Mentor’s Comment:

This is a very basic question and a fair idea about NCERTs, some standard book can best help in framing a good answer. However, the question demands that the origin and evolution of different revenue systems in India with example as its intro.  Mention a general heading analyzing all the different revenue systems prevailing at that time.

Further mention its type explaining with its provisions and a bit of consequences and effects. Also mention the reason why specific type only got implemented in particular area.

Further, the steps through which it got dispersed, or extended, in the different territories and regions of India and the person associated, responsible with the same etc.

Conclude with your own views.

Model answer:

Introduction:

• The question of land revenue settlement was taken up for the first time by Warren Hastings in eastern India. But it was Lord Cornwallis who proposed a long term settlement known as the decennial settlement. But he is the one who also sent a proposal to the court of directors to transform the decennial settlement into a permanent one. After getting the approval, Cornwallis introduced the permanent settlement in Bengal and Bihar in 1793.

Zamindari System:

• A decade later, it was extended by Lord Wellesley to Orissa, Northern Sarkars, Malabar and Benaras. Under the system, Zamindars who were only middleman till then were recognised as the proprietors of their Zamindaris.

Consequences of Zamindari System:

• Further the land revenue demand by the British Indian Government was fixed once for all. This system no doubt had its advantages such as full security of revenue, minimization of man power as well as expenditure, creation of invaluable political allies, even immediate increase in agricultural productin.
• However, this system also had several long term defects or demerits such as total ruin of the peasantry, innumerable ways of Zamindari operation, long term decline in production, ruin of several traditional Zamindars due to the strict revenue collection under the so called sunset laws.
• Even the British came to realize that they were also long term loosers because they can’t revise land revenue demand under the Zamindari system.
• In the context of above realization as well as the growing demand by some English man to implement utilitarian idea in India, alternative systems were experimented and adopted in other parts of India.

Ryotwari System and its effects:

• It was Sir Thomas Munro who should be given full credit for introducing the Ryotwari system in Madras in 1820 after more than two decades of experimentation at the grass root levels. Inspired by Munro, his colleagues Elphinstone and Malcom implemented it in the third and fourth decades of the 19^th
• Later, it was also extended to few more areas like Berar, Coorg, Assam and Burma with the necessary modifications. Under this system each Ryot (Peasants) recognized as the individual owner of his land.
• This system fulfilled both the object of the British namely security and maximization because of the individual ownership on one hand and provisions of periodic revision on the other hand. The British could also claim that they were implementing the utilitarian principles as well as preserving the traditions of India.
• Thus, in theory atleast this system was the most ideal for peasant, but in practice it proved to be equally exploitative because of the colonial nature of the British rule with its high taxes, uncertainty over revision, and strict manner of revenue collection under sun set laws etc.

Mahalwari System and its effects:

• In north and central India the British adopted the Mahalwari system because of the special conditions and also their desire to realize both revenue objectives. The main person responsible for advocating this system was Charles Metcalfe who spent most of his service in north India.
• He strongly favoured the settlement of land revenue with the Mahal, which was the lowest unit of land revenue under the Mughals corresponding with one large or two or three small villages. After some initial problems the system was finally adopted in the North-western provinces in 1833 on the order of William Bentinck. But the actual implementation was done by R M Bird who was the Lieutenant Governor stationed at Agra.
• Subsequently this system was extended to central provinces and the Punjab. Under this system, the ownership of land as well as responsibility of revenue was shared by the entire village communities through each individual peasant who had its respective parts of land.
• In this system also both objective of the British were realized and peasants have better protection than in the Zamindari or Ryotwari system.