PYQs

[2018] ‘Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation. Argue by giving suitable illustrations. 

[2017] Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of how the former has got transformed into the latter in independent India. (2017)         

Communalism is an aggressive political ideology linked to religion. According to Bipan Chandra, communalism is a belief system that a group of people who practice a particular religion share similar social, political, and economic interests.

Ram Ahuja defined communalism as a belief that is characterized by strong antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of another community.

Communalism is about politics and not about religion. Although communalists are intensely involved with religion, there is no necessary relationship between personal faith and communalism. The key factor is the attitude towards those who believe in other kinds of identities, including other religion-based identities

Quotes

“Communalism is the negation of the spirit of religion. The communalist is a traitor to the cause of religion and to his own nation.” – Jawaharlal Nehru

“The poison of communalism should not be allowed to spread. It is the duty of every Indian to ensure that communal harmony is maintained and that we do not let divisive forces tear our country apart.” – Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

“The idea of India, as a nation, should be inclusive, embracing all its diverse elements. Communalism is a scourge that undermines the very essence of our unity.” – Rabindranath Tagore

“Communalism is fundamentally a form of sectarianism, which seeks to divide and polarize society. It thrives on fear and mistrust” – Amartya Sen

“Communalism is a pathology of the collective mind. It turns legitimate concerns for cultural survival into paranoia and hatred.” – Ashis Nandy

“Communalism is a manifestation of the failure of the state to protect the rights and identities

Historical background

1. Ancient India was united with no communal feelings, people were tolerant of other cultures and traditions. This can be seen in Ashoka’s Dhamma which focused on religious tolerance.
2. In medieval history, it was Babur who for the first time used Jihad(religious war) on India to gain the support of his army, when he lost his kingdom in Fargana to his uncle.
3. But, even in medieval India, few rulers were tolerant of other religions. Eg: establishment Din-i-ilahi and Ibadat Khana by Akbar.
4. However, Rulers like Aurangzeb, known for their intolerance towards other religions, deepened communal differences in India by imposing taxes on non-Muslim practices, destroying temples, enforcing conversions, and killing Sikh gurus.
5. Communalism in modern India is a 20th-century concept. It is a product of the divide-and-rule policy of the British
   • Partition of Bengal in 1905
   • Religious Revivalism in 1924: The Shuddhi and Sangathan movements among the Hindus and the Tabligh and Tanzim religious movement among the Muslims invoked religious revivalism.
   • Communal Violence (1923-30):  The violence began with the Moplah Rebellion which intensified hatred among the Hindus and Muslims in the Malabar region. The most serious riots happened at Saharanpur in connection with the Muharram festival.
   • Communal Award, 1932: To fuel communalism and appease various communities, the British provided separate representation for Muslims, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, Indian Christians, Europeans, Landlords, the depressed classes, and commerce and industry.
6. Post Independence
   • Partition of India, 1947 – The 1947 Partition led to mass displacement and violence, with millions migrating and widespread killings and rapes. Refugee rehabilitation became a significant challenge.
   • No major communal disturbances occurred until 1961 when the Jabalpur riots erupted due to economic competition between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
   • Anti-Sikh Riots, 1984 – Following Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s assassination by her Sikh bodyguards, anti-Sikh riots resulted in thousands of Sikh deaths and widespread violence.
   • Ethnic Cleansing of Kashmiri Pandits, 1989 – Extremist Islamic terrorism in Kashmir in 1989 led to the mass killing and exodus of Kashmiri Pandits, who became refugees in their own country.
   • Babri Masjid Demolition, 1992 – The 1992 demolition of the Babri Masjid by Hindu activists led to extensive riots and heightened Hindu-Muslim tensions.
   • Gujarat Riots, 2002 – A fire on the Sabarmati Express in 2002 ignited severe Hindu-Muslim violence in Gujarat, resulting in extensive loss of life and ongoing legal battles.
   • Assam Communal Violence, 2012 – In 2012, ethnic clashes between Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam led to significant violence and fatalities.
   • Muzaffarnagar Violence, 2013 – Ethnic clashes between Jats and Muslims in Muzaffarnagar in 2013, fueled by social media and eve-teasing incidents, resulted in substantial violence.
   • Delhi Riots, 2020 – In February 2020, communal violence over the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) led to over 50 deaths, hundreds of injuries, and widespread homelessness in Delhi.

Stages of Communalism

Bipan Chandra in “India’s Struggle for Freedom” has given 3 elements:

1. Communal Consciousness: Described as “the first bedrock of communal ideology.” It is a belief that people from similar religious communities have common secular interests, such as political, economic, social, and cultural interests. Eg- formation of the Muslim League in 1906
2. Liberal communalism:  The belief that people belonging to different religious communities do not share common secular interests, be they social, economic, cultural, or political. This belief leads to a perception of division and separateness among different religious communities. Eg- Hindu Mahasabha’s ideology in the early 20th century
3. Extreme communalism:  The stage where relationships between different religious communities are seen as mutually incompatible, hostile, and antagonistic. This perception leads to open conflict and deep-seated enmity among communities. Eg- Partition of India in 1947

Features of Communalism

1. overrides everything else. Whether one is poor or rich, whatever one’s occupation, caste, or political beliefs, it is religion alone that counts.
2. Belief in the Superiority of One’s Own Community in terms of culture, religion, and social values. This sense of superiority can lead to exclusionary practices and discrimination against other communities.
3. Economic Competition – Communalism often frames economic disparities and competition as issues between different religious communities. Eg- the 1961 Jabalpur riots stemmed from an economic rivalry between Hindu and Muslim bidi manufacturers.
4. Historical Grievances and perceived past injustices to justify current hostilities and conflicts. These narratives are used to rally communities against perceived enemies. Eg- The invocation of historical conflicts, such as the Mughal rule over India, to justify contemporary animosities between Hindus and Muslims.
5. Communal Violence – Communalism often manifests in violent clashes between different religious communities, leading to loss of life, property, and social cohesion. Eg- The 2002 Gujarat riots.
6. It propagates an intense dislike of other religions and stands for the elimination of other religions and their values. This Cultural and Religious Intolerance leads to opposition to interfaith interactions and exchanges. Eg- Resistance to interfaith marriages and social events as seen in various “Love Jihad” cases.
7. Distrust of Other Groups – This distrust is often cultivated and perpetuated through propaganda, historical grievances, and socio-political narratives.
8. Social Segregation – Communalism encourages communities’ physical and social segregation, reducing interaction and fostering a lack of understanding and empathy between groups. Eg- Segregated residential areas, schools, and workplaces can create echo chambers where communal prejudices are reinforced.
9. Use of Religion for Political Mobilization – Political leaders and parties often use religious sentiments to mobilize support and consolidate power. This politicization of religion can intensify communal identities and lead to polarization.
10. Propaganda and misinformation through media and social networks are common features of communalism. This can incite hatred and violence by spreading falsehoods about other communities.
11. Institutional Bias – Communalism can infiltrate state and societal institutions, leading to biased practices and policies that discriminate against certain communities.

Types of Communalism

Sociologist T.K. Oomen has given 6 fold classification

Dimension	Description	Example
Assimilationist	Small religious groups are integrated into larger ones.	The integration of smaller Christian denominations into mainstream Protestantism.
Welfarist	Focus on the welfare and betterment of a specific community.	JITO for the Jain community.
Retreatist	The community advises members to either participate in or abstain from politics.	Bahaism religion prohibits its members from political participation
Retaliatory	One community harms members of another in rivalry.	The 2002 Gujarat riots
Separatist	Demand for a distinct identity and separation from a larger group.	demand for Greater Nagalim, Bodoland, etc.
Secessionist	A group demands to secede from a state or nation for a separate political identity.	The demand for Khalistan, independent Tamil Eelam by the LTTE in Sri Lanka.

Other Types of Communalism

Type	Description	Example
Political Communalism	Use of communal identities for political mobilization. This leads to political polarization and communal violence.	Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha
Economic Communalism	Economic disparities are framed as communal issues. It exacerbates economic inequalities and tensions	Syed Ahmad Khan established Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 Recent examples of Twitter trend of banning Halal Meet
Cultural Communalism	Emphasis on the cultural identity of a community. It manifests in cultural hegemony,, violence, and imposition of a dominant culture on others.	Burka tradition in the Muslim community. Promotion of Hindi as a national language and the resistance by Tamil Nadu
Social Communalism	Community-oriented social behavior and practices. It Reinforces social segregation and discrimination, hinders social integration, and perpetuates social inequality.	Opposition to valentines Day and violence by groups such as Bajrang Dal in Megacities
Religious Communalism	Strict adherence to religious practices and beliefs leads to segregation. Promotes religious intolerance, social exclusion, and undermines secularism.	certain orthodox Jewish communities in Israel promote religious exclusivity
Ethnic Communalism	Focus on ethnic identity and solidarity. This leads to ethnic violence, displacement, and genocide	Strict adherence to religious practices and beliefs leads to segregation. Promotes religious intolerance, and social exclusion, and undermines secularism.
Linguistic Communalism	Emphasis on linguistic identity and differences. It Causes linguistic chauvinism and hinders national integration	Tamil language rights movement in Sri Lanka.
Caste-Based Communalism	Focus on caste identity and hierarchy. It obstructs social mobility and undermines social cohesion.	Jat agitation for OBC status.

Factors aiding Communalism in India

1. Historical Legacy
   • Colonial Policies: The British adopted a ‘Divide and Rule’ strategy, fostering divisions between Hindus and Muslims. This was evident in the partition of Bengal in 1905, which was based on religious lines.
   • Partition of India: The partition in 1947 led to large-scale violence and mass migrations, sowing seeds of distrust and hostility between communities. Over a million people were killed, and 15 million were displaced.
2. Political Factors
   • Identity Politics – Strong identification with religion over national identity is misused by politicians to mobilize support. Eg- the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992 was used by some political groups to polarize voters.
   • Secularism Implementation: Weak enforcement of secular principles has allowed communal ideologies to flourish. The lack of strict action against hate speech by political leaders contributes to the problem.
3. Economic Factors
   • Economic Disparities: Economic inequality exacerbates communal tensions. In regions with high poverty rates, such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, there are frequent communal clashes due to competition for resources.
   • Unemployment: High unemployment rates among youth, make them vulnerable to communal propaganda. Eg- the 2013 Muzaffarnagar riots had significant participation from unemployed youths.
4. Social Factors
   • Caste and Religion: The overlap of caste and religious identities strengthens communal divisions. In many parts of India, such as Tamil Nadu, caste-based and religious tensions often intersect.
   • Cultural Practices: Practices like ‘ghar wapsi’ (reconversion to Hinduism) by some groups and issues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition create friction between religious communities.
5. Media and Communication
   • Sensationalism: Media often sensationalizes communal issues for TRPs, worsening tensions. During the Delhi riots of 2020, certain news channels were accused of biased reporting that incited further violence.
   • Social Media: Platforms like Facebook and WhatsApp are used to spread communal propaganda quickly. Fake news and inflammatory posts played a significant role in the 2018 Dhule mob lynching incident.
6. Weak Governance and Law Enforcement
   • Inadequate Response: Often, there is a lack of timely action against communal violence. The slow response during the 2002 Gujarat riots 
   • Impunity: Perpetrators of communal violence often go unpunished, emboldening others. The 1984 anti-Sikh riots saw many culprits evading justice for decades.
7. Religious Organizations – Organizations like SIMI promote radical ideologies that contribute to communal tensions. The activities of these groups often incite violence and hatred.
8. Psychological Causes
   • Prejudices and Biases: Deep-rooted prejudices and stereotypes against other religious communities fuel communal tensions. Eg- global rise in Islamophobia post 9/11 attacks
   • Fear and Insecurity: Perceptions of threat and fear, fueled by communal propaganda and incidents, lead to the rise of communalism. Eg- Fear of Demographic Change was a major factor behind the 2012 Assam riots between Bodos and Muslims. 

Theories on Communalism

1. Ethnic Competition Theory (Horowitz, 1985) – communalism arises from competition between ethnic groups for limited resources, such as jobs, education, and political power.
2. Primordialism (Clifford Geertz, 1963) – communalism is rooted in the ancient, deep-seated bonds of kinship, language, religion, and tradition. These bonds are seen as natural and immutable.
3. Constructivism (Benedict Anderson, 1983) – communal identities are socially constructed through historical processes, colonial legacies, and political manipulation. These identities are flexible and can be reshaped by social and political changes.
4. Instrumentalism (Paul Brass, 1991) – Instrumentalism views communalism as a tool used by political elites to mobilize support and gain power. Communal identities are seen as instrumental in achieving political goals.
5. Modernization Theory (Karl Deutsch, 1961) – communalism arises as a reaction to the disruptions caused by modernization and social change. As traditional social structures break down, people seek security in communal identities.
6. Relative Deprivation Theory (Ted Robert Gurr, 1970) -perceived discrepancies between expected and actual living standards fuel communalism. When a community feels deprived relative to others, it resorts to communalism as a form of protest.

Consequences of Communalism

Communal violence obstructs economic development, social progress, cultural assimilation, and political tolerance. 

Political

1. Political Polarization – Communalism can lead to increased political polarization, with political parties exploiting religious divisions to gain support, thereby undermining democratic processes and secularism.
2. Undermining National Unity – People are guided by vested and narrow interests due to communalism, they tend to prioritize community interest over the national interest. Eg- Khalistan Movement

Economic

1. Hinders economic progress: According to the Global Peace Index (2022), India ranked 72nd, and the economic cost of violence is as much as 6% of GDP.
2. Obstruction to Development – Frequent communal riots in Uttar Pradesh have diverted government resources towards maintaining law and order, away from development initiatives.
3. Threatens demographic dividend: The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted to unproductive activities; this kills the vibrant demography in communal violence.

Social

1. Social Segregation – Communalism reinforces social divisions, leading to communities living in isolated enclaves with limited interaction, which perpetuates mistrust and hostility. Eg- In cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad, distinct Hindu and Muslim neighborhoods have emerged, with minimal social interaction between the communities.
2. Human Rights Violations – Communal conflicts often lead to gross human rights violations, including mass killings, sexual violence, forced displacement, and destruction of property. Eg- Bilkis Bano
3. Displacement and Refugee Crises – Eg- the 1989 exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir Valley due to communal violence led to a large displaced population living in refugee camps in Jammu and other parts of India.
4. Sow suspicion in society: Communalism sows the seeds of suspicion among the members of society which puts the community at a disadvantage. Eg- Muslims were denied medical treatment for being suspected as ‘Super spreaders’ during Covid-19.

Cultural Erosion – Communalism can lead to the erosion of cultural heritage, as violence and segregation diminish the rich cultural exchanges that occur in a pluralistic society.

Psychological Trauma – Individuals and communities affected by communal violence often suffer from long-term psychological trauma, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Steps to check the growth of Communalism

1. Encouraging Interfaith Dialogue, cultural exchange programs, and educational initiatives to foster understanding and respect among different communities. Eg. the Inter-religious Council of Kenya, Interfaith councils in the US
2. Community Policing such as the Jan Maithri Suraksha project of Kerala.
3. Addressing Socio-Economic Inequalities to reduce competition and tensions between communities. (Sachar Committee and Ranganath Mishra Commission)
4. Holding Political Leaders Accountable: Strictly enforcing the Model Code of Conduct by the Election Commission of India to prevent communal rhetoric during elections.
5. Media Monitoring: strict implementation of the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, to regulate online content. 
6. Implementing Legal Measures: Enforce strict laws against hate speech and communal violence under sections 153A and 295A of the Indian Penal Code.
7. Educational Reforms – Amartya Sen emphasizes the role of education in promoting a sense of shared identity and reducing communal prejudices. 
8. Civil Society Engagement – Engagement with NGOs like the Citizens for Justice and Peace in promoting communal harmony and legal support for victims of communal violence.
9. Grassroots conflict Resolution Mechanisms like Peace Committees in Maharashtra that involve community leaders in resolving local conflicts.
10. Addressing historical issues – Truth and Reconciliation Commissions on lines of post-conflict societies like South Africa, which focus on healing and rebuilding communal relationships.
11. Sachar Committee: Appointed in 2005, it recommended the establishment of the Equal Opportunity Commission.
12. Ranganath Misra Commission: It recommended 10% and 5% reservations for Muslim and other minorities respectively in center and state government jobs.
13. 2nd ARC’s recommendations to curb religious conflicts:
    • District Peace Committees/Integration Councils 
    • Mohalla Committees to identify local problems with the potential to degenerate into communal conflicts.
    • Setting up of special courts for expeditious trial of cases related to communal violence.
    • Prescription of norms of relief and rehabilitation.

SC judgments

1. S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India (1994) –  secularism as a basic feature of the Constitution. 
2. Tehseen S. Poonawalla vs. Union of India (2018) – The Supreme Court issued guidelines to curb mob violence and lynching. It directed the state governments to appoint nodal officers in each district to take proactive steps.
3. Prakash Singh vs. Union of India (2006) – The Supreme Court laid down directives for police reforms, including the establishment of a Police Complaints Authority and fixed tenure for key police officials. 
4. Aruna Roy vs. Union of India (2002) – underscored the importance of maintaining a secular curriculum in educational institutions.
5. State of Karnataka vs. Dr. Praveen Togadia (2004) – SC held that the right to free speech and movement can be reasonably restricted to prevent communal violence and maintain public order.