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Context

• Recently, a Tamil movie- Ponniyin Selvan I, based on Kalki’s wonderful creation of a world of the Cholas, has been released in Indian theatres.
• The movie has renewed the interest in knowing more about one of the oldest and longest-ruling dynasties in the history of Southern India spreading over four centuries.
• Therefore, this edition of the Burning Issue will talk about the Great Chola Empire and its achievements.

About the Cholas

• The Chola Dynasty was a Tamil empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in world history.
• The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE during the reign of Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.
• As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, along with the Chera and Pandya, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territories until the 13th century CE.

Origin

• Little knowledge: There is very little written evidence for the Cholas before the 7th century CE. The main sources of information about the early Cholas are ancient Tamil literature of the Sangam Period, oral traditions, religious texts, and temple and copperplate inscriptions.
• From Asokan edicts: Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. The Cholas are mentioned in Ashokan Edicts (inscribed 273 BCE–232 BCE) as one of the Mauryan Empire’s neighbors to the South (Ashoka Major Rock Edict No.13), who was thought not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.
• From Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: There are also brief references to the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. 
• Mahavamsa: a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts several conflicts between the inhabitants of Sri Lanka and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.

Territorial extent

• Kaveri and Tungabhadra valley: The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valleyofthe Kaveri river. Still, they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. They unified peninsular India, south of the Tungabhadra, and held as one state for three centuries between 907 and 1215 AD.
• Southeast Asia: The power and the prestige the Cholas had among political powers in South, South-eastern, and eastern Asia at its peak is evident through their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities of the Srivijaya empire based on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China. The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian maritime capacity.
• Maldives: During the period of 1010–1153 CE, the Chola territories stretched from the Maldives in the south to the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh as the northern limit. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed part of the Rajarata kingdom in present-day Sri Lanka, and occupied Maldives islands.
• North India: His son Rajendra Chola further expanded the Chola territory by sending a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala.
• Controlling Sri Vijay Empire: By 1019, he also completely conquered the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and annexed it to the Chola empire.^[6] In 1025, Rajendra Chola also successfully invaded the cities of the Srivijaya empire, based on the island of Sumatra. However, the Chola influence on Srivijava would last until 1070, when the Cholas began to lose almost all of their overseas territories. The later Cholas (1070–1279) would still rule portions of Southern India.

History of the Chola Rulers

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods:

(A) Early Cholas

• The earliest Chola kings, there is tangible evidence mentioned in the Sangam literature.
• The Sangam literature records legends about mythical Chola kings. These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.
• Two names prominent among those Chola kings who feature in Sangam literature are Karikala and Kocengannan.
• Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital. Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital. 
• The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Ellalan, invaded the Rajarata kingdom of Sri Lanka and conquered it in 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.

(B) Medieval Cholas- The Imperial Cholas

• Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century.
• Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history. He took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in 850 CE, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty. Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.
• The second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty.
• In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala.^[52]
• Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom.
• At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the northern parts of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari–Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast (the Chea country) in addition to Lakshadweep, and Maldives.
• Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India.
• Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India. Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there.
• This expedition had such a great impression on the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form of Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu.

Later Cholas (1070–1279)

• The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, and other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha.
• However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850 and 1215.
• Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire.
• However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son, and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas.

Administration and society

(A) General administration

• System of Government:  In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. The Cholas’ system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held.
• Division of territory: The Chola Dynasty was divided into several provinces called mandalas which were further divided into valanadus, which were subdivided into units called kottams or kutrams.
• Land assessment: There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre.
• At the local government level: every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a kurram, nadu or kottam, depending on the area. A number of kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.
• Justice: was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishments for minor crimes were in the form of fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself.

(B) Military

• Army: The Chola dynasty had a robust military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams.
• Forts and palaces: The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps.
• Navy: The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power. It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.
• Patronization of martial arts: A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.

(C) Economy

• Economy structure: Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. The Chola economy was based on three tiers—at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation of commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centers.
• Exports: One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth. Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets.
• Weaving: The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it. During the Chola period, silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.
• Metal crafts: reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen. Wootz steel was a major export item.
• Agriculture: was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture.
• Internal trade: The metal industries and the jeweler’s art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade.

(D) Society

• Origin of guilds: During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence.
• The Vellalar community: was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry. 
• The Ulavar community: were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar.
• The Kaikolar community: were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles. During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th–13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership.
• Education: The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans.

(E) Foreign trade

• Link to foreign markets: The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
• Connectivity to China: Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese.

(F) Canals and water tanks

• Canals: There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c. 900–1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal.
• Tanks: Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas.

Cultural contribution

(A) Architecture and sculpture

• Cultural influence in South-east Asia: Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with South Indian architecture. According to the Malay chronicle, Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.
• New form of architecture: The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design. A new development was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple. The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

• Temple building: received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, was built by Rajaraja. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola. The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.
• Sculptures: The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.

(B) Literature

• Tamil works: The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.
• Jain and Buddhist: authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors. The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.
• Commentaries: were written on the great text Tolkāppiyam which deals with grammar but also mentions ethics of warfare. Periapuranam was another remarkable literary piece of this period. Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature.
• Telugu literature: The period was in particular significant for the development of Telugu literature under the patronage of the rulers. It was the age in which the great Telugu poets Tikkana, Ketana, Marana and Somana enriched the literature with their contributions.
• Devotional literature: the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.

(C) Religion

• Largely Hindu: In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties.
• Patronized Buddhism: The second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903 CE), built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.

Decline of the Cholas

• Rise of Pandyan’s: The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. During the rule of Kulothunga Chola II, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.
• Loss of Sri Lanka: the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India.

Current significance

• Inspired tamil literature: The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.
• Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. More recently, Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola’s construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur. The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language film Aayirathil Oruvan, and the 2022 film Ponniyin Selvan: I. The 2022 movie was based on a novel of the same name.

Conclusion

• Our history books offer little to read about ancient Tamil kingdoms such as the Cholas.
• The monumental relics left behind; the majestic bronzes and 1,00,000 inscriptions and temples which are characteristic of the times, are for the eyes to feast on.

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