state of Hyderabad.
• This operation, also known as the “Police Action,” led to the Nizam of Hyderabad’s forces surrendering to the Indian Army by September 18, 1948.
• Understanding the background and events surrounding Operation Polo is essential to appreciate its historical significance.

Context of Operation Polo

(1) The Nizam’s Stand:

• The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Shah, was reluctant to join India or Pakistan after India’s Independence in 1947.
• He exploited the diversion of Indian resources towards the Kashmir conflict, signing a standstill agreement with India in November 1947, maintaining the status quo in Hyderabad.

(2) Growing Tensions:

• Hyderabad, a populous and prosperous state in the Deccan, was predominantly Hindu but administered by Muslim rulers.
• The state had no common border with Pakistan, yet the Nizam sought amicable relations with Pakistan.
• The Nizam’s forces, especially the Razakars, escalated tensions with their actions, including cross-border raids and overtures to Pakistan.

The Military Campaign: Operation Polo

(1) Hyderabad’s Forces and Situation:

• Hyderabad’s military consisted of approximately 25,000 troops, with limited training and readiness.
• The Razakars, though numerous, posed a minor military challenge.

(2) Indian Army’s Leadership:

• Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, the General Officer Commanding of 1 Armoured Division, led the Indian forces.

(3) Multi-Directional Offensive:

• The primary assault came from the west, led by 1 Armoured Division, supported by forces from the north, south, and east.
• Key elements included the Smash Force, Kill Force, and Vir Force in the western thrust.
• Additional thrusts were launched from Aurangabad, Jabalpur, and the eastern front.
• The southern thrust originated from Vijayawada.

Conclusion: Surrender and Significance

(1) Ceasefire and Surrender:

• The Nizam announced a ceasefire on September 17, 1948.
• On September 18, Major General Chaudhuri entered Hyderabad, and Major General El Edroos surrendered to him.
• Major General Chaudhuri was subsequently appointed as the Military Governor of Hyderabad.

(2) Honoring a Hero:

• Havildar Bachhitar Singh of 2 Sikh was posthumously awarded the first Ashoka Chakra of Independent India for his role in Operation Polo.
• He sacrificed his life on September 13, 1948, while advancing towards Naldurg, a part of Hyderabad state.

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• A recent collaborative effort of professional geneticists has resulted in a scientific confirmation of the Ajnala massacre – an event lost to history for 165 years.
• This project, marked by emotional intensity and rigorous analysis, brought long-lost victims to light through molecular and isotope data.

Ajnala Massacre

• Buried Tragedy: 282 soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry Regiment met a brutal fate during the 1857 uprising, drowned in a well by the British East India Company.
• Discovery of Location: Cooper’s book provided clues that helped locate the 1857 Kallianwala Martyrs’ Well beneath the Gurdwara Singh Sabha in Ajnala.
• Chance Encounter: In 2003, historian Surinder Kochhar found a reference to ‘Ajnala’ in a discarded book titled “Crisis in Punjab” by Frederick Henry Cooper.
• Massacre Rediscovered: Kochhar’s research led to the revelation of the Ajnala Massacre, a grim incident hidden for over 157 years.

Excavation and Revelation

• Unveiling the Remains: The well was excavated in 2014, exposing the skeletal remains of the soldiers.
• Gruesome Discovery:  During the 1857 Sepoy mutiny, many Indian soldiers revolted against the British. Around 500 revolted at Mian Mir Cantonment in Lahore.
• Evading execution: They swam across the Ravi River to reach the town of Ajnala, now in Amritsar district. Of them, 218 were killed by British soldiers at Dadian Sofian village near Ajnala.
• Dumped into a well: The remaining 282 were stuffed in a small room, where many died of asphyxiation. The rest were shot dead and their bodies were thrown into a well, which was later named “Kalianwala Khu” and “Shaheedan da Khu”.

Verification and Acknowledgment

• Scientific Verification: DNA-based evidence confirmed that the remains belonged to soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry regiment.
• Historical Importance: The Ajnala Massacre adds to the narrative of the 1857 Indian uprising against the British East India Company’s oppression.

Conclusion

• The Ajnala Massacre underscores the often-overlooked brutalities of the 1857 Indian uprising.
• The lack of acknowledgement and memorials can be attributed to the government’s hesitance to address uncomfortable aspects of history.

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• On the 114th anniversary of his execution, a memorial is being formally inaugurated in honour of Madan Lal Dhingra.

Who was Madan Lal Dhingra?

• Early Life: Born on September 18, 1883, in an affluent family in Amritsar, Dhingra’s father was a staunch British loyalist, working as a chief medical officer.
• Shift towards Nationalism: Dhingra’s exposure to the nationalist movement in Lahore during his studies ignited his patriotism.
• Socio-Economic Concerns: Driven by a sense of justice and concern for India’s impoverished masses, Dhingra’s patriotism extended to socio-economic issues.
• Expulsion and Resilience: Expelled from college for protesting against the use of British-imported cloth, Dhingra’s defiance marked his commitment to the cause.

Involvement in Revolutionary Circles

• Contact with Leaders: Dhingra connected with prominent figures like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Shyamji Krishna Varma, active in London’s revolutionary circles.
• India House: Dhingra frequented India House, a hub for revolutionary Indian nationalism founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma, further igniting his revolutionary spirit.
• Abhinav Bharat Mandal: Dhingra joined Abhinav Bharat Mandal founded by Vinayak Savarkar, where he refined his plan to assassinate Curzon Wyllie.

Assassination of Curzon Wyllie

• Curzon Wyllie’s Profile: Curzon Wyllie was a British Indian officer and intelligence officer known for collecting information on revolutionaries.
• The Assassination: On July 1, 1909, Dhingra attended an event where Curzon Wyllie was present. Dhingra fired five shots, fatally hitting both Curzon Wyllie and a doctor who tried to intervene.
• Dhingra’s Justification: During his trial, Dhingra argued that if fighting Germans was patriotic for an Englishman, fighting the British was even more justifiable for him.

Legacy and Memorial

• Execution and Burial: Dhingra was found guilty, executed on August 17, 1909, and buried in London. His remains were brought to India in 1976.
• Struggle for a Memorial: A memorial in Dhingra’s name has been a long-standing demand. The efforts culminated in the formal inauguration of the memorial on the 114th anniversary of his execution.
• Memorial Inauguration: The memorial was inaugurated by Governor Banwari Lal Purohit on August 17, 2023, in Amritsar’s Golbagh area.
• Memorial’s Significance: The memorial stands as a tribute to Dhingra’s sacrifice and his role in the fight for India’s freedom.

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• On the eve before Independence Day, President of India paid tributes to great women freedom fighters like Matangini Hazra and Kanaklata Barua.

[A] Matangini Hazra

• Early Life and Dedication: Born in 1869 in Hogla village, West Bengal, Matangini Hazra’s early life was marked by poverty and lack of formal education. She married at a young age and was widowed by 18. Devoted to social causes, she emerged as a dedicated freedom fighter.
• Gandhian Influence: During the Nationalist movement, Hazra’s admiration for Mahatma Gandhi earned her the nickname “Gandhiburi” in her village. She actively participated in protests, earning her several arrests and jail sentences.
• Quit India Movement: A prominent leader during the Quit India Movement of 1942, Hazra led a procession of around 6,000 protesters, mostly women, towards the Tamluk police station. She was shot three times by British police during a confrontation, and she passed away at the age of 73 while chanting “Vande Mataram.”
• Legacy: Matangini Hazra’s sacrifice inspired revolutionaries to establish local governments. In 1977, the first statue of a woman revolutionary in Kolkata Maidan was dedicated to her. Schools, streets, and neighborhoods across Bengal are named after her as a tribute to her immense contribution to the freedom struggle.

[B] Kanaklata Barua

• Young Martyr: Kanaklata Barua, a symbol of courage, was just 17 years old when she became a martyr. She led the Mrityu Bahini procession to unfurl the Tricolour at Gohpur police station in Assam during the Quit India Movement.
• Daring Spirit: Despite the age limit for joining the Mrityu Bahini being 18 and above, Barua’s determination led her to be an exception. Just two days into joining, she was at the head of the procession, holding the Tricolour.
• Tragic End: In a confrontation with the police at the police station, Barua refused to let go of the flag, even as bullets rained down. She fell, holding onto the flag until another volunteer took it from her. Her bravery and sacrifice left an indelible mark on the movement.
• Legacy: Kanaklata Barua’s story continues to inspire generations. In her honor, the Coast Guard named a Fast Patrol Vessel “ICGS Kanaklata Barua” in 2020, ensuring that her legacy lives on as a testament to her remarkable spirit and dedication to India’s freedom.

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• Karnail Singh Isru, a valiant activist, is remembered with reverence and admiration on India’s Independence Day.
• He made the ultimate sacrifice while participating in the Goa Liberation Movement, striving for the state’s accession to India.

Who was Karnail Singh Isru?

• Birth and Childhood: Born on September 9, 1930, in Chak 30 village (now in Pakistan), Isru lost his father at a young age and was raised by his mother. His upbringing was marked by a strong sense of justice and a longing for freedom.
• Inspired by National Heroes: Isru’s admiration for national heroes like Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh, along with their dedication to the freedom movement, ignited a fire within him. Their struggle against colonial oppression left a deep impact on his young mind.

Joining the Goa Liberation Movement

• Formation of Ideals: Isru’s involvement in student activism and his presidency of the student union highlighted his commitment to social justice. He joined the Communist Party of India (CPI) and embraced rationalist ideals.
• Goa Liberation Movement: In the 1950s, despite India’s independence, the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli remained under Portuguese rule. CPI sent Satyagarhis, followers of Gandhian principles, to Goa to hoist the Indian flag on Independence Day.

His Fateful Journey

• Sahodrabai Rai’s Leadership: Isru, alongside other Satyagarhis, embarked on the march towards Goa under the leadership of Sahodrabai Rai. They aimed to challenge colonial rule and establish India’s sovereignty in the region.
• Tragedy Strikes: As they entered the Patradevi village in North Goa, Portuguese forces opened fire on the Satyagarhis. Isru’s unwavering determination led him to the forefront, but tragically, he was struck by a bullet in his chest. His sacrifice was a significant moment in the fight for Goa’s liberation.

Legacy and Remembrance

• Tributes in Punjab: Isru’s memory is etched in the heart of Punjab, where the government and political parties organize annual functions to honor his sacrifice. A statue, library, park, and school bear his name, reflecting the respect he commands.
• Recognition in Goa: In Goa, a bronze bust of Isru was installed in the primary school of Patradevi village, commemorating his sacrifice. His bravery and dedication are a source of inspiration for generations.

Also read:

In news: Goa Liberation Day

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• Dadabhai Naoroji, the first Indian member of the British Parliament, played a significant role in India’s anti-colonial struggle.
• His scholarly work exposed the economic exploitation of India under British rule, emphasizing the drain theory.

Who was Dadabhai Naoroji?

• Early Life: Naoroji was born in Navsari, Gujarat, into a Parsi Zoroastrian family. He received his education at the Elphinstone Institute School.
• Social Reforms: He founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha and the Rast Goftar newspaper to promote Parsi social reforms and clarify Zoroastrian concepts.
• Political Activism: Naoroji co-founded the London Indian Society and the East India Association, advocating for Indian political rights and countering negative stereotypes.
• Indian National Congress: He played a crucial role in the Indian National Congress and served as its President on three occasions.
• British Parliament: Naoroji became the first Indian MP in the British House of Commons, representing Finsbury Central from 1892 to 1895.
• Economic Critique: His book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” exposed the drain of wealth from India to Britain and its impact on India’s development.

His proposition of Drain Theory and Poverty

• Naoroji’s Drain Theory: He identified six factors contributing to the wealth drain, including foreign governance, lack of immigration, and unequal employment opportunities.
• Impact of Drain: Naoroji estimated a drain of 200-300 million pounds from India to Britain, which hindered India’s economic progress.
• Railways and Tribute: Naoroji argued that India paid for services like railways, but the profits were drained out of the country, leading to economic imbalances.
• Exploitative Trade: British workers in India were encouraged to repatriate their earnings, and Indian goods were undervalued, allowing for economic exploitation.

Major works

• Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854.
• The manners and customs of the Parsees (Bombay, 1864)
• The European and Asiatic races (London, 1866)
• Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868)
• The wants and means of India (London, 1876)
• Condition of India (Madras, 1882)

Legacy and Views

• Naoroji’s Significance: He is considered a crucial figure in India’s independence movement, advocating for responsible government and Indian autonomy.
• Influence on Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was influenced by Naoroji’s writings and recognized him as a father figure for the Indian people.
• Admirations: Bal Gangadhar Tilak praised Naoroji’s leadership and stated that Indians would unanimously elect him if given the chance.
• Recognition: Naoroji’s contributions are honoured through various roads, streets, and awards named after him.

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