PYQs
[2023] Why is caste identity in India both fluid and static?
[2020] Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multi-cultural Indian Society? Elaborate your answer with illustrations.
[2018] “The caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment.
[2015] Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for the assertion of Dalit identity work towards the annihilation of caste.
Caste is an endogamous and hereditary subdivision of an ethnic unit occupying a position of superior or inferior rank of social esteem in comparison with other such subdivisions and having a common name, common traditional occupation, common culture, relatively rigid in matters of mobility, distinctiveness of status and forming a single homogeneous community.
A caste system is defined as a system that comprises several endogamous groups, recruited by birth; with hereditary membership, which within the group determines many behaviours, expectations, obligations, and evaluation of individuals.
The caste System entails the ranking of people according to ascribed statuses; provides rules regulating the inter-relationships between members of different castes and creates mutual dependence of the castes through the division of labour
The caste system is underpinned by values of ritual purity and impurity, which justify segregation and division of labour. Eg- only Brahmins can lead religious rituals.
Mahatma Gandhi – If Hindu society has been able to stand, it is because it is founded on the caste system”.
Ambedkar – On caste
“Caste is not just a division of labour, it is a division of labourers.”
“The caste system is not a divine institution. It is a human institution, and it can be changed by human effort.
Karl Marx – In his essay on– ‘The Future Results of British Rule in India’, characterised the Indian castes as “the most decisive impediment to India’s progress and power”.
Origin
Ancient age:
- The caste system is associated with the Hindu religion, as per Rig Veda, there were four categories known as ‘varnas’ – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
- It is only in the post-Vedic period that caste becomes a rigid institution.
- It is from the post-Vedic period, the old distinction of Arya and Sudra appears as Dvija and Sudra, The first three classes are called Dvija (twice-born) because they have to go through the initiation ceremony which is symbolic of rebirth. “The Sudra was called “ekajati” (once born).
- The caste system developed on rigid lines post-Mauryan Period, especially after the establishment of the Sunga dynasty by Pushyamitra Sunga (184 BC). This dynasty was an ardent patron of ‘Brahmanism’.
Colonial times
- Land revenue settlements gave legal recognition to the caste-based rights of the upper class that became landowners in the modern sense.
- The government passed various acts like ‘The Caste Disabilities Removal Act-1850′, ‘The Widow Remarriage Act-1856′, and ‘the Special Marriage Act- , 1872’ which marks the drastic changes in the Caste system.
- Government of India Act 1935 gave legal recognition to the SC and ST by marking out special treatment by the state.
- The caste system was affected by some of the social movements like ‘The Arya Samaj Movement’, ‘The Dev Samaj’ and ‘The Sanatan Dharm Sabha’ and several other social-movements attacked the traditionally established ‘Caste System’.
Post-colonial times
- The enactment of the constitution Article 15 – which ‘Prohibits discrimination on the grounds of religion, sex, place of birth, race and caste’, helped in reduction of the rigidity of the Caste system.
- Though scholars like Majumdar D.N. (l956), Srinivas M.N. (l961), and others have stated that the caste system is fastly changing and is weakening over time, but it is not being disintegrated or abolished.
Sociological Theories related to a caste system
- Racial Theory: As per Herbert Risley, the caste system in India originated with the migration of Indo-Aryans from Persia. The term “varna,” meaning colour, originally distinguished Aryans from the native Dasas. They enslaved the non-Aryans and sometimes married them, leading to the emergence of castes. Offspring from these mixed marriages were considered lower caste.
- Ritual Theory: A person’s caste was identified by the rituals they performed. Eg – Brahmins conducted Vishnu Shanti Yajna, Kshatriyas performed Ashwamedha Yajna, Vaishyas did rituals for personal benefit, and Shudras engaged in graveyard tantricism. This theory was not widely accepted.
- Occupational Theory (Newfield): According to Newfield, “Function and function alone is responsible for the origin of caste structure in India.” With functional differentiation, there came occupational differentiation and numerous sub-castes such as Lohar(blacksmith), Chamar(tanner), and Teli(oil-pressers).
- Evolution Theory: According to this theory, the caste system is the result of a long process of social evolution. Like: Hereditary occupations; The desire of the Brahmins to keep themselves pure; The lack of rigid unitary control of the state; The unwillingness of rulers to enforce a uniform standard of law and custom; The ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’ doctrines also explain the origin of caste system. Etc.
- Attributional Approach: Focuses on defining caste by its inherent characteristics, such as endogamy and food taboos, and analyses the structure of relations based on these fixed attributes. J H Hutton’s “Caste in India” emphasises endogamy and food taboos as central features, influencing caste interactions and restrictions.
- Interactional Approach: Examines the local empirical context and hierarchies, emphasising how ritual and secular factors interact, with an underlying ideology of purity and hierarchy integrating the caste system. Scholars like F.G. Bailey and McKimMarriott highlight how ritual and secular hierarchies overlap. Eg: Bailey’s study of Bisipara village in Orissa shows changes in caste dynamics post-independence when Kshatriyas’ economic decline led to a decrease in their ritual ranking.
Characteristics of Caste System
- Ascriptiveness: Caste is determined by birth, and membership can be revoked for violating caste rules. Marriage is restricted within the same caste. Eg: A person’s caste status and marriage eligibility are set at birth and enforced by the community.
- Endogamy: Marriage within one’s own caste is strictly enforced, prohibiting inter-caste marriages.Eg: Marriages between Brahmins and Dalits are traditionally forbidden.
- Segmental Division/social stratification: Indian society is divided into various castes, each with its own distinct lifestyle and social patterns. Eg: Different castes have specific roles, such as Brahmins as priests and Kshatriyas as warriors.
- Hierarchy: Castes are ranked based on notions of purity and impurity, creating a social ladder. Eg: Brahmins, who perform religious duties, are at the top, while sweepers are at the bottom due to their ‘impure’ work.
- Commensality: Restrictions on eating and drinking with members of other castes, reflecting the caste hierarchy. Eg: A Brahmin may refuse to eat food prepared by a Dalit.
- Socio-Economic Interdependence/Jajmani system: Castes are traditionally associated with specific occupations, creating a system of economic interdependence. Eg: Baniyas, engaged in business, rely on Brahmins for performing rituals.
- Purity and Impurity: Castes are ranked based on ritual purity, which is influenced by occupation, language, dress, and food habits. Eg: Consuming non-vegetarian food or alcohol is considered impure and is associated with lower castes.
- Distinction in Customs: Each caste has distinct customs, language, and dress patterns. Eg: High castes use pure, literary language, while low castes use a local dialect with mixed words.
Difference between caste and varna system
| VARNA | CASTE |
|---|---|
| Literally ‘Varna’ means colour and originates from the word ‘Vri’ meaning the choice of one’s occupation. Hence Varna is concerned with one’s colour or occupation. | Caste or ‘Jati’ originates from the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste is concerned with birth. |
| A theoretical framework dividing society into four broad classes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras). | A theoretical framework divides society into four broad classes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras). |
| Based on roles and duties in society. | Based on birth, occupation, and social practices. |
| It is an all-India phenomenon. | There are regional variations mostly based on linguistic differences. |
| The Varna hierarchy is based on the concepts of purity and pollution, dividing society into higher and lower classes. There is generally a positive correlation between Varna and social class. | Caste-class correlation is not always positive, There may be variations in the placement due to economic, political, and educational status of various groups. |
| the mobility pattern is more flexible, with potential for mobility based on virtues and duties. With the acquisition of talents, an individual may improve upon his previous status and vice-versa | Caste system is based on rigid principles and mobility in the ladder is checked. It is based on a closed type of stratification. |
| the mobility pattern is more flexible, with the potential for mobility based on virtues and duties. With the acquisition of talents, an individual may improve upon his previous status and vice-versa | The caste system imposes many restrictions on the members. |
| Not formally recognized in modern legal systems. | Varna’s system is free from socio-economic and political disabilities as well as restrictions. |
Relevance of Caste in Understanding Indian Society
Positive aspect
- It plays a crucial role in the process of socialisation by teaching individuals the culture, traditions, values, and norms of their society.
- Political Dynamics: According to Rajni Kothari, politicisation of caste in India played a very important role in developing party politics. “Caste needs politics as much as politics needs caste.” Eg- Caste-based political parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
- He also says that caste leads to “secularisation of the social system”. Eg- the emergence of dominant elites with a common secular outlook.
- Understanding Social Stratification: The caste system provides a framework for understanding the hierarchical structure of Indian society, determining social status, roles, and interactions.
- Cultural Identity: Caste identity fosters group cohesion and a sense of belonging, as members of a caste share common customs, rituals, and traditions.
- Economic Organisation: Caste plays a significant role in economic organisation by assigning specific occupations to different castes, ensuring specialisation and continuity of skills and trades.
- Social Mobility and Change: The concept of “Sanskritization” shows how lower castes adopt higher caste practices to improve their status, illustrating the potential for social mobility within the caste system. Eg. Gond tribe ruling clan became Raja Gond
- Social Control and Norm Enforcement: The caste system enforces social norms and discipline through concepts of ritual purity and impurity, with caste panchayats (local councils) upholding these norms.
- Marriage and Kinship Patterns: Endogamy (marriage within the same caste) helps maintain social boundaries and purity, ensuring that caste lines remain distinct and cultural traditions are preserved.
- Religious Functions: Caste is closely linked to religious functions, with specific castes assigned particular religious roles and duties, reinforcing social hierarchy.
- Modernization and Continuity: Caste remains relevant in modern society by adapting to changes such as urbanisation and education, while retaining traditional roles and structures, especially in rural areas. Eg. Caste based Matrimonial apps
Negative aspect (Dysfunctions of the caste system)
- The caste system is a check on economic-intellectual advancement and social reforms because it keeps economic and intellectual opportunities confined to a certain section of the population only.
- It undermines the efficiency of labor and prevents perfect mobility of labor, capital, and productive effort
- It perpetuates the exploitation of the economically weaker and socially inferior castes, especially the untouchables. Eg- 90% of manual scavengers in India are Dalits
- It has inflicted untold hardships on women through its insistence on practices like child marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, seclusion of women, etc. Eg- honor killings in Haryana
- Vote Bank Politics– It opposes real democracy by giving political monopoly to certain castes historically and acting as a vote bank in modern politics. Eg- Emergence of dominant castes.
- Hindrance to National Unity – Caste conflicts are widely prevalent in politics, reservation in jobs and education, inter-caste marriages etc. eg: Demand for Jat reservation, and agitation by the Patidar community.
- It has given scope for religious conversion. The lower caste people are getting converted to Islam and Christianity due to the tyranny of the upper castes.
- An obstacle to Modernization – The caste system by compelling an individual to act strictly in accordance with caste norms stands in the way of modernization, by opposing change. Eg- ban on wearing jeans for girls in Khap Panchayats.
Need for eradication of caste
- Constitutional vision- our constitution envisions the eradication of caste through Article 15 and 17 ( against discrimination and untouchability).
- Equality- it is our Fundamental right under Article 14 ensures equal treatment before the law which will help reduce socio-economic disparities among different castes.
- Human Rights– Protects the inherent dignity of every individual. Aligns with global human rights principles and treaties. It will aid in reconstructing social identities beyond caste boundaries.
- Social Mobility: eradication will help in social empowerment, economic progress, and increasing quality of education irrespective of caste. It will help break down rigid caste barriers.
- Inclusive growth– it will promote Social Cohesion and reduce caste-based conflicts.
- Socialization: Educates future generations to move away from caste-based discrimination.
Changes in the caste system
- Marriage – Increased education has resulted in the weakening of certain marriage rules and a rise in inter-caste marriage: Inter-caste marriages on Western models have become more common in recent years due to economic and social necessity. Eg. Less than 10%
- Political Mobilization- Caste groups have organized politically to gain representation and rights, changing the power dynamics within society.
- Social Mobility
- The invisibility of caste: The caste system now appears to be invisible for upper castes, urban middle and upper classes, as the urban class has become more important than the upper caste. Eg. Harold Gould’s study of Lucknow rikshaw alas showed they are secular at work but follow caste rules at home like rituals, endogamy, etc
- Decline in Brahmin supremacy as a result of the secularisation and westernization processes. Eg. Satyashodhak marriages doesn’t involve Brahmin priests
- Emergence of dominant caste: With changing social caste equations, a few castes are emerging as dominant castes, and they play a crucial role in politics. Eg- the Jats of Haryana, the Yadavs of Bihar, and the Marathas of Maharashtra.
- Changes in commensality: People are no longer restricted to their original locations. Due to their migration, it is quite challenging to adhere to the rules regarding their eating habits.
- Employment
- Occupational changes: In a caste-ridden society, occupations were hereditary, however, with industrialization and modernization the rigidity of the caste system has broken down, which led to occupational changes
- Attitudinal changes: Within the system, there have been noticeable changes in how people feel about castes. This has to do with losing faith in the system’s own ascriptive pattern and jurisdiction.
- Visibility of caste: With more politics and caste nexus, caste identity is gaining prominence in society. It has become a tool of vote bank politics. Eg- Bahujan Samaj Party in India
- Caste has grown beyond Hinduism: In fact, caste is an important factor for marriage, death, and other ceremonial rites even among Muslims and Christians. Eg: For Dalits converting to Christianity, states like Kerala have separate community names, separate cemeteries, etc.
- New identities and associational forms
- Politicisation of caste
- Caste Associations – organizations like Maratha Mahasangh and Jat Mahasabha work towards addressing the socio-economic issues faced by their respective communities.
- Professional Networks – Professional networks based on caste help members connect, share opportunities, and support each other in career advancement. Eg- The dalit chamber of commerce
- Economic Cooperatives – Eg- Weaver cooperatives among the Langa caste in Andhra Pradesh support traditional handloom weavers by providing raw materials and marketing their products.
- Social media and online platforms have become new spaces for caste-based identity formation, advocacy, and community building. Eg- #jaibheem trend
- Caste-based NGOs – Eg- Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat works to eliminate discrimination against Dalits and improve their socio-economic conditions.
- Caste identities are reinforced through reservation policies in educational institutions, creating a sense of solidarity among students from similar backgrounds. Eg- Student groups and organisations in universities, like the Ambedkar Students’ Association.
- Urban Migration and New Caste Identities – Eg- In Chennai, Nadar migrants have formed strong networks and associations, such as the Nadar Mahajana Sangam. In areas like Dharavi, Bihari migrants have established support groups that provide assistance with housing, employment opportunities, and community support.
Reasons for change
- Sanskritization (M.N. Srinivas)
- Legal Reforms – Abolition of untouchability (Article 17), affirmative action policies like reservations for SCs, STs, and OBCs in education and employment are aimed at eradicating caste-based discrimination and promoting equality.
- Educational Advancements – Reservation in educational institutions has enabled marginalized communities to pursue higher education and secure professional jobs.
- Economic Development – Economic liberalization and growth have created new job opportunities, reducing reliance on traditional caste-based occupations.
- Urbanization – Migration to urban areas has diluted rigid caste distinctions and fostered more merit-based interactions. Eg – In cities, people from diverse caste backgrounds live and work together, leading to a decrease in caste-based segregation.
- Westernization and Modernisation: Modernisation has caused the caste system to become more flexible due to its scientific outlook, rational attitudes, industrialization, urbanization, high standard of living, and broad viewpoint.
- Globalization- Globalization has introduced new cultural values and economic opportunities that challenge traditional caste roles. Exposure to global ideas of equality and human rights has influenced younger generations to question caste-based practices.
- Democratic decentralization: Through the introduction of Panchayati Raj, local self-government has been created in the villages. The reservation provided in the Panchayati Raj system has allowed the lower castes to empower themselves.
- Dominant caste – castes with large populations granted land rights through partial land reforms after Independence. This led to their significant economic, political, and social power in their regions. Eg- Yadavs in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, Reddys and Kammas in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Vokkaligas, and Lingayats in Karnataka
- Social Movements – Social movements led by marginalized communities have raised awareness and demanded equal rights. Eg – Movements like the Dalit Panthers and leaders like B.R. Ambedkar have been instrumental in advocating for the rights of lower castes.
- Media Influence – Media coverage and social campaigns have highlighted caste-based issues and promoted social equality. Eg – Movies, literature, and campaigns against practices like manual scavenging have brought greater attention to caste injustices.
Continuity in the Caste System
- Marriage Practices – Endogamy, or marriage within the same caste, remains a strong social norm, reinforcing caste boundaries. The share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. Eg- matrimonial advertisements demand brides and grooms from particular communities.
- Residential and social segregation/Ghettoisation based on caste continues to exist, particularly in rural areas. In many villages, Dalits live in separate areas and are often denied access to common resources like wells and temples.
- Caste-based Occupations – Traditional caste-based occupations persist, especially in rural areas, where many still follow hereditary professions. Eg- manual scavenging
- Educational Inequities – Despite affirmative action policies, disparities in educational attainment persist along caste lines. According to the Census 2011, the literacy rate in India was 73% but literacy rate for SCs was 66.1% and for STs was even lower at 59%.
- Economic Inequality – Dalits and Adivasis are overrepresented among the poor and underrepresented in higher-income occupations and business ownership. In 83.55% of Scheduled Caste (SC) households and 86.53% of Scheduled Tribe (ST) households, the highest-earning member earns less than Rs 5,000 per month. Dalit and Adivasi households earn 21% and 34% less than the national average annual household income, respectively, while Upper Caste households earn nearly 47% more than this average
- Caste-based violence and discrimination remain prevalent, with instances of atrocities against lower castes reported frequently. Eg- National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) reported a 1.2% increase in crimes against Dalits in 2021
- Cultural Practices – reservation of priest positions to Brahmins. Certain religious rituals and temple roles are restricted to specific castes, reinforcing traditional social order.
Reasons for the Continuance of Caste-Based Discrimination in the Modern Age:
- Endogamy – share of inter-caste marriage is less than 10%. A 2022 survey found that 50% of Indians still hold prejudices against inter-caste marriages (Pew Research Center).
- Caste Prestige: A sense of superiority within one’s caste leads to loyalty towards their own caste and often results in disrespect towards lower castes. Eg- 70% of rural Indians still adhere to caste-based rituals and customs (Oxfam India, 2021).
- Urbanisation Impact : Urbanisation indirectly supports casteism. Migrants from rural areas to urban centres often seek support from their caste groups, reinforcing caste ties.
- Transport and Communication : Improved transport and communication facilitate the organisation of caste groups and spread casteist sentiments through newspapers and other media. Eg- Kshatriya Mahasabha
- Illiteracy : Illiteracy fosters reliance on religious dogmas, customs, and superstitions. Practices like ‘Jati Dharma’ lead to negative reactions to anti-caste movements. Eg- religious justifications continue to underpin caste-based discrimination.
- Social Segregation – Segregated Dalit neighborhoods have 28% fewer public schools and 35% fewer healthcare facilities (Feminism in India, 2023).
- Economic Dependencies – Many traditional caste-based occupations still exist, perpetuating economic dependencies and social hierarchies.
- Political Exploitation – Caste is often used as a tool for political mobilization, with parties appealing to caste-based vote banks. Eg- Maratha-OBC divison in Maharashtra
- Ineffective Legal Enforcement – Despite laws against caste discrimination, enforcement is weak, and perpetrators often go unpunished. As per NCRB data, Only 25% of reported caste-based crimes result in convictions.
Difference between Urban and rural caste system Dalit movements
| URBAN | RURAL | |
|---|---|---|
| Social Structure | More fluid and less rigid, with increased opportunities for inter-caste interactions and marriages. | More rigid and hierarchical, with clear distinctions and adherence to traditional caste roles. |
| Occupational Roles | Greater occupational mobility and diversity; caste-based occupations are less prevalent. | Occupations often remain traditional and caste-based |
| Social Interactions | Increased anonymity and social mixing | Daily life and social interactions are often governed by caste norms and traditions. |
| Discrimination | Caste-based discrimination is subtler and often less overt; legal frameworks and awareness may mitigate direct discrimination | More explicit and pervasive caste-based discrimination, with social and economic consequences. |
| Marriage Patterns | Higher incidence of inter-caste marriages, influenced by education and modern values | Predominantly endogamous (within the same caste), with strong societal pressure to conform. |
| Political Influence | Political dynamics may be influenced by caste, but with a broader spectrum of factors at play. | Caste plays a significant role in local politics, with voting patterns and political alliances often caste-based. |
| Access to Resource | More equitable access to resources such as education, healthcare, and employment; however, disparities still exist. | Access to resources is often mediated by caste, with higher castes enjoying better facilities and opportunities. |
Ghanshyam Shah classifies Dalit movements into two categories: reformative and alternative. Reformative movements aim to reform the caste system to address the problem of untouchability. In contrast, alternative movements seek to create a new socio-cultural structure through religious conversion, education, economic advancement, and political power.
| Category | Name | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Atrocities | Hathras Case (2020) | Gang rape and murder of a Dalit woman |
| Una Flogging Incident (2016) | Public flogging of Dalit men in Una, Gujarat, for allegedly skinning a dead cow. | |
| Rohith Vemula (2016) | Suicide of Dalit PhD student at Hyderabad Central University due to caste discrimination. | |
| Bhima Koregaon Violence (2018) | Clashes during the commemoration of the Battle of Bhima Koregaon, highlighting caste tensions and resulting in several arrests. | |
| Sikar Case (2019) | A Dalit man in Sikar, Rajasthan, was beaten to death for allegedly stealing water from a higher-caste family’s well. | |
| Tamil Nadu Caste Violence (2022) | In July 2022, a Dalit boy in Tamil Nadu was attacked and killed for reportedly drawing water from an upper-caste well. | |
| Telangana Case (2023) | In February 2023, a Dalit woman in Telangana was assaulted and paraded naked for resisting land encroachment by upper-caste individuals. | |
| Karnataka Incident (2023) | In September 2023, a Dalit man was beaten to death in Karnataka for allegedly entering a temple. | |
| Uttar Pradesh Incident (2024) | In March 2024, a Dalit family in Uttar Pradesh was attacked and their house set on fire due to a land dispute with upper-caste individuals. | |
| Madhya Pradesh Case (2024) | In May 2024, a Dalit girl in Madhya Pradesh was assaulted and left critically injured by upper-caste men for refusing to work in their fields. | |
| Peeing Incident (2023) | In July 2023, a video surfaced showing a man urinating on a Dalit youth in Sidhi, Madhya Pradesh. | |
| Tamil Nadu | Around 200 Dalit families threatened to embrace Islam after they were denied permission to attend a temple festival in Karur region. |
| Case | Judgment |
|---|---|
| Dr. Subhash Kashinath Mahajan vs. State of Maharashtra | Required prior sanction for prosecuting public servants under SC/ST Act; later overturned due to backlash. |
| State of Karnataka vs. Appa Balu Ingale | Social boycotts of Dalits are unconstitutional; emphasized the need to protect Dalits’ dignity and equality. |
| Lata Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh | Adults have the right to marry anyone of their choice; harassment or violence against inter-caste couples is illegal. |
| Union of India vs. R. Rajesh | Upheld reservation in promotions for SC/ST employees in government jobs to ensure equality. |
Evolution
- Pre Independence
- Bhakti movement
- This movement in 15th century was a popular movement which treated all sections of society equally and it developed two traditions of Saguna and Nirguna.
- It became more popular among the dalits in urban areas in the early 20th century as it promised social equality and provided the possibility of salvation for all.
- Neo-Vedantik Movements
- These movements attempted to remove untouchability by taking the dalits into the fold of the caste system. Eg- Arya Samaj
- Some neo-Vedantic movements and non-Brahmin movements played catalytic role in developing anti-caste or anti Hinduism dalit movements in some parts of the country. Eg- Satyashodhak Samaj and self-respect movements in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, Adhi Dharma and Adi Andhra movement in Bengal and Adi-Hindu movement in Uttar Pradesh
- Sanskritisation Movement – Dalit leaders pursued ‘Sanskritization’ to elevate their caste status by adopting Brahman customs such as vegetarianism, wearing sandalwood paste on the forehead, and donning the sacred thread. Leaders like Swami Thykkad (Kerala), Pandi Sunder Lai Sagar (UP), Muldas Vaishya (Gujarat), and Moon Vithoba Raoji Pande (Maharashtra) embraced these higher caste cultural norms.
- Gandhi’s Contribution- Gandhi advocated for the upliftment of untouchables, founding the Harijan Sevak Sang in 1932. Emphasized social equality and removal of untouchability from Hinduism.
- Ambedkar’s Contribution – Ambedkar led movements for Dalit rights, such as the Satyagraha for water access in Mahad (1927) and temple entry in Nasik (1930). Founded the Scheduled Castes Federation to promote political and social rights for Dalits.
- Bhakti movement
- Post-Independence Dalit Movements
- B.R. Ambedkar and Buddhist Dalit Movement – First Law Minister, Chair of the Constitution Drafting Committee, ensured civil liberties and abolition of untouchability. Advocated for and led mass conversions to Buddhism as a means of Dalit emancipation; converted himself and 500,000 followers in 1956.
- Dalit Panthers – Established by Namdeo Dhasal, J.V. Pawar, and Arun Kamble in 1972 in Maharashtra. Influenced by Ambedkar, Phule, Marx, and inspired by the Black Panther Party; emphasized militancy and revolutionary attitudes.
- Contribution of Kanshi Ram – Founded Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984 to uplift Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, OBCs, and religious minorities. Emphasized “Social Transformation and Economic Emancipation” through education and organization, inspired by Ambedkar and other Dalit leaders.
- Contemporary Dalit Movement
- Changing Dalit Consciousness – According to S S Dube, dalit consciousness in traditional India was a challenge to orthodox Brahmanism and Hindu values whereas in contemporary India, Dalit identity is more a matter of search for rights, justice and equality rather than just being concerned with rebellion against Hinduism. Eg- protest against death of Rohit Vemula.
- Political Assertion – According to Andre Betielle, Dalit mobilization in contemporary India is greatly driven by political interest rather than by discriminatory cultural past. Eg- Bhim Army
- Yogendra Singh equates Dalit consciousness with class consciousness to bring forward the view that Dalit mobilization in India is driving Indian society in the direction of modernization giving importance to the principles of equality against the principle of hierarchy.
- Present Trend
- Increased Militancy: This trend reflects a growing frustration with persistent discrimination and a demand for more immediate and tangible changes. Eg- Elgar Parishad and subsequent violence in Bhima Koregaon in 2018
- Sub-caste Assertion: This trend highlights the diversity within the Dalit community and addresses intra-caste inequalities and discrimination. Eg- Matang Samaj Sangharsh Samiti
- Middle-class Activism: This group uses its resources and education to advocate for Dalit rights and to challenge systemic inequalities. Eg- Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI)
- Public Symbolism: The use of symbols, public rallies, and cultural events has become more prominent in the Dalit movement. This help in raising awareness, fostering unity, and keeping the issues of Dalit rights in the public eye. Eg- celebration of Ambedkar Jayanti
- Rightward Shift: This shift involves aligning with political parties or ideologies that promise economic development and social mobility, albeit sometimes at the cost of broader social justice goals. Eg- Republican Party of India (Athawale) faction
Positive impact
Social Mobility and Empowerment
- Increased Representation : Eg- Ram Nath Kovind
- Educational Opportunities: Reservation policies have increased Dalit enrollment in higher education. In 2022, over 14% of students in higher education institutions belonged to Scheduled Castes (SC).
- Economic Upliftment : The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) reports that there are now over 5,000 Dalit-owned enterprises contributing significantly to the economy. Eg- Kalpana Saroj, CEO of Kamani Tubes
Reduction of Social Discrimination
- Abolition of Untouchability: Legal reforms like the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, have led to a reduction in practices of untouchability.
- Awareness and Advocacy: Movements such as the Dalit Panthers have raised awareness and advocated for Dalit rights, leading to a more inclusive society .
Cultural Revival and Identity Formation
- Cultural Assertion : The contributions of Dalit leaders and activists are now more widely recognized and celebrated, leading to a broader acceptance and respect for Dalit identity.
- Literary Contributions: Dalit assertion has led to the revival and preservation of Dalit culture and history, promoting pride in their heritage and countering negative stereotypes. Eg- writers like Omprakash Valmiki and artists like Sudarshan Shetty
Political Mobilization and Activism
- Political Organisations: The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) has mobilised Dalits politically, helping them secure political representation and influence .
- Grassroots Movements: Movements like the Ambedkarite movement have empowered local Dalit communities to fight against caste injustices .
Legal Reforms and Constitutional Safeguards
- Legal Framework : Laws such as the SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act have provided legal recourse for Dalits facing caste-based violence .
Societal Attitudes and Norms
- Changing Mindsets: Dalit movements have contributed to changing societal attitudes towards caste, promoting more inclusive and egalitarian values.
- Inter-Caste Interactions: Increased social interactions between different castes have led to a gradual reduction in caste-based prejudices .
Dalit issues entrenched in:
Political Domain
- Political Fragmentation – Internal tensions and disintegration within the Dalit movement, as well as its incapacity to shape public policy. Eg- multiple factions of Republic Party of India
- Leadership crisis – the Dalit movement lacks discipline and coherence and has remained fractured and episodic, lacking a pan-Indian Dalit identity and ideology.
Social Domain:
- Caste-Based Discrimination: Dalits face discrimination in various aspects of social life, including access to public spaces, inter-caste marriages, and social interactions. This discrimination is deeply ingrained and continues to affect the daily lives of Dalits. Eg- As per NCRB, More than 1.9 lakh cases of crime against dalits were registered against Dalits in last 4 years.
- Social Exclusion leading to a sense of alienation and marginalisation. Eg- Dalits are prohibited from entering temples or participating in religious ceremonies in many areas.
- Violence and Intimidation especially when they assert their rights or challenge caste-based norms. Eg- Una Flogging case
Economic Domain:
- Occupational Segregation: Due to historical discrimination and contemporary biases, dalits are often relegated to low-paying and menial jobs, perpetuating their economic marginalisation. Eg- A 2019 media analysis by the CSDS revealed that Dalits are underrepresented in Indian media, comprising less than 5% of journalists.
- Landlessness and Displacement: The Agricultural Census of 2015-16 reported that Dalits own only about 9% of the total agricultural land. According to data published by the Census of India, 71% Dalits are landless labourers who work on land they do not own. In rural areas, 58.4% Dalit households do not own land at all.
- Limited Access to Education and Skills: literacy level among Dalits is pegged at 66.1 per cent, far below the national average of 73 per cent (Census of India 2011).
Cultural Domain:
- Cultural Stigma: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, in his writings, highlighted how Hindu religious texts and rituals propagate the idea of Dalits being ‘untouchable’ and impure. This cultural stigma is a significant barrier to social mobility and equality. These stereotypes are perpetuated through literature, media, and popular culture, reinforcing caste-based prejudices.
- Exclusion from Cultural Spaces: Dalits are often excluded from mainstream cultural spaces and events, which are dominated by upper castes. This exclusion reinforces their marginalisation and limits their opportunities for cultural expression.
- Cultural Appropriation: N. Sukumar, argues that cultural appropriation by dominant castes erases the unique identity of Dalit traditions and commodifies and dilutes their cultural significance. Eg- A study by the Ambedkar University Delhi in 2022 found that many traditional Dalit art forms, such as the ‘Parai’ drumming and ‘Madiga’ leatherwork, have been co-opted by upper-caste artists and commercialized.
Structural Domain:
- Caste-Based Hierarch – The caste system in India is a deeply entrenched social structure that perpetuates systemic inequalities and hierarchies. According to the 2019 India Human Development Survey, Dalits constitute over 16% of the population but hold only 5% of top positions in business and government sectors.
- Lack of Access to Justice: International Dalit Solidarity Network (IDSN) reports that less than 2 percent of rape cases against Dalit women result in convictions, compared to around 25 per cent against women in India generally.
- Institutional Discrimination: Sociologist Gopal Guru highlights that institutional discrimination against Dalits is not just a result of individual prejudices but is embedded in the structural functioning of these institutions. This form of discrimination is often subtle but pervasive, making it difficult for Dalits to overcome systemic barriers.
A comprehensive approach to solve the issue
- Developing an alternative epistemological worldview model based on alternative culture, philosophy, identities, psychology, and outlook. This can be done by celebrating Dalit culture (Dravidian culture), Dalit civilisation (Indus civilisation), Dalit spirituality (Buddhism), Dalit writings (protest literatures), and Dalit philosophy (Charvak-Lokayat philosophy)
- Legal Reforms and Enforcement: Improving the training of police officers and sensitization in dealing with atrocity cases along with increasing awareness about several legal remedies and different rights available to the marginalised community.
- Education and Awareness: Promoting education and awareness programs to challenge caste-based prejudices and stereotypes. Eg- The Navsarjan Trust in Gujarat runs education and awareness programs to empower Dalit communities and challenge discrimination.
- Economic Empowerment: Dalit-focussed alternate investment finance (AIF) and private equity (PE) funds along with creation of an inclusivity cell in banks and lending institutions/NBFCs in order to inform, educate and foster Dalit entrepreneurship.
- The government should take immediate steps: to stop the scourge of caste system by
- constituting fast track courts for giving immediate justice to the victims;
- accelerating the “skill development” program so that the disprivileged community can acquire alternate skills; and, lastly
The judiciary and executive branches should reaffirm their commitment to upholding individuality and fundamental equality, particularly for the underprivileged within traditional groups. For ex- In Surya Narayan Chaudhury v. State of Rajasthan, SC prohibited temples from discriminating against Dalits’ right to worship and enter the sacrosanct spaces.
Economic Empowerment of Marginalised Communities through schemes such as Stand-Up India, PMKVY, and Mudra Yojana, along with 2nd generation land reforms for more equitable distribution of land, and collaboration and dialogue among Civil Society organisations, government agencies, and marginalised communities to address caste discrimination.
