PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2016] The broader aims and objectives of the WTO are to manage and promote international trade in the era of globalisation. But the Doha round of negotiations seems doomed due to differences between the developed and the developing countries. Discuss from the Indian perspective.
Linkage: WTO’s aims and the failure of the Doha Round, a key point made in the article to illustrate the WTO’s declining negotiating function and its diminished relevance. The question also asks for a discussion from the Indian perspective, which connects to the article’s reference to India’s stance on certain WTO issues. |
Mentor’s Comment: Donald Trump’s “reciprocal tariffs” have been compared to the Smoot-Hawley tariffs of the 1930s, which are believed to have worsened the Great Depression. The key difference today is that we have the World Trade Organization (WTO) to manage and enforce global trade rules. However, some believe that over time, the WTO has lost its direction and needs significant reforms.
Today’s editorial examines the relevance of the WTO in the current global context. This content will be useful for GS Paper 2 (International Institutions) and GS Paper 3 (Economy).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Over time, the WTO has become less effective and lacks clear direction, with many believing it requires major reforms to better manage and enforce global trade rules in the current world.
What are the main functions of the WTO?
- Negotiating Trade Agreements: The WTO provides a platform for member countries to negotiate and revise global trade rules aimed at reducing trade barriers (tariffs, quotas, etc.). Eg: The Doha Development Round was launched in 2001 to negotiate issues like agricultural subsidies and market access for developing countries.
- Settling Trade Disputes: The WTO’s Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM) resolves trade conflicts between countries based on agreed rules. Eg: The U.S.–EU Banana Dispute, where the U.S. challenged the EU’s import regime for bananas, was resolved through the WTO dispute system.
- Monitoring and Reviewing National Trade Policies: The WTO monitors trade policies of member nations to ensure transparency and consistency with WTO rules. Eg: The Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM) allows regular scrutiny of each member’s trade practices — for instance, India’s trade policy is reviewed every 4-5 years under this mechanism.
Why is it struggling to fulfil them?
- Stalemate in Trade Negotiations: Consensus-based decision-making often leads to deadlocks, especially between developed and developing countries. Eg: The Doha Round has been stalled for years due to disagreements on agricultural subsidies and market access.
- Crisis in the Dispute Settlement System: The Appellate Body (WTO’s top court) has been non-functional since 2019 because the U.S. blocked the appointment of new judges, citing bias and overreach. Eg: Over 20 trade disputes remain unresolved, weakening trust in WTO’s ability to enforce rules.
- Rise of Protectionism and Plurilateralism: Countries increasingly prefer regional or bilateral agreements, bypassing WTO rules. Also, rising protectionism (e.g. tariffs, export bans) undermines multilateral trade. Eg: The U.S.–China trade war and RCEP (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership) are signs of countries drifting away from WTO-centered trade governance.
Why has the WTO’s Appellate Body become dysfunctional?
- U.S. Block on Judge Appointments: The United States has repeatedly blocked the appointment of new judges, alleging judicial overreach and bias against U.S. interests. Eg: As of 2019, the Appellate Body lacked the minimum three judges required to hear appeals, halting its operations.
- Allegations of Judicial Overreach: Critics, especially the U.S., claim the Body has exceeded its mandate by creating new obligations not agreed upon by member states. Eg: In disputes like U.S.–Antidumping Measures, the Appellate Body was accused of “interpreting” rules rather than just applying them.
- Delays in Rulings and Case Backlog: The Appellate Body has been criticized for delays in delivering rulings, often exceeding the 90-day deadline, leading to a growing backlog. Eg: In cases like the EU–Airbus dispute, delayed rulings undermined timely dispute resolution.
How has the MFN principle weakened?
- Rise of Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements: Countries increasingly prefer bilateral or regional trade agreements (FTAs) over WTO multilateral negotiations, which often bypass the MFN principle. Eg: RCEP (Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership) and USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) offer preferential treatment to members, sidelining MFN principles.
- Protectionist Measures by Major Economies: The U.S. and other major economies have imposed unilateral tariffs and trade measures, undermining the non-discriminatory nature of the MFN principle. Eg: The U.S. Section 232 tariffs on steel and aluminum were applied globally, but countries like the EU and Canada were exempted, contradicting MFN rules.
- China’s Trade Practices: China’s practices in trade, such as subsidizing domestic industries and restricting foreign market access, have raised concerns about compliance with MFN, as they distort fair trade. Eg: The U.S.–China trade war involved tariffs on Chinese goods despite China’s MFN status at the WTO.
- Decreasing Role of the WTO in Enforcing MFN: The WTO’s inability to enforce the MFN principle effectively, particularly with its dysfunctional dispute settlement mechanism, has weakened its role in global trade governance. Eg: In the India–U.S. solar panel dispute, the U.S. imposed tariffs on Indian solar panels despite the MFN rule, and the dispute resolution was delayed.
- FTAs and Evasion of MFN Obligations: Many countries have opted for free trade agreements (FTAs), which offer preferential trade treatment to signatories, making it easier to bypass MFN obligations for non-signatories. Eg: India has entered into FTAs with several countries, such as ASEAN, which offer preferential tariffs and benefits not extended to other WTO members, violating MFN principles.
How did the launch of the Doha Round contribute to this decline?
- Overly Ambitious Mandate: The Doha Round, launched in 2001, aimed to address a wide range of issues, including agricultural subsidies, tariffs, and market access. This broad agenda led to mismatched expectations and difficulties in reaching agreements, causing the talks to stagnate. Eg, despite extensive negotiations, no consensus was reached on key issues like agricultural subsidies, which frustrated many member countries.
- Challenges with China’s Accession: When China joined the WTO in 2001, there was insufficient foresight regarding the challenges its integration would pose. China’s growing dominance in global exports, especially in sectors like steel and cement, created trade imbalances and undermined the WTO’s ability to manage its impact. Eg, the WTO rules were not equipped to handle such issues, leading to frustration, particularly from the U.S.
- Failure to Lower Tariffs: The Doha Round aimed to reduce tariffs on a multilateral basis, but negotiations failed to gain traction. Eg, the U.S. had already lowered its tariffs significantly, but other countries, particularly India, were unwilling to reciprocate. This lack of progress on tariff liberalization further highlighted the WTO’s inability to deliver on its promises, contributing to its declining relevance.
Who is responsible for the collapse of key trade negotiations ?
- Developed Countries’ Reluctance to Reduce Agricultural Subsidies: Developed nations, especially the U.S. and EU, were unwilling to significantly cut their domestic farm subsidies, which distorted global prices and affected developing countries’ exports. Eg: In the Doha Development Round, talks stalled because the U.S. refused to reduce subsidies that gave an unfair advantage to its farmers.
- Developing Countries’ Demand for Greater Policy Space: Countries like India, Brazil, and South Africa demanded flexibilities to protect their poor farmers and industries, which was resisted by developed nations. Eg: India’s push for a permanent solution on public stockholding for food security clashed with U.S. and EU positions, contributing to the deadlock.
- Consensus-Based Decision-Making Slowing Progress: The WTO follows a consensus model, requiring all 164 members to agree, making it difficult to conclude negotiations when interests diverge widely. Eg: In the Nairobi Ministerial Conference (2015), the failure to achieve consensus on the future of the Doha Round led to its effective collapse.
What role has India played?
- Advocating for Food Security and Agricultural Subsidies: India has strongly opposed any restrictions on agricultural subsidies and public stockholding for food security, fearing it would hurt its poor farmers. Eg: India led the opposition to a proposed agreement on agricultural subsidies during the Doha Round and sought a permanent solution for public stockholding, which stalled the negotiations.
- Pushing for Development Concerns of Poorer Countries: India has consistently championed the interests of developing nations at the WTO, advocating for greater policy flexibility in trade-related matters such as industrialization and agriculture. Eg: India was vocal in demanding special and differential treatment for developing countries and resisted any trade reforms that might harm their domestic industries, such as the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).
- Defending Sovereignty in Trade and Investment: India has often resisted foreign investment liberalization measures and binding international rules on labor standards and environmental regulations that it believes could undermine national sovereignty. Eg: India rejected proposals in the Doha Development Agenda that could have led to binding agreements on labor standards and environmental protections, fearing they could impose undue burdens on its developing economy.
Way forward:
- Reform Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM): The WTO needs to revive and strengthen the Appellate Body by addressing issues such as judge appointments and allegations of judicial overreach, ensuring its effectiveness in resolving disputes and maintaining trust in the multilateral system. Eg: A compromise on U.S. concerns could be explored to restart the Appellate Body’s functioning.
- Enhance Flexibility for Developing Nations: The WTO should allow more policy flexibility for developing countries in areas like agriculture and food security, while balancing global trade interests. This could encourage inclusive negotiations and help prevent deadlocks, addressing concerns such as those raised by India in the Doha Round. Eg: Promoting a permanent solution for public stockholding in agriculture could lead to greater participation from developing nations.
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Why in the News?
The chances of Kurds achieving statehood have improved, but they are still divided by national, tribal, and internal ethnic differences.
What is the current geopolitical situation in West Asia?
- Rising Tensions Between Israel and Arab States: The Israeli government’s hardline stance on the Palestinian issue is at odds with Arab nations’ insistence on a two-state solution. The expansion of the Abraham Accords, which normalized relations between Israel and certain Arab countries, is now being challenged by this conflict. Eg, the Israeli government’s policies have led to a strained relationship with countries like Saudi Arabia and Egypt, who continue to push for Palestinian statehood.
- Weakened Iran and Resumption of U.S. Pressure: Iran’s geopolitical influence is diminishing due to both internal instability and external pressure from the U.S., including sanctions and military threats. Iran has agreed to negotiate its nuclear program as part of this dynamic. Eg, the U.S. has imposed “maximum pressure” tactics, leading to renewed discussions on Iran’s nuclear capabilities, showing a shift in regional power balances.
- Economic Instability Due to Declining Oil Prices: The decline in oil prices by 20% in 2025 has raised concerns about the economic stability of the region, which heavily depends on oil exports. This has already caused volatility in the economies of Gulf countries, impacting countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE, where the oil sector is a significant source of revenue.

How is it impacting the Kurdish quest for statehood?
- Weakened Regional Powers Create Opportunities for Kurdish Autonomy: The instability and weakening of central authorities in Iraq, Syria, and Iran have created opportunities for Kurdish groups to assert autonomy and establish a foothold in the region. Eg, the Kurdish Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq has gained considerable autonomy since the 1990s, and the Kurdish Self Defense Forces (SDF) control significant portions of northern Syria, both reflecting a push for Kurdish statehood amidst regional chaos.
- Absence of a Unifying Kurdish National Movement: Despite these opportunities, the Kurds lack a unifying ideology or transnational political entity to consolidate their ambitions for statehood. Eg, while some Kurdish factions in Iraq and Syria have made strides towards self-governance, the absence of a coordinated regional Kurdish political structure has hindered their ability to form a fully recognized Kurdish state.
Why did the Kurds fail to achieve statehood after the 1920 Treaty of Sevres?
- Opposition from the Turkish Nationalists: The Treaty of Sevres in 1920 promised the Kurds an autonomous state in eastern Turkey, but it was thwarted by the rise of Turkish nationalism under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Eg, the Turkish nationalist movement rejected the idea of a Kurdish state, and Atatürk’s forces succeeded in establishing the Republic of Turkey, which vehemently opposed Kurdish autonomy.
- Geopolitical Interests of Western Powers: The Western powers, who supported the Treaty of Sevres, were more focused on dismantling the Ottoman Empire and securing their own geopolitical interests in the region, rather than prioritizing Kurdish self-determination. Eg, the Treaty was eventually replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which ignored Kurdish aspirations and reinforced the territorial integrity of Turkey, sidelining the Kurds.
How has Turkish repression of Kurds led to the formation of the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party)?
- Suppression of Kurdish Identity: Turkish repression of Kurdish culture, language, and political rights led to widespread resentment among the Kurdish population. Eg, in the 1980s, the Turkish government officially classified Kurds as “mountain Turks” and banned the use of the Kurdish language, which prompted a reaction from Kurdish activists.
- Formation of the PKK (Kurdistan Workers’ Party): In 1978, Abdullah Öcalan founded the PKK to demand Kurdish independence through armed struggle, responding to decades of discrimination and oppression. Eg, the PKK launched an insurgency in 1984, which led to a prolonged conflict with the Turkish state, causing tens of thousands of deaths.
What role has the Kurdish Self-Defence Force (SDF) played in Syria?
- Fighting Against Terrorist Groups: The Kurdish Self Defence Force (SDF) played a crucial role in fighting against ISIS and al-Qaeda in Syria, particularly in the northern regions. Eg, the SDF, with support from the U.S., was instrumental in the liberation of Raqqa, the de facto capital of ISIS, in 2017.
- Control Over Syrian Territories: The SDF currently controls nearly 40% of Syria, establishing significant political and military influence. Eg, the SDF’s control over areas like Kobani and Manbij has been a source of tension with Turkey, which accuses the SDF of having links to the PKK.
How is the potential reduction of American military presence affecting their future?
- Loss of Strategic Support for Kurdish Forces: The reduction of American military presence in Syria could undermine the Kurdish Self-Defense Forces (SDF), who have heavily relied on U.S. military support in their fight against groups like ISIS. Without this backing, the SDF may face greater vulnerability to Turkish military operations, which view the Kurdish forces as aligned with the PKK. Eg: The SDF’s influence in Syria could diminish, particularly in regions where they have fought hard to establish autonomy, such as in the northeast of the country.
- Increased Regional Instability: The pullback of U.S. forces could embolden regional powers like Turkey, Iran, and Syria to exert more control over Kurdish regions, weakening their position in any future negotiations for statehood or autonomy. It could lead to more internal conflict and repression within Kurdish-majority areas. Eg: Turkey, already critical of the SDF’s alignment with PKK, could launch more aggressive military operations, further displacing Kurdish communities in Syria.
How can India take advantage of it? (Way Forward)
- Strategic Partnerships and Influence in West Asia: India can leverage the evolving geopolitical dynamics in West Asia to strengthen its strategic ties with Kurdish regions, particularly in Iraq and Syria. India can increase its diplomatic and economic engagement with Kurdish political entities to gain influence in the region. Eg: India can build stronger relations with the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq, offering support in areas like education, healthcare, and infrastructure, which may enhance India’s influence in the region.
- Energy and Trade Opportunities: As Kurdish regions, especially in Iraq, are rich in oil resources, India can increase its energy imports from Kurdish-controlled areas. Securing energy deals with the KRG could help India diversify its energy supply sources and reduce reliance on traditional suppliers. Eg: India could expand its participation in oil exploration and infrastructure projects in the Kurdish region, similar to its involvement in the development of oil fields in Iraq.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] Explain how the foundations of the modern world were laid by the American and French revolution.
Linkage: Both the American and French Revolutions championed the ideals of self-determination and nationalism, which have been significant drivers for various ethnic groups, including the Kurds, seeking statehood. Understanding the impact of these revolutions on the formation of the modern nation-state system provides a broader context for the Kurdish quest.
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Why in the News?
On April 23, the Supreme Court told Tamil Nadu Minister V. Senthilbalaji, who has been out on bail since September 2024 in a money laundering case, to choose between keeping his position or his freedom. This was an expected statement.
Why did the Supreme Court question V. Senthilbalaji’s continuation in office while on bail?
- Conflict of Interest Between Bail and Office: The Supreme Court questioned V. Senthilbalaji’s continuation in office while on bail in a money laundering case, suggesting that he should choose between his ministerial position and his freedom. Eg: The Court pointed out the issue of a person facing serious criminal charges holding a high office of responsibility.
- Concerns About Potential Witness Tampering: The Court expressed concerns that Senthilbalaji might tamper with evidence or influence witnesses due to his position of power. Eg: Justice Oka’s remark that Senthilbalaji might prevent witnesses from testifying indicated the gravity of the situation.
- Premature Re-induction Into the Cabinet: The Supreme Court had previously granted bail to Senthilbalaji not on merits, but because he had already served one year in detention. His return to the Cabinet shortly after this raised doubts, as the Court had not cleared him of the charges. Eg: This was exemplified by the Court’s remark that it had made a “mistake” in granting him bail.
What concerns did the Supreme Court raise about Senthilbalaji’s conduct?
- Dishonest Conduct and Risk of Evidence Tampering: The Supreme Court raised concerns about Senthilbalaji’s dishonest conduct and the potential risk of him tampering with evidence or influencing witnesses in the case. Eg: Justice Oka’s remark about Senthilbalaji ensuring no witnesses come to the box reflected this concern.
- Inappropriate Return to the Cabinet While Facing Serious Charges: The Court questioned the propriety of Senthilbalaji being re-inducted into the Cabinet while facing serious criminal charges. Eg: The Court had previously stated that granting bail was not based on merits, but on the time already served, which raised doubts about his fitness for office.
Why is Senthilbalaji’s re-induction into the Cabinet legally scrutinized?
- Bail Conditions Not Fully Met: Senthilbalaji’s re-induction into the Cabinet is legally scrutinized because he was granted bail not on merits but on the ground that he had already spent one year in incarceration as an undertrial. Eg: The Court had questioned his return to the Cabinet just after granting him bail, highlighting concerns over his ongoing legal situation.
- Impact on Fair Trial and Public Perception: His re-induction raises questions about the fairness of his trial and the potential to undermine justice. Eg: The Supreme Court had earlier expressed its objection to his return to the Cabinet, stating that it could negatively affect the victims of the job scandal and the integrity of the trial process.
Why should Senthilbalaji avoid staying in the Cabinet?
- Legal and Ethical Concerns: Senthilbalaji’s continued stay in the Cabinet raises legal and ethical issues due to the money laundering case against him. Eg: The Supreme Court’s remarks about the possibility of tampering with evidence and influencing witnesses highlight the risks of him holding a position of power while facing serious charges.
- Risk of Damage to Reputation and Governance: His re-induction into the Cabinet could harm the government’s reputation and undermine public trust in governance. Eg: The Court had earlier granted him bail on humanitarian grounds, not on merits, and his return to the Cabinet despite ongoing charges could be seen as improper, potentially leading to political fallout.
Way forward:
- Resignation for Upholding Integrity: Senthilbalaji should voluntarily resign from the Cabinet to maintain the integrity of the government and avoid further legal scrutiny.
- Clear Legal Resolution: A clear and swift legal resolution should be sought, ensuring that the charges are addressed transparently, without political interference, to restore public confidence.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] The Doctrine of Democratic Governance makes it necessary that the public perception of the integrity and commitment of civil servants becomes absolutely positive. Discuss.
Linkage: Although focused on civil servants, the underlying principle of integrity and public perception in governance is relevant to the case of a Minister like Mr. Senthilbalaji, especially given the Supreme Court’s observations on his conduct.
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Why in the News?
Pakistan has announced its decision to suspend the Simla Agreement with India, a landmark peace accord signed in 1972 following the India-Pakistan war.

About the Simla Agreement
- The Simla Agreement was signed on July 2, 1972, between Indira Gandhi (India) and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Pakistan) following the 1971 India-Pakistan war and the creation of Bangladesh.
- The agreement aimed to establish lasting peace, address issues arising from the war, and reaffirm respect for the Line of Control (LoC) in Jammu and Kashmir.
Key Terms of the Agreement:
- Respect for Territorial Integrity: Both countries agreed to respect sovereignty and internal affairs, with the LoC as the de facto boundary in Kashmir.
- Line of Control (LoC): Both parties agreed not to alter the LoC unilaterally, maintaining its status established after the 1971 ceasefire.
- Promotion of Durable Peace: A commitment to resolve disputes peacefully and normalize relations, including transportation, postal services, and trade.
- Dispute Resolution: The agreement emphasized bilateral dialogue for resolving issues, particularly the Kashmir dispute, without third-party intervention.
- Non-interference & No Use of Force: Both nations pledged to refrain from interfering in internal matters and from using force or threats of force.
Line of Control (LoC) and the 1949 Karachi Agreement:
- Following the 1947-48 India-Pakistan war, a UN-brokered ceasefire led to the establishment of the LoC.
- The 1949 Karachi Agreement demarcated the ceasefire line, running from Manawar (south) to the glaciers (north), forming the basis for the LoC.
- Despite the Simla Agreement, there have been multiple conflicts, such as Siachen (1984) and Kargil War (1999), where Pakistan attempted to alter the LoC, leading to military responses from India.
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Challenges in Implementing the Agreement
- Kargil War (1999): Pakistan’s violation of the LoC during the Kargil War highlighted ongoing tensions.
- Siachen Glacier: Pakistan’s actions in the Siachen Glacier conflict violated the agreement, leading to military action (Operation Meghdoot, 1984) by India.
[UPSC 2003] Consider the following statements regarding the relations between India and Pakistan:
1. During Shimla Agreement, Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Bhutto agreed to maintain the sanctity of LOC.
2. Lahore Summit took place in the year 1997.
3. Islamabad Summit was held between Rajiv Gandhi and Nawaz Sharif.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 3 (c) Only 2 (d) Only 1* |
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Why in the News?
In response to the deadly terrorist attack in Pahalgam, India has announced the suspension of the SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES) for Pakistani nationals.
Note: The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was founded in 1985, consisting of eight member states: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. |
About the SAARC Visa Exemption Scheme (SVES):
- The SVES was launched in 1992 following the Fourth SAARC Summit (1988).
- It aims to promote regional cooperation and people-to-people contact among 8 SAARC member states by allowing certain categories of individuals to travel without a visa.
- Eligible Categories: SVES covers 24 categories, including dignitaries, judges, parliamentarians, senior officials, businessmen, journalists, and sportspersons.
- Special visa stickers are issued (by each SAARC member), typically valid for one year, allowing visa-free travel within SAARC countries.
India’s Provisions under the SVES:
- Nepal & Bhutan: Citizens do not require a visa to enter India.
- Pakistani Nationals: Initially allowed for one-year multiple-entry business visas, revised in 2015 for special-category businessmen with three-year visas.
- Other Nationals: Sri Lankan nationals are eligible for an e-Tourist visa, while Indian citizens do not need a visa for Nepal and Bhutan.
[UPSC 2016] Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member-states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation).” Explain with suitable examples.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. China has the observer’s status at the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.
2. India has the observer’s status at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has agreed to hear a petition regarding the mandatory reporting of sexual activity under Section 19 of the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012.
About the POCSO Act, 2012:
- The POCSO Act came into effect on November 14, 2012 (Children’s Day), following India’s ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1992.
- Its primary objective is to address offences related to the sexual exploitation and abuse of children, which were previously either not specifically defined or inadequately penalized.
- According to the Act, a child is defined as any person below the age of 18 years.
- In 2019, the Act underwent a review and amendment, introducing more stringent punishments (after Nirbhaya Case), including the death penalty, for those committing sexual crimes against children.
Key Features of the POCSO Act:
- Definition of a Child: A child is defined as anyone under 18 years of age.
- Sexual Offences:
- Penetrative Sexual Assault (Section 3)
- Sexual Assault (Section 7)
- Sexual Harassment (Section 11)
- Using Children for Pornographic Purposes (Section 13)
- Abetment and Attempt (Sections 16-18)
- Special Courts & Procedures: Establishes Special Courts for speedy trials and mandates child-friendly procedures.
- Protection of Identity: The identity of the child is protected throughout the process.
- Rehabilitation & Compensation: Provides for the rehabilitation of child victims.
- No Delay in Trials: Trials must be completed within one year of the offence.
Recent Supreme Court Hearing:
- Litigants have raised concerns that mandatory reporting under Section 19 might criminalize consensual sexual activity between juveniles, especially affecting adolescent girls’ right to health.
- They emphasized counseling over criminalization, arguing that the law might discourage adolescents from seeking medical care.
- The Supreme Court acknowledged these concerns and scheduled a detailed hearing on May 8 to address them.
[UPSC 2017] Which of the following are envisaged by the Right against Exploitation in the Constitution of India?
1. Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour
2. Abolition of untouchability
3. Protection of the interests of minorities
4. Prohibition of employment of children in factories and mines.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have successfully estimated the abundance of Helium in the Sun’s photosphere with precision for the first time.
![[pib] Measuring Helium Abundance in the Sun](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/sun.jpg)
About Helium in the Sun’s Photosphere:
- Helium is the second most abundant element in the Sun after Hydrogen and plays a key role in understanding solar composition, opacity, and energy transport.
- However, measuring its precise abundance in the Sun’s photosphere has been challenging due to the absence of observable Helium spectral lines in visible light.
- Traditionally, Helium abundance was estimated using indirect methods like extrapolating data from hotter stars, solar wind observations, and seismological studies of the Sun’s interior.
- These methods lacked direct photospheric observations, making the estimates less accurate.
- Accurate measurements of Helium are essential for modelling the Sun’s opacity and energy transport. This also has broader implications for understanding the composition of other stars.
Novel Method Recently Discovered:
- Researchers from the IIA introduced a novel method to directly estimate Helium abundance in the Sun’s photosphere.
- This technique uses spectral features from Magnesium (Mg) and Carbon (C), overcoming the challenge of no direct Helium spectral lines.
- Spectral lines from Mg, C, and hydrogenated molecules (MgH, CH, C2) were used to infer Helium abundance.
- Equivalent Width analyses and spectrum synthesis techniques helped model the behavior of these elements in varying Helium-to-Hydrogen ratios.
- The Helium-to-Hydrogen ratio in the Sun’s photosphere was found to be 0.1, consistent with previous studies. This confirms the validity of the new method.
[UPSC 2023] Diffusion of light in the atmosphere takes place due to:
Options: (a) Carbon dioxide (b) Dust particles* (c) Helium (d) Water vapors |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.
Linkage: The Pahalgam attack occurred in Jammu and Kashmir. This question directly addresses strategies for building trust and resolving conflict in terrorism-affected regions, which is a crucial aspect of responding to such attacks in the long term. |
Mentor’s Comment: The terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, is not just an act of violence; it’s a calculated political move, carefully timed to cause both human casualties and strategic disruption. The attack took place shortly after the Kashmir Valley started welcoming tourists for the season and while U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance was visiting India. This is not a random attack, but part of a long-standing pattern of cross-border terrorism supported by Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies. At a time when Pakistan had faded from India’s diplomatic focus, it has now returned, aiming to disrupt what India holds dear.
Today’s editorial analyzes the recent terrorist attack in the Baisaran meadows of Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir. This discussion will be useful for GS Paper 2 on International Relations and GS Paper 3 on Border Management.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On April 22, 2025, terrorists attacked a group of tourists in the Baisaran meadows of Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, killing dozens and injuring many others. This was the first major attack on civilians in Kashmir since the government removed the region’s special status in 2019.
Why is the Pahalgam attack seen as a political signal beyond terrorism?
- Strategic Timing: The attack was carefully timed to coincide with major diplomatic events, aiming to internationalize the Kashmir issue and undermine India’s global image. Eg: It occurred during U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance’s visit to India, drawing global attention and signaling instability in Kashmir.
- Undermining Normalcy: Targeting a tourist destination was meant to damage the perception of peace, hurt local livelihoods, and instill fear among potential visitors. Eg: The attack happened in Baisaran near Pahalgam, a scenic spot often described as ‘mini Switzerland’, during peak tourism season.
- Proxy Warfare: It reflects Pakistan’s continued reliance on non-state actors to wage asymmetric warfare against India while maintaining deniability. Eg: The Resistance Front (TRF), linked to Lashkar-e-Taiba and ISI, claimed responsibility—mirroring past attacks like the 2019 Pulwama bombing.
What intelligence and security lapses does the attack reveal?
- Failure of Local Intelligence Gathering: Security forces lacked timely and actionable intelligence about militant movement in a high-tourist zone. Eg: Despite a large number of tourists in Pahalgam, there were no alerts about possible threats in the area prior to the attack.
- Inadequate Perimeter Surveillance: The attackers exploited gaps in area surveillance and patrol routines around tourist spots. Eg: The militants attacked near Baisaran meadow—an open and vulnerable area with limited surveillance despite being a tourist hotspot.
- Weak Coordination Among Agencies: Lack of seamless coordination between intelligence, police, and paramilitary forces led to poor threat anticipation and response. Eg: Local police reportedly had not received central alerts, reflecting weak inter-agency information sharing.
- Overreliance on Static Security Checks: Security was concentrated at checkpoints, but attackers used off-road routes to bypass these. Eg: Militants avoided heavily guarded roads and struck a moving vehicle, indicating knowledge of patrol patterns.
- Neglect of Civilian Vulnerability Mapping: No dynamic assessment of soft targets such as unescorted tourist groups in sensitive areas. Eg: The victims were on a pony ride, unprotected, with no security escort in a forested zone open to ambush.
How does Pakistan’s instability under Gen. Munir fuel cross-border terrorism?
- Military-Civil Power Struggle: The weakening of civilian institutions and dominance of the military creates an environment where the Army uses external conflicts to maintain control. Eg: Gen. Munir’s growing influence post-Imran Khan’s ousting has coincided with increased militant activity in Kashmir to divert attention from domestic unrest.
- Use of Terrorism as Strategic Depth: The Pakistani military views proxy groups as tools to counterbalance India without engaging in direct war. Eg: Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed have resurged in training and logistics activities near the LoC.
- Diverting Attention from Internal Crises: Facing economic collapse and political chaos, Pakistan’s deep state stokes tensions with India to unify the populace and distract from internal failures. Eg: After IMF bailout troubles and mass protests, there was a spike in infiltration attempts into J&K.
- Weak Civilian Oversight on Terror Networks: Political instability weakens civilian checks on terror outfits, allowing the military and ISI to operate with impunity. Eg: Banned terror outfits continue to function under new names and operate training camps openly in PoK and Punjab regions.
- ISI’s Tactical Shift Toward Lone Wolf or Hybrid Militants: The ISI, under Munir’s tenure as ex-ISI chief, has adapted to deploy hard-to-trace, localised operatives, making it harder for India to track networks. Eg: Attacks like Pahalgam have shown signs of hybrid militancy—locals radicalised online but supported logistically from across the border.
How can India align its external stance with internal outreach in Kashmir?
- Promote Development as a Security Strategy: Emphasize infrastructure, education, and employment to win hearts locally and showcase progress internationally. Eg: The Srinagar Smart City project and new medical colleges can be highlighted in diplomatic forums to counter negative narratives.
- Empower Local Governance: Strengthen democratic institutions like Panchayats and urban bodies to demonstrate political normalization. Eg: Conducting timely local body elections and empowering DDCs reflects ground-level participation, reinforcing India’s democratic image globally.
- Consistent Narrative Management: Maintain a unified communication strategy to counter misinformation from hostile actors. Eg: India’s MEA and J&K administration issuing joint statements during crises can reduce confusion and reinforce India’s position internationally.
- Engage Diaspora and Global Media: Leverage Indian diaspora and media outreach to project a balanced narrative on Kashmir reforms and security. Eg: Indian embassies organizing Kashmir-focused briefings in the US/EU to highlight post-Article 370 investments and peace-building.
- Cultural and Religious Diplomacy: Promote Kashmir’s syncretic traditions like Sufism to counter radical narratives. Eg: Organizing international Sufi festivals or Buddhist circuit promotion in Ladakh can portray Kashmir as culturally inclusive and peaceful.
What steps has taken by the Indian Government?
- Diplomatic Measures: India has downgraded its diplomatic and logistical ties with Pakistan.Eg: The Indus Waters Treaty has been suspended, the Attari-Wagah border crossing has been closed, and Pakistani defense advisors have been expelled. Additionally, Pakistani nationals in India under regional visas have been given 48 hours to leave, and India’s embassy staff in Islamabad has been reduced.
- Security Enhancements: The Indian government has increased security measures in Jammu and Kashmir. Eg: Security forces are conducting a major manhunt in the region to apprehend the perpetrators of the attack. The government is also reviewing and strengthening security protocols to prevent future incidents.
Way forward:
- Enhanced Security Infrastructure: Strengthen intelligence networks and surveillance systems in vulnerable regions like Jammu and Kashmir to preempt cross-border terrorism and ensure rapid response capabilities.
- Diplomatic Pressure on Pakistan: Intensify international diplomatic efforts to isolate Pakistan by leveraging global platforms, pressing for accountability, and fostering stronger alliances to counter terrorism.
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Why in the News?
Millions of people die early because of dirty air. But where does this air pollution come from?

Where do the majority of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions in India come from?
- Energy Production: The largest source of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions in India is energy production, primarily from coal-fired power plants. Eg, coal contains sulphur impurities that are released when it is burned, contributing significantly to SO2 pollution.
- Industrial Activities: Industries like cement production, steel manufacturing, and chemical plants also release SO2. Eg, the cement industry, which uses fossil fuels, is a major emitter of this pollutant.
What are the main sources of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions?
- Transportation: The largest source of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions is transportation, particularly from the exhaust of cars and trucks. Eg, diesel-powered vehicles, which burn fuel less efficiently, produce higher NOx emissions.
- Energy Production: The burning of coal and gas for electricity generation also significantly contributes to NOx emissions. Eg, power plants that burn coal release large amounts of NOx during the combustion process.
- Industrial Activities: Industrial processes such as manufacturing and chemical production also emit NOx. Eg, refineries and other heavy industries use high-temperature processes that release NOx as a byproduct.
What sectors are the biggest contributors to methane (CH4) emissions?
- Agriculture: The largest source of methane emissions, particularly from livestock digestion (enteric fermentation) and rice paddies. Eg, cows and other ruminants produce methane during digestion, and flooded rice fields emit methane as organic matter decomposes anaerobically.
- Waste Management: Methane is released from organic waste decomposing in landfills under anaerobic conditions. Eg, food waste rotting in landfills produces significant methane emissions.
- Fossil Fuel Extraction: Methane is emitted during the extraction, transport, and use of fossil fuels, especially natural gas. Eg, methane leaks from oil and gas pipelines, as well as from coal mines, contributing to atmospheric emissions.
How does agriculture contribute to ammonia (NH3) emissions and their health impacts?
- Agriculture: The application of nitrogen-based fertilizers is a major source of ammonia emissions. Eg, the use of urea fertilizers in crop fields results in ammonia volatilization when applied to the soil, contributing to air pollution.
- Livestock Waste: Ammonia is released from animal manure, especially from large-scale livestock farming. Eg, in intensive dairy and poultry farms, ammonia is emitted from urine and feces, leading to air and water pollution.
- Health Impacts: Ammonia contributes to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can cause respiratory issues, asthma, and premature deaths. Eg, exposure to ammonia-laden air in farming areas has been linked to increased health risks such as lung diseases and cardiovascular problems.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP aims to reduce particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) pollution in 102 cities by 20-30% by 2024, with strategies focusing on controlling emissions from key sectors like transport, industries, and construction.
- Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This initiative aims to replace traditional biomass cooking methods with clean cooking technologies, such as LPG, to reduce black carbon emissions in rural areas.
- BS-VI Norms for Vehicles: The Indian government has enforced the Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) emission standards from April 2020, which are aimed at significantly reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate emissions from vehicles.
- Pollution Control Measures in Power Plants: The government has set deadlines for coal-fired power plants to comply with stricter emission norms for sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter.
- Air Quality Monitoring and Data Collection: The government has set up a network of air quality monitoring stations across cities under the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and is working to improve real-time data collection on air quality.
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Way forward:
- Shift to Clean Energy: Expand renewable energy use and enforce cleaner technologies in the power and industrial sectors to cut SO₂ and NOₓ emissions.
- Strengthen Enforcement & Awareness: Ensure strict implementation of air quality norms and raise public awareness on pollution-reducing practices.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss in detail the photochemical smog, emphasising its formation, effects and mitigation.
Linkage: Formation of a significant type of air pollution, photochemical smog, which is formed from primary pollutants like Nitrogen oxides (from transport and industry) reacting in the presence of sunlight [209, external knowledge]. Understanding the formation requires knowing the precursor pollutants and their sources.
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Why in the News?
Recently, a number of court rulings have led many people to question the powers and intentions of the Supreme Court. Although criticism of the judiciary is not new, it has increased.
What is the significance of judicial review in the Indian Constitution?
- Upholds Constitutional Supremacy: Judicial review ensures that all laws and actions by the government are in line with the Constitution. Eg: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution, reinforcing constitutional supremacy.
- Protects Fundamental Rights: It provides a mechanism for individuals to challenge laws or executive actions that violate their fundamental rights. Eg: In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978), the court ruled that the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 cannot be violated without just, fair, and reasonable procedure.
- Maintains Checks and Balances: Judicial review prevents arbitrary use of power by the legislature or executive, maintaining the balance of power among the three branches of government. Eg: In Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980), the court struck down parts of the 42nd Amendment that tried to limit the power of judicial review itself, preserving the judiciary’s role as a check on Parliament.
How is it related to Article 13?
- Declares Inconsistent Laws Void: Article 13(1) & (2) state that any law that violates Fundamental Rights is void to the extent of the violation. This empowers the judiciary to review and strike down such laws. Eg: In A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950), although the court upheld the Preventive Detention Act, the case established the judiciary’s power to examine laws under Article 13.
- Forms the Basis for Judicial Review: Article 13 acts as the foundation for judicial review by mandating that all laws (past and future) must conform to Fundamental Rights. Eg: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the court used Article 13 to assert that even constitutional amendments are subject to judicial review if they violate the basic structure or Fundamental Rights.
- Ensures Protection Against State Actions: Article 13 defines “law” to include ordinances, orders, bye-laws, rules, regulations, etc., thereby subjecting all state actions to judicial scrutiny. Eg: In State of West Bengal v. Committee for Protection of Democratic Rights (2010), the court affirmed that Article 13 covers all state actions, ensuring their consistency with Fundamental Rights.
How did the Supreme Court’s activism during the Emergency impact its role in protecting democracy?
- Judicial Abdication in the ADM Jabalpur Case: The Court failed to protect civil liberties by ruling that even the right to life could be suspended during the Emergency. Eg: ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976) – The majority held that citizens had no remedy if the state detained them illegally during Emergency, weakening democratic safeguards.
- Erosion of Public Faith in Judiciary: The decision in ADM Jabalpur was widely criticized and seen as the Court yielding to executive pressure, leading to a decline in public confidence. Eg: Justice H.R. Khanna’s lone dissent defending civil liberties became a symbol of judicial integrity, but the majority judgment damaged the Court’s image.
- Shift Towards Judicial Activism Post-Emergency: In response to its failure, the Court later adopted a more proactive role in defending rights through Public Interest Litigations (PILs). Eg: Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) – The Court expanded the scope of Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty), overturning its narrow view in earlier cases.
- Strengthening of Basic Structure Doctrine: After the Emergency, the judiciary reinforced its role as a guardian of the Constitution, making it clear that even Parliament cannot amend the basic structure. Eg: Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980) – The Court reaffirmed that judicial review is a part of the basic structure and cannot be taken away.
- Restoration of Accountability and Civil Rights: The Court became more vigilant in ensuring that executive actions respect democratic principles and individual freedoms. Eg: The growth of PILs in the 1980s allowed the judiciary to directly address the grievances of the marginalized and hold the state accountable.
Why is the Supreme Court’s power under Article 142 considered essential?
- Ensures Complete Justice in Exceptional Situations: Article 142 empowers the Supreme Court to pass any decree or order necessary for doing “complete justice” in any case before it, even if no specific law exists. Eg: Union Carbide Case (Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 1989) – The Court invoked Article 142 to ensure compensation for victims, overriding procedural hurdles.
- Fills Legislative or Procedural Gaps Temporarily: It allows the Court to address legal voids until Parliament or the executive acts, ensuring justice is not delayed due to technicalities. Eg: Supreme Court guidelines on sexual harassment at workplaces (Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, 1997) – The Court framed guidelines under Article 142 in absence of legislation.
What are the concerns surrounding its misuse?
- Overreach and Violation of Separation of Powers: There is a risk that the Court might overstep its boundaries, encroaching on the domain of the executive or legislature, thus undermining the principle of separation of powers.Eg: Judicial intervention in policy matters – If the Court starts making decisions on matters that should be left to the government, like executive policies, it can be seen as an overreach.
- Potential for Arbitrary Decisions: The broad discretion granted by Article 142 can sometimes lead to arbitrary decisions, which may not align with established legal principles or may be seen as politically motivated. Eg: Judgment in the Babri Masjid Case (2019) – The Court’s intervention in the Babri case was criticized for favoring peace over legal principles, potentially opening doors for biased interpretations.
How does the judiciary uphold the Constitution without overstepping the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive?
- Judicial Review with Restraint: The judiciary exercises judicial review carefully, ensuring it only intervenes in cases where constitutional violations or fundamental rights are at stake, and refrains from delving into policy decisions better left to the executive or legislature. Eg: Right to Privacy Case (2017) – The Supreme Court upheld the right to privacy as a fundamental right, checking executive overreach but refraining from interfering with legislative or executive policy decisions.
- Respect for Legislative and Executive Domains: The judiciary respects the roles and powers of the legislature and executive, ensuring that it does not encroach on their function while interpreting the law within its constitutional framework. Eg: Constitutionality of the GST (2017) – The Supreme Court reviewed the constitutional validity of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) but did not interfere with the operational execution, leaving implementation to the executive.
Way forward:
- Ensure Judicial Independence: Strengthen mechanisms to safeguard the judiciary from executive and legislative influence, ensuring impartiality and constitutional integrity.
- Foster Collaborative Governance: Encourage constructive dialogue between the judiciary, legislature, and executive to maintain balance and prevent unnecessary judicial overreach.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Starting from inventing the ‘basic structure’ doctrine, the judiciary has played a highly proactive role in ensuring that India develops into a thriving democracy. In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by judicial activism in achieving the ideals of democracy.
Linkage: In this article, evaluate judicial activism. Some people see it as essential for protecting the Constitution, while others think it goes too far, interfering with the roles of the legislature and executive, and might even lead to judges having too much power.
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Why in the News?
In response to the Pahalgam Terror Attack, India has officially announced the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) with Pakistan.

About the Indus Water Treaty (IWT)
- IWT was signed between India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, with mediation from the World Bank.
- The treaty allocates the Western rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) to Pakistan, and the Eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India.
- Approximately 80% of the water is allocated to Pakistan, with 20% to India.
- The Permanent Indus Commission was established to facilitate communication and dispute resolution.
- The treaty includes a three-step process for resolving disputes, which involves the Permanent Indus Commission, Neutral Experts (appointed by World Bank), and a Court of Arbitration if needed.
Implications of Suspension:
- India’s Opportunities:
- Though not immediately, but India can now control the water flow from the Indus River system, allowing it to divert, stop, or alter the flow of water.
- India can expand hydroelectric projects on the Western rivers, such as the Kishanganga and Ratle Hydroelectric Projects, with more projects under scrutiny.
- Impact on Pakistan:
- Agriculture: Pakistan’s agricultural sector heavily depends on the Indus River, and any disruption could cause food insecurity and economic distress for millions of farmers.
- Power Supply: Pakistan’s hydroelectric power generation depends on the water flow, with Tarbela Dam (on the Indus River) and Mangla Dam (on the Jhelum River) facing reduced water supplies, leading to electricity shortages.
Alternatives for Pakistan:
- No Legal Exit: No legal exit clause in the treaty; also, India cannot unilaterally suspend it.
- Dispute Resolution: Pakistan can approach the Permanent Indus Commission, request Neutral Experts, or escalate to the World Bank’s Court of Arbitration.
- International Diplomacy: Pakistan may seek diplomatic solutions through international forums, including leveraging support from other nations.
[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. The Baglihar Power Project had been constructed within the parameters of the Indus Water Treaty.
2. The project was completely built by the Union Government with loans from Japan and the World Bank.
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus River system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:
Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej |
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Why in the News?
Two decades since the demolition of Bamiyan Buddha, the Afghan Taliban are now convinced to restore it.

About Bamiyan Buddha:
- The Bamiyan Buddhas were located in the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan, about 130 km northwest of Kabul.
- The Western Buddha (Salsal) stood 55 meters tall, and the Eastern Buddha (Shah Mama) stood 38 meters tall, making them two of the largest standing Buddha statues in the world before their destruction.
- Construction:
- Built around 600 CE during the rule of the Hephthalites.
- Carved directly into sandstone cliffs with features made from mud and straw, and painted with bright colors, including carmine red for the larger Buddha.
- The style blends Greco-Buddhist art, Sasanian Persia, and Byzantine Empire influences.
- Historical Significance:
- Represented Vairocana and Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha).
- Served as a major Buddhist religious centre along the Silk Road, hosting monasteries and playing a crucial role in religion, philosophy, and art.
- Survived invasions, including by Genghis Khan (1221 AD) and Aurangzeb (17th Century).
- In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the statues. The Buddhas had previously survived multiple attacks.
- The site is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its immense historical, religious, and cultural significance.
[UPSC 2014] Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
1. Avanti 2. Gandhara 3. Kosala 4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 3 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
India has introduced Akshvi, a unique e-digital wallet aimed at assisting in disaster relief and improving the accuracy of loss reporting.
About Akshvi: The E-Digital Wallet for Disasters
- Akshvi (Aapda Kshati Vivaran) is a unique e-digital wallet developed by SEEDS India to assist disaster-stricken communities in India.
- The platform allows people to self-report economic and non-economic losses during climate-induced events.
- It bridges the data gap in disaster reporting and enhancing relief distribution and climate resilience.
Key Features of Akshvi:
- Self-Reporting Mechanism: It enables affected communities to log their losses during disasters such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, and landslides, ensuring accurate and timely assessments.
- Localized Data Collection: The platform collects hyperlocal data, which is vital for tailoring disaster management strategies and relief efforts to the specific needs of affected communities.
- User-Friendly Interface:
- IVRS: Allows voice recording of losses.
- WhatsApp Chatbot: For tech-savvy users to log data.
- Assisted Data Entry: Available for those needing help with information entry.
- Traceability: The platform tracks the progress of relief, ensuring that aid reaches the affected households transparently.
- Integration with Government Schemes: Akshvi’s data links to social welfare schemes and index-based insurance programs, improving disaster response efforts.
[UPSC 2004] In which one of the following countries did hundreds of people die in 2004 due to Tropical Storm Jeanne?
Options: (a) Colombia (b) Haiti (c) Sudan (d) Ghana |
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Why in the News?
A recent report by the Central Zoo Authority (CZA), highlights the absence of any breeding programme for musk deer.

About Musk Deer:
- The Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) is an endangered species native to the Himalayas, found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and China.
- It inhabits altitudes of 2,200 to 4,300 meters, primarily in alpine forests and scrublands.
- Behaviour: Solitary, nocturnal, and territorial. Males have long, curved canine teeth and a musk gland, which is highly valued and targeted by poachers.
- It plays a key role in seed dispersal, helping maintain the balance of the alpine ecosystem.
- Threats: Poaching for their musk glands, habitat loss from deforestation, and genetic issues due to fragmented populations.
Conservation Initiatives:
- Protection Status:
- It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
- It is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, offering the highest protection under Indian law.
- Protected Areas:
- Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary: Established in 1972, covering 975 km² in the western Himalayas, crucial for musk deer conservation.
- Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary: Located in Uttarakhand, dedicated specifically to musk deer conservation.
- Himalayan Musk Project (1982): Aimed at captive breeding within Kedarnath Sanctuary but faced setbacks due to disease, snake bites, and poor survival rates. The project was shut down in 2006.
[UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Manas National Park
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
New research by CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad suggest that lipids (along with DNA), particularly in mitochondrial membranes, are not just structural elements but play an integral role in the function and evolution of proteins.

About Lipids and RC1 in Cells:
Lipids:
- Lipids, including fats, phospholipids, and sterols, make up to 30% of the dry weight of cells.
- They are crucial for membrane integrity and various biological processes.
- They vary in fatty acid composition and length, influenced by genetics, diet, and environmental factors.
- They form a bilayer in membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing stability and enabling protein function.
- Role of Lipids in Cells:
- Lipids form the bilayer, providing flexibility and stability for membrane proteins that perform functions like receptor binding and ion channelling.
- They like cardiolipin stabilize RC1 and other respiratory complexes, aiding energy production.
RC1 (Respiratory Complex 1):
- RC1 is a protein complex in the mitochondrial membrane, crucial for cellular respiration and energy production.
- It is composed of 44 proteins, some synthesized in the cytoplasm and others in mitochondria.
- Mutations in RC1 lead to diseases due to its vital role in respiration.
Lipid-Protein Co-evolution as per new Research:
- New research highlights the co-evolution of proteins and lipids, especially in mitochondrial membranes, where proteins interact with specific lipids from their own kingdom (plant or animal).
- Plant lipids, richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more flexible, aiding stress resistance, while animal lipids evolve differently to meet their needs.
- Lipid-protein co-evolution adds complexity to cellular evolution, with implications for human health and disease treatment.
[UPSC 2001] Which of the following cell organelles play the most significant role in protein synthesis?
Options: (a) Lysosome and Centrosome (b) Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome* (c) Golgi apparatus and Mitochondria (d) Lysosome and Mitochondria |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2018] Why is India taking keen interest in resources of Arctic Region?
Linakge: India’s interest in the Arctic’s resources, which is a central theme in the Article. This article highlights the Arctic as a “critical energy source for the Global South” and mentions India’s potential stake in the “massive resources” of the region. |
Mentor’s Comment: Global trade is shifting due to U.S. pressures and climate change, prompting countries to explore new supply chains and routes. The Arctic, while warning of a climate crisis, offers major geopolitical and economic potential. As new trade paths open, India must ensure it has a role in future Arctic opportunities without harming the fragile environment.
Today’s editorial highlights why the Arctic region matters for the world and India. This topic is useful for GS Paper 2 (international relations) and GS Paper 3 (environment and economy) in the mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India should have a voice in the future economic opportunities of the Arctic, without rushing to exploit its resources recklessly.
![[ 23rd April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Exploring India’s potential in the Arctic region](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/arctic.jpg)
What is the Northern Sea Route (NSR)?
- The Northern Sea Route (NSR) is a new Arctic sea route connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, running along the northern coast of Russia.
- It provides the shortest maritime route between Europe and Asia, significantly reducing shipping distances. Eg: Shipping from Rotterdam to Shanghai via the NSR cuts the journey by around 30%, reducing travel time by approximately 10 days.
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How could it transform global trade?
- Reduced Freight Costs: By providing a more direct and shorter route, the NSR can substantially lower shipping costs, as vessels spend less time on the water and consume less fuel. Eg: The cost savings from the reduced travel time and fuel consumption can incentivize global shipping companies to shift their operations to the NSR, especially for bulk goods and high-value cargo.
- Expedited Global Trade: The NSR could drastically speed up the flow of goods, particularly for time-sensitive cargo like electronics, automotive parts, and perishable goods, thus improving global trade efficiency. Eg: In 2018, a Chinese cargo ship made a successful voyage through the NSR, delivering goods from China to Europe in a record time of 18 days, compared to the traditional 40+ days via the Suez Canal.
- Opening New Markets: The NSR could lead to the development of new ports and shipping routes in the Arctic, creating economic opportunities for the countries surrounding the region. It can also open up access to new markets that were previously difficult to reach. Eg: As traffic on the NSR increases, ports like Murmansk in Russia and Pevek in the Arctic will see growth, transforming them into significant maritime hubs.
Why is the Arctic region becoming geopolitically and economically important for India?
- New Trade Routes: The Northern Sea Route (NSR) opens shorter, more efficient shipping lanes between Europe and Asia, benefiting India’s trade by reducing shipping times and costs. Eg: The NSR offers India quicker access to European markets, enhancing trade competitiveness.
- Energy Resources: The Arctic region holds vast untapped oil and natural gas reserves, offering India potential access to energy resources vital for its growing needs. Eg: Arctic exploration could help diversify India’s energy sources, ensuring a more secure supply.
- Climate Research: The Arctic’s rapid changes influence global climate patterns, impacting India’s monsoon and agricultural productivity. Eg: Research on the Arctic’s climate helps India prepare for shifts in its monsoon patterns and protect food security.
- Geopolitical Influence: India’s involvement in Arctic governance could strengthen its global position and foster partnerships with key nations like Russia and the U.S. Eg: By engaging in Arctic policy, India enhances its diplomatic and strategic ties with major global players.
- Maritime Security: India’s access to the Arctic region can improve its maritime security and help protect vital trade routes. Eg: Strengthening Arctic partnerships can ensure India’s strategic interests in the region are safeguarded.
When did India formalise its Arctic policy, and what are its key goals?
Focus Area |
Key Objectives |
Scientific Research and Climate Understanding |
Enhance scientific knowledge about the Arctic’s effect on global climate, especially the Indian monsoon and agriculture. Strengthen research stations like Himadri and use space technology for Arctic studies. |
Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development |
Promote protection of the Arctic environment and support sustainable development. Encourage responsible use of resources and partner with Arctic nations on green energy. |
Enhanced International Cooperation and Capacity Building |
Actively participate in Arctic governance (e.g., Arctic Council), improve India’s expertise in Arctic studies, and collaborate on digital connectivity and indigenous knowledge exchange. |
Who are India’s potential strategic partners in the Arctic region?
- Russia: India sees Russia as a key partner in the Arctic due to its extensive Arctic coastline and expertise in Arctic navigation. The two countries have established a working group under the bilateral intergovernmental commission to explore opportunities in Arctic trade routes like the Northern Sea Route (NSR) and potential joint ventures. Eg, the Chennai-Vladivostok Maritime Corridor is seen as a bridge to the NSR.
- Japan and South Korea: Japan and South Korea are also critical partners due to shared concerns over China’s increasing influence in the Arctic. These nations and India aim to promote a more inclusive Arctic Council and ensure equitable access to Arctic resources, countering Chinese dominance in the region.
What are the challenges involved?
- Harsh Environmental Conditions: The Arctic’s extreme weather and icy waters present significant challenges for navigation and shipping. India will need to invest heavily in specialised ice-breaking fleets and infrastructure to ensure safe and efficient passage along the Northern Sea Route (NSR). Eg, the need for shipbuilding suited to Arctic conditions was highlighted in India’s 2025-26 Budget.
- Geopolitical Tensions: The Arctic region is becoming a battleground for global powers, with competing interests between the U.S., Russia, and China. India faces the dilemma of balancing relations with both Russia and the Western bloc while ensuring its interests in Arctic trade routes and resources. Eg, supporting Russia’s Arctic ambitions could align India with China’s Polar Silk Road, creating a potential conflict with U.S. interests.
- Environmental Impact and Climate Change: Exploiting Arctic resources poses risks to the fragile ecosystem, and climate change further exacerbates these concerns. India must balance its commercial interests with environmental responsibility, ensuring that Arctic exploration does not contribute to further ecological degradation. Eg, global temperatures breaching 1.5°C in 2024 highlight the urgency of sustainable development in the Arctic.
How should India balance environmental concerns with commercial interests in the Arctic? (Way forward)
- Sustainable Resource Management: India should advocate for responsible exploration and use of Arctic resources, ensuring that commercial activities do not harm the fragile environment. This includes supporting international regulations on sustainable practices and climate-resilient policies. Eg, India’s engagement in the Arctic Council can help influence global guidelines for Arctic resource extraction, focusing on minimal environmental disruption.
- Collaborative Efforts with Like-minded Nations: India should collaborate with countries that share its concerns about environmental protection, such as Japan and South Korea, to promote sustainable Arctic governance. By forging partnerships focused on environmental preservation and responsible trade, India can secure both economic opportunities and environmental integrity. Eg, India, Japan, and South Korea have common interests in mitigating Chinese influence in Arctic policies, emphasising eco-friendly development.
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Why in the News?
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is again trying to link Aadhaar with voter ID, claiming it will help remove fake voters, clean up the voter list, and make elections more fair. However, this move could put people’s right to vote at risk.
Why is Aadhaar-Voter ID linkage seen as a threat to voting rights?
- Risk of Mass Disenfranchisement: Linking Aadhaar with voter ID can lead to the wrongful deletion of genuine voters from electoral rolls due to data mismatches or errors in the Aadhaar database. Eg: In 2015, during the National Electoral Roll Purification and Authentication Programme, over 55 lakh voters were arbitrarily removed in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, causing many to discover their names missing only on election day.
- Violation of the Right to Privacy and Autonomy: The linkage forces citizens to part with their Aadhaar information, effectively making a voluntary scheme coercive. It exposes citizens to data misuse and profiling by political actors. Eg: Form 6B requires Aadhaar submission or a declaration of non-possession, with no real opt-out, pressuring citizens to comply.
- Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Groups: Groups like the elderly, disabled, migrant workers, and rural residents face practical challenges in appearing before Electoral Officers to justify not having Aadhaar, putting their right to vote at risk. Eg: The proposed requirement for in-person appearance imposes an unreasonable burden, especially for people in remote or underserved areas.
How does the linkage affect vulnerable groups?
- Imposes Unreasonable Physical Burden: The requirement for in-person appearances before Electoral Registration Officers disproportionately affects individuals who may not be able to travel easily. Eg: Elderly citizens or persons with disabilities may find it extremely difficult to justify their non-submission of Aadhaar physically, leading to potential exclusion from the voter list.
- Excludes Migrants and Remote Populations: Migrant workers and people living in remote or underdeveloped regions may not have updated documents or easy access to Aadhaar centers, making compliance difficult. Eg: Migrant laborers, often on the move, may not have consistent records, leading to their disenfranchisement due to Aadhaar mismatches or absence.
- Leads to Arbitrary Deletions from Electoral Rolls: Errors in Aadhaar data or failure to link properly can result in the deletion of legitimate voters, especially those lacking digital literacy or assistance. Eg: During the 2015 Aadhaar-linking exercise, many daily wage workers and marginalized citizens in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana found their names deleted without prior notice.
Which past events highlight the risks of this linkage?
- 2015 Deletions under National Electoral Roll Purification and Authentication Programme (NERPAP): The Election Commission attempted Aadhaar-voter ID linkage in 2015, leading to large-scale deletion of genuine voters due to data mismatches. Eg: In Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, over 55 lakh voters were removed from rolls. Many citizens discovered this only on polling day, causing mass disenfranchisement.
- Supreme Court Stay in August 2015: Following the backlash from the 2015 deletions, the Supreme Court stayed the Aadhaar-voter ID linkage to prevent further voter exclusion. Eg: The Court’s order halted the programme, citing privacy concerns and lack of legal backing, highlighting the constitutional risks involved.
- CAG Report on Aadhaar Database Flaws (2021): The Comptroller and Auditor General found serious flaws in the Aadhaar system, including duplications and unverifiable residency, raising concerns about its suitability for electoral verification. Eg: The CAG audit revealed that 4.75 lakh Aadhaar numbers were cancelled due to errors and duplication, showing how flawed data could wrongly affect voter rolls.
Way forward:
- Traditional Voter Verification Methods: Instead of relying on Aadhaar, the ECI should strengthen manual verification systems. Eg: Door-to-door verification by Booth Level Officers (BLOs) and in-person checks help maintain accuracy and uphold voter rights without risking exclusions.
- Independent Audits and Social Oversight: Introducing social audits and independent reviews of electoral rolls can enhance transparency and trust in the system. Eg: Public grievance redressal mechanisms and independent monitoring can prevent politically motivated manipulation and ensure fairness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to “one nation-one election” principle.
Linakege: “one nation-one election,” it falls under the broader theme of electoral reforms. The article discusses a specific electoral reform, the Aadhaar-voter ID linkage, and argues that it has negative consequences for the right to vote. Therefore, this PYQ, concerning the need for and nature of electoral reforms, is relevant as the Aadhaar linking initiative can be seen as a debated electoral reform with potential risks to the franchise.
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Why in the News?
According to the India Meteorological Department’s first forecast for 2025, the country may receive around 105% of the average rainfall, with a possible variation of 5% more or less.

What is the India Meteorological Department’s (IMD) forecast for the 2025 monsoon?
- Above Normal Rainfall Predicted: IMD forecasts 105% of the Long Period Average (LPA) rainfall for 2025, with a margin of ±5%. Eg: In 2024, India received 108% of LPA, which was categorized as ‘above normal’ rainfall.
- LPA Reference and Classification: The LPA for the period 1971–2020 is 87 cm. Based on this, rainfall is classified as: Above Normal: 105–110% of LPA. Eg: If the rainfall is 105% of LPA, it falls within the ‘above normal’ range.
- Improved Forecasting Methodology: Since 2021, IMD uses a multi-model ensemble system, combining global climate models with IMD’s own models, improving forecasting accuracy. Eg: Forecasts since the adoption of this system have shown improved accuracy, reducing error margins from previous years.
Why is rainfall distribution crucial for agriculture?
- Impact on Crop Growth: Uneven or poor rainfall distribution can lead to crop stress or failure. Plants depend on consistent water supply during different growth stages. Eg: In 2024, excess rainfall in Maharashtra led to the destruction of onion crops, while deficient rainfall in Punjab delayed paddy sowing, driving up food costs.
- Effect on Water Availability: Proper rainfall distribution ensures water availability throughout the growing season, which is essential for irrigation systems and groundwater recharge. Eg: If regions like Tamil Nadu receive excess rainfall while other areas like Uttar Pradesh experience drought, it can disrupt the balance, making water management challenging.
- Geographical Variability and Crop Suitability: Different crops require specific rainfall amounts at different times, so spatial distribution of rainfall is essential for crop selection and yield maximization. Eg: In 2023, Telangana and Puducherry received excess rainfall, benefiting crops like rice, but Bihar faced a below-normal monsoon, impacting food grain production.
When did IMD improve its forecasting model, and what changed?
- Improvement Began in 2021: IMD improved its forecasting model by adopting a multi-model ensemble dynamical system in 2021. Eg: Prior to 2021, IMD primarily relied on statistical models, but the new system incorporates global climate models along with IMD’s own models for better accuracy.
- Enhanced Accuracy with New Models: The introduction of the multi-model ensemble system improved forecast reliability, reducing errors in predictions. Eg: Forecasts post-2021 showed a significant improvement, with accurate predictions of rainfall in regions like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu during the 2024 monsoon.
- Reduction in Error Margins: The new approach resulted in reduced error margins, making the first forecasts closer to actual rainfall patterns. Eg: IMD’s first forecast for the 2024 monsoon had a relatively smaller error margin, improving the predictability of rainfall distribution across India compared to previous years.
How do El Niño, La Niña, and IOD affect the monsoon?
Weather Phenomenon |
Effect on Monsoon |
Example |
El Niño |
Weakens the monsoon due to warmer sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. This leads to reduced rainfall. |
Eg: 2014, El Niño conditions led to below-normal rainfall, causing droughts and poor crop production in India. |
La Niña |
Strengthens the monsoon due to cooler sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean, which can lead to excessive rainfall in some areas. |
Eg: 2017, La Niña conditions contributed to above-normal rainfall, causing floods in some regions like Assam. |
Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) |
Positive IOD can enhance rainfall, while a negative IOD can lead to drought conditions, especially if combined with El Niño. |
Eg: 2019, a positive IOD helped in normal rainfall despite El Niño, while 2020 had a negative IOD, exacerbating the impact of weak monsoon rainfall. |
Which regions saw abnormal rainfall in 2023, and what was the impact?
- North and Northwest India: Excessive Rainfall: Heavy rainfall led to flash floods, landslides, and infrastructure damage. Eg: In Himachal Pradesh, intense rainfall triggered landslides and flash floods, resulting in at least 72 deaths and significant infrastructure damage.
- Northeast India: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Sudden release of water from glacial lakes caused severe flooding, destruction of infrastructure, and loss of life. Eg: In Sikkim, a GLOF resulted in the deaths of at least 31 people, destruction of over 270 houses, and damage to 11 bridges.
- Southern Peninsula: Deficient Rainfall: Reduced water availability affected agriculture, leading to crop stress and delayed sowing. Eg: In Tamil Nadu, deficient rainfall impacted the sowing of paddy, leading to concerns over food production.
Way forward:
- Enhance Climate Resilience: Promote water management, drought-resistant crops, and crop diversification to mitigate impacts of uneven rainfall.
- Improve Early Warning Systems: Strengthen forecasting and disaster preparedness to ensure timely responses to extreme weather events.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linakge: If the IMD’s prediction is accurate, a good monsoon could mitigate one of the key drivers of food inflation – erratic rainfall and lower agricultural output. This question asks about the causes of high food inflation; a good monsoon would work against these causes.
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Why in the News?
A recent petition in the Supreme Court has sought the invocation of Article 355 in West Bengal by deploying central armed forces, citing violence in Murshidabad.
Recent Case:
- Following violent protests in Murshidabad district against the Waqf (Amendment) Act, a petition was filed to invoke Article 355 in West Bengal.
- The petitioner argued that the state was experiencing internal disturbances warranting Union intervention.
- The Court declined to pass immediate directions but allowed the petitioner to file a detailed application for further consideration.
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What is Article 355?
- Article 355 mandates that the Union Government has the duty to protect every state against external aggression and internal disturbances and ensure that the state governments function in accordance with the Constitution.
- It places responsibilities on the Union Government to maintain constitutional governance in all states.
- It is often used alongside Article 356 to declare President’s Rule in a state.
- It does NOT grant separate powers; instead, it operates in conjunction with Article 356 and Article 357.
- Initially introduced as Article 277A in the Draft Constitution (1949), it clarified the Union’s role in intervening in state matters during exceptional circumstances.
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar emphasised that such intervention should not be arbitrary but based on constitutional obligations.
- Judicial Interpretations:
-
- H.S. Jain v. Union of India (1996): The Supreme Court held that the Union is obligated under Article 355 to ensure state governments operate in line with the Constitution, quashing a state emergency declared under Article 356.
- S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): The Court ruled that President’s Rule under Article 356 should be used sparingly and only when Union intervention is justified.
- Sarbananda Sonowal v. Union of India (2005): The Court upheld Union intervention under Article 355 due to illegal migration but cautioned against its use without substantial evidence.
Note: Article 355 does NOT grant separate powers; instead, it operates in conjunction with Articles 356 and 357.
- Article 356 allows the President to impose President’s Rule in a state if the governance in that state is not in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution.
- Article 357 authorizes the President to extend the powers of the Union government to a state under President’s Rule and allows the Union government to exercise executive authority in the state.
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[UPSC 2003] Which one of the following Articles of the Indian Constitution provides that ‘It shall be the duty of the Union to protect every State against external aggression and internal disturbance’?
Options: (a) Article 215 (b) Article 275 (c) Article 325 (d) Article 355* |
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Why in the News?
NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope recently discovered the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424), which contains 9 rings, an unprecedented number.
This finding offers new insights into galaxy evolution and the possibility of the galaxy evolving into a Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) galaxy.

About the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424):
- The Bullseye Galaxy is unique for containing 9 rings, an unprecedented number in the study of ringed galaxies.
- Most ringed galaxies typically have 2 or 3 rings, making this discovery significant.
- The rings are believed to have formed after a collision with a blue dwarf galaxy about 50 million years ago, causing ripples in the gas and creating star-forming regions that became the rings.
- While individual stars’ orbits stayed the same, groups of stars gathered, forming distinct rings over time.
- This discovery offers valuable insights into galaxy interactions and the rare formation of multiple rings.
What are Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) Galaxies?
- GLSB Galaxies are large, diffuse galaxies with low surface brightness and fewer stars than typical galaxies, making them appear dimmer.
- These galaxies contain vast hydrogen disks, the fuel for star formation, but their low hydrogen density prevents many stars from forming.
- GLSB galaxies are believed to contain significant amounts of dark matter, affecting their mass distribution.
- They have less dense inner regions and challenge current cosmological models due to their hydrogen content and low surface brightness.
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Bullseye Galaxy and Its Possible Evolution into a GLSB Galaxy:
- It shares traits with GLSB galaxies, such as its extended disk and hydrogen content.
- Researchers suggest that the Bullseye Galaxy might evolve into a GLSB galaxy, providing insights into the formation of such galaxies and the distribution of dark matter in the universe.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following phenomena:
1. Light is affected by gravity. 2. The Universe is constantly expanding. 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in the media?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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