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RBI Notifications

[27th November 2025] Hindu OpED Limited room: On the Indian rupee

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth,Indian Economy
PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: Protectionism and currency pressures weaken the rupee, widen the CAD, and raise imported inflation. This directly affects India’s macroeconomic stability, as seen in the article’s emphasis on dollar strength and RBI’s limited room.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s recent 7% rupee depreciation has revived an uncomfortable truth, monetary tools alone cannot stabilise the currency when structural vulnerabilities remain unaddressed. The article examined today highlights India’s long-standing dependence on oil imports, the RBI’s limited manoeuvring room, and why external pressures have outweighed domestic macro stability. For UPSC aspirants, this topic offers rich intersections across macroeconomics, external sector management, energy security, inflation dynamics, trade policy, and structural reforms.

Introduction

India’s rupee has depreciated about 7% between late November 2024 and now, sliding from ₹83.4/$ to nearly ₹89.2/$. Despite large-scale RBI intervention, including selling nearly $50 billion in forex, the currency continues to weaken amid external pressures. The episode mirrors the 2018 phase of global dollar strength and U.S. interest rate hikes, exposing India’s long-standing vulnerability: heavy dependence on expensive crude oil imports. With crude forming more than one-fifth of total imports, and India transitioning away from Russian supplies, monetary stabilisation alone is insufficient.

Why in the News 

The rupee has dropped nearly 7% to ₹89.2 per dollar, even after the RBI sold $50 billion to stabilise it. This mirrors the 2018 downturn when global dollar strength and U.S. rate hikes triggered similar pressure. What makes this episode striking is the contradiction: inflation is low (0.25% in Oct 2025), forex reserves remain comfortable at $693 billion, yet the rupee continues to slide. The rapid fall highlights India’s structural weakness, oil import dependence, which raises the current-account deficit and inflation risks despite favourable domestic conditions.

What Explains the Recent Rupee Depreciation?

  1. Global Dollar Strength: Mirrors 2018 trends where strong U.S. interest rates and trade tensions pressured emerging market currencies.
  2. Widening Current Account Deficit: Rising bullion imports as a hedge in uncertain times widened the CAD.
  3. Exporter Competitiveness Issues: Exporters struggled to maintain margins due to high U.S. tariffs, increasing pressure on the INR.

Why Are RBI Tools Proving Insufficient?

  1. Floating-but-Managed Regime: RBI can only “smoothen volatility”, not fix the rate.
  2. Forex Market Intervention: RBI sold nearly $50 billion, yet depreciation continued, signalling strong external headwinds.
  3. Liquidity Supports via Swaps:
    1. 2018: First longer-term currency swap as a systemic liquidity check.
    2. 2019: Completed a $5 billion three-year swap.
    3. Feb 2025: Conducted a $10 billion buy-sell auction to infuse long-term rupee liquidity.

Why Is This Rupee Slide Concerning Despite Low Inflation?

  1. Exceptionally Low CPI Inflation: Headline CPI at 0.25% (Oct 2025), well below RBI’s 2-6% band, should normally support the rupee.
  2. Transition-Induced Cost Pressures: Shift from cheaper Russian crude toward costlier U.S. imports exerts upward pressure.
  3. Risk of Imported Inflation: Higher oil prices raise logistics, manufacturing, and CPI components.

Why Must India Reduce Dependence on Oil Imports?

  1. Over One-Fifth of FY25 Imports Are Crude: A single commodity dominates the import basket, creating vulnerability.
  2. Rupee-Oil Linkage: Any crude price rise automatically weakens the rupee by widening CAD.
  3. Limited Monetary Space: Rupee stabilisation cannot rely solely on forex intervention or interest rate changes.

What Structural Reforms Are Needed?

  1. Faster Transport Electrification: Must be treated as a strategic imperative, not a long-term aspiration.
  2. Holistic Trade Policy: India’s bilateral deals (Japan, UAE, ASEAN) have tilted the trade balance against it, offering limited diversification of energy trade routes.
  3. Reduced Oil Intensity in GDP: Accelerating renewable capacity, green hydrogen, and domestic energy alternatives.

Conclusion

The current rupee slide highlights a deeper structural flaw: India’s dependence on oil imports exposes it to global price volatility and external shocks. With RBI intervention offering only temporary relief, sustainable currency stability requires reducing crude dependence, reforming trade strategy, and accelerating energy transition. Unless structural measures address the root vulnerability, India cannot insulate the rupee from future external pressures.

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G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

Return of the G2: Trump, China and the mirage of a bipolar world

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

INTRODUCTION

The reference to a “G2” resurfaced when US President Trump publicly announced that “The G2 will be convening shortly,” signalling a possible US-China duopoly in global decision-making. The Trump-Xi Busan meeting revived an older idea first articulated by economist C. Fred Bergsten in 2005. However, despite dramatic optics, the summit lacked institutional depth and showcased a transactional, spectacle-driven diplomatic approach. The renewed G2 talk generated global unease, especially among allies and emerging economies, given the risks of marginalisation and disruption of regional balances in the Indo-Pacific.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

Trump’s declaration that the US and China would meet as a “G2” revived the idea of a US-China duopoly at a moment of systemic geopolitical flux. The Busan meeting created significant global debate because, despite high-profile optics and selective trade concessions (soybean purchases, tariff relief, fentanyl cooperation), there were no structural commitments or conflict-management mechanisms. The sudden bypassing of broader multilateral processes unsettled allies and intensified concerns of shrinking strategic space for countries like India, especially amid shifting economic projections that show a long-term move toward a tripolar world rather than a bipolar G2.

G2 Revival: What Does the Busan Moment Signify?

  1. Performative Diplomacy: Trump framed the meeting as a G2 encounter, signalling a claim to architect a new global order driven by bilateral spectacle rather than institutional negotiations.
  2. Transactional Bargains: China resumed US soybean imports; the US eased select tariffs and technology restrictions; cooperation was pledged on fentanyl precursors and rare-earth supply chains.
  3. Absence of Structure: No new institutions, principles, or crisis-management mechanisms were created, making the meeting high on optics but low on structural impact.

China’s Strategic Calculus Behind the G2 Optics

  1. Symbolic Parity: Great-power parity aligns with China’s long-term ambition for equal status with the US, enhancing its global narrative.
  2. Economic Off-ramp: Tariff relief and tech flexibility help stabilise China’s domestic economy amid headwinds such as overcapacity and slowing productivity.
  3. Controlled Ambiguity: China avoided endorsing a formal duopoly, using strategic ambiguity to retain flexibility while cultivating Global South networks.

Structural Fragility of a US-China Duopoly

  1. Deep Bilateral Contradictions: Taiwan, technology dependence, and military rivalry create structural barriers to stable cooperation.
  2. Lack of Institutional Grounding: No formal mechanisms exist to manage disputes or align long-term strategic objectives.
  3. Risk to Alliances: The G2 idea signals that alliances are expendable, undermining confidence among US partners in Asia and Europe.

Global Implications of the G2 Notion

  1. Destabilising for Allies: Japan, South Korea, Australia fear erosion of regional balance if the US deprioritises alliances.
  2. Institutional Marginalisation: G2 bypasses multilateral institutions, weakening global governance frameworks.
  3. Supply-Chain Reconfiguration: A US-China bilateral alignment could redirect global supply chains, adversely affecting Indo-Pacific economies.

Why the G2 Idea Alarms India

  1. Risk of Strategic Sidelining: A bilateral shortcut between the US and China may marginalise India despite its rising economic weight.
  2. Supply Chain Dependence: India’s dependence on Chinese imports (electronics, APIs, critical minerals) becomes more vulnerable.
  3. Quad Uncertainty: A possible thaw between the US and China creates ambiguity around the Indo-Pacific strategy and Quad commitments.
  4. Manufacturing Disadvantage: Reduced US pressure on China undercuts India’s ambition to position itself as a credible alternative manufacturing hub.

Long-term Trend: A Tripolar, Not Bipolar, World

  1. Economic Projections: PwC and Goldman Sachs project by 2050 a tripolar structure: China (1st), India (2nd), US (3rd) in PPP terms.
  2. Limits on China’s Rise: Demographic contraction and industrial overcapacity constrain China’s long-term dominance.
  3. India’s Structural Advantages: Young workforce, expanding market, tech ambitions support India’s rise as a major economic pole.
  4. US Position: Innovation strength persists, but political polarisation and ageing demographics slow future growth.

CONCLUSION

Trump’s revival of the G2 is more spectacle than substance, reflecting a transitional phase rather than a durable geopolitical redesign. Structural contradictions, alliance concerns, and global economic shifts limit the feasibility of a US-China duopoly. The long-term trajectory points to broader multipolarity, with India emerging as a critical pole in global politics. The Busan moment thus underscores the instability of great-power bargains that bypass wider global participation and institutional frameworks.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

Linkage: The PYQ statement directly connects to intensifying US-China strategic rivalry, which shapes the global balance of power, technology races, and Indo-Pacific security dynamics. It is highly relevant for GS-II (IR) as it influences India’s strategic space, Quad calculus, supply-chain realignments, and the emerging multipolar world order.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

How Delhi’s air quality monitors work and why their readings can falter

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

INTRODUCTION

Delhi operates a dense network of 40 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS) that serve as automated laboratories tracking eight key pollutants. These stations guide the daily AQI, enable pollution-control measures and emergency responses, and form the backbone of environmental governance. However, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific studies highlight significant gaps in equipment suitability, calibration, meteorological sensitivity, and data reliability, creating a critical governance challenge.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

The Supreme Court recently demanded clarity on whether Delhi’s air-quality monitoring equipment is suited to city-specific pollution and meteorological conditions. This scrutiny is significant because Delhi heavily depends on AQI data for health advisories and regulatory actions, yet multiple stations fail to generate adequate, validated data on many days. A CAG report and recent scientific studies show systematic errors, including 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 under high humidity, raising concerns about the credibility of pollution data itself.

How Delhi’s Air Quality Monitoring System Functions

  1. CAAQMS Network: Operates 40 automated, temperature-controlled stations functioning as compact laboratories across different city zones.
  2. Regulatory Basis: Functions under CPCB’s 2012 guidelines, which define calibration steps, quality-control procedures, and uniform monitoring standards.
  3. Pollutant Coverage: Tracks eight pollutants, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, SO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb, ensuring representative citywide measurement.
  4. Instrumentation Setup: Stations contain racks of analysers, pumps, and data loggers, with sampling inlets mounted on masts above the roof to capture ambient air.

How Pollutants Are Measured Inside the Stations

  1. Beta Attenuation Monitors (BAM): Use beta ray attenuation to measure particulate concentration by assessing signal weakening through collected particulate mass.
  2. Gaseous Pollutant Monitors: Use optical and chemiluminescent methods, depending on pollutant type, to detect gas behaviour under specific wavelengths.
  3. National Standards: Measurements follow NAAQS procedures, including “gravimetric, wet-chemical and automatic instrument-based techniques” ensuring comparable data across India.

Factors That Distort or Corrupt Monitoring Readings

  1. Equipment Performance: AQI depends on validated data; CPCB requires 16 hours of reliable data per day for at least three pollutants, including PM2.5 or PM10.
  2. System Failures: Calibration lapses, power outages, and extreme weather cause routine station downtime.
  3. CAG Findings: A report tabled in Parliament revealed several stations failed to generate adequate, valid, real-time data, especially for pollutants like lead, Ammonia, etc.
  4. Location-Based Distortions: Stations placed near buildings, trees, or exhaust vents risk skewed results due to poor dispersion.
  5. Meteorological Disruptions: Severe weather disrupts data transmission, reducing continuity in real-time updates.

What Scientific Studies Reveal About Measurement Accuracy

  1. Variability with Humidity: CSIR–NPL’s 2021 analysis showed PM2.5 measurements vary with RH, particle mass loading, boundary layer height, and ventilation effects.
  2. Overestimation Threshold: When RH > 60%, BAM monitors exhibited 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 because water absorption artificially increases mass signal attenuation.
  3. High-Pollution Episodes: Dust-heavy conditions can cause a factor up to 5 underestimation, as heavy loading disturbs air beam pathways.
  4. USEPA Insights: Notes that “high filter loading can lead to flow perturbations,” and “excessive particulate accumulation” disrupts instrument stability.
  5. Recommended Corrections: Scientists recommend site-specific correction factors, which were shown to reduce overestimation errors from 46% to under 2%.

Why This Issue Matters for Governance and Public Health

  1. Policy Dependence on Data: Emergency actions (GRAP stages, school closures, construction bans) rely on AQI accuracy.
  2. Public Health Impact: Misreporting distorts exposure assessments, health risk communication, and hospital preparedness.
  3. Environmental Justice: Vulnerable groups (elderly, children, labourers) depend on reliable alerts for safe mobility.
  4. Accountability: Data reliability determines CPCB, DPCC and state-level regulatory performance.

CONCLUSION

Delhi’s air pollution management depends critically on trustworthy, scientifically robust, and well-maintained monitoring infrastructure. While the city has one of India’s largest automatic monitoring networks, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific findings reveal persistent calibration errors, equipment inconsistencies, and meteorological vulnerabilities. Ensuring accuracy requires standardised maintenance, site-specific correction factors, stronger institutional oversight, and resilient instrumentation capable of performing reliably under Delhi’s complex pollution environment.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) released by WHO (2021). How are these different from the 2005 update? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these standards?

Linkage: The question links directly to GS-III themes of environmental pollution, health-based standards, and regulatory capacity. It is highly relevant as India’s NCAP, NAAQS and AQI-based governance must realign with WHO’s stricter 2021 guidelines to ensure credible monitoring, policy effectiveness, and public health protection.

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Bastar Olympics

Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the news? 

  • The Bastar Olympics is a government-led sporting initiative in Chhattisgarh’s Bastar region, an area historically affected by Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).
  • It has become a symbol of normalisation, trust-building, and socio-cultural revival as Maoist influence recedes.

What are the Bastar Olympics?

  • A regional multi-sport event launched by the Chhattisgarh government.
  • Conducted across all 7 districts of the Bastar region:
    • Bastar, Dantewada, Kanker, Kondagaon, Narayanpur, Sukma, Bijapur.
  • Includes 11 sports:
     Archery, Kabaddi, Athletics, Badminton, Football, Hockey, Karate, Weightlifting, Kho-Kho, Volleyball, Tug-of-war.
Prelims-Relevant Themes Emerging

  • Internal Security: Platform for reducing alienation in LWE regions.
  • Social Issues: Women’s participation & empowerment.
  • Tribal Affairs: Inclusion of PVTGs, revival of cultural identity.
  • Governance: Last-mile delivery and state presence in remote areas.
  • Sports & Youth: Identification of rural sporting talent.
Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: 

1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 

2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status. 

3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 

4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

(a) 1, 2 and 3 

(b) 2, 3 and 4 

(c) 1, 2 and 4 

(d) 1, 3 and 4

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Ningaloo Reef Mass Coral Mortality 

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A new survey in 2025 shows that nearly 70% of corals in Australia’s UNESCO World Heritage–listed Ningaloo Reef have died due to the most intense and prolonged marine heatwave on record.

About Ningaloo Reef  

  • Located in Western Australia.
  • A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • One of the largest fringing reefs in the world (~260 km long).
  • Important for marine biodiversity, supporting whale sharks, turtles, reef sharks, and diverse coral species.

Extent of Coral Mortality

  • ~70% mortality recorded in latest survey.
  • In eight northern lagoon sites (Osprey → Tantabiddi Sanctuary Zones), mortality >60%.
  • Of 1,600+ corals assessed in March, only ~600 survived by October.

Species Impact

  • Highly Affected (Dominant Species Lost)

      • Staghorn corals: Acropora tenuis, Acropora millepora and Acropora spicifera
      • Thin birdsnest coral (Seriatopora hystrix).

  • Relatively Resilient

    • Veron’s tube coral (Echinopora ashmorensis)
    • Lesser knob coral (Cyphastrea microphthalma)
  • Structural decline:
    • Dead corals now overgrown by sponges, turf algae, reducing reef stability & biodiversity.

Broader Ecological Significance

  • Coral reefs support ~1/3 of global marine species.
  • Mass mortality compromises: Fish breeding grounds, Shelter for marine organisms, Coastal protection and Tourism & local economies.

Widespread Global Coral Stress

According to the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):

  • 84.4% of the world’s reef areas experienced bleaching-level heat stress (Jan 2023–Sept 2025).
  • Mass bleaching in 83+ countries.
  • Marine heatwaves in 2023 lasted 4× longer than the long-term average and affected 96% of the world’s oceans.
The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 ∘ C above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3 ∘ C above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world? 

1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source. 

2. Widespread coral mortality will occur. 

3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear. 

4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

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Operation Pawan  

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

  • For the first time, the Chief of Army Staff (COAS) General Upendra Dwivedi paid homage at the National War Memorial to soldiers who died during Operation Pawan (1987–1990).
  • Event held on 25 November 2025.

What was Operation Pawan?

  • A major military operation launched by the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka.
  • Objective: Disarm the LTTE under the Indo–Sri Lanka Accord (1987).
  • Duration: October 1987 – 1990.

Background

  • Under the Indo–Sri Lanka Peace Accord (July 1987):
    • India agreed to deploy IPKF to enforce peace in Northern & Eastern Sri Lanka.
    • The LTTE initially agreed to surrender weapons but soon reneged.

Casualties in Operation

  • Hundreds of Indian soldiers killed, and over 1,000 injured.
  • One of India’s largest overseas military operations.

National War Memorial

  • Location: New Delhi, near India Gate.
  • Dedicated to soldiers of post-Independence operations including:
    • 1947–48, 1962, 1965, 1971 wars
    • Kargil 1999
    • IPKF operations, and counter-insurgency missions.

Importance of the IPKF Mission 

  • First large-scale out-of-country deployment of Indian forces.
  • Political and military complexities:
    • Fighting LTTE, once seen sympathetically by India.
    • Hostile terrain and guerrilla warfare challenges.
Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:  (2024)

(a) Operation Sankalp 

(b) Operation Maitri 

(c) Operation Sadbhavana 

(d) Operation Madad

This question is highly relevant as it tests the specific format of knowledge required for Operation Pawan (the name and mission of a defence action).

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Sleep Apnea & Parkinson’s Disease 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

  • A new study published in JAMA Neurology (Nov 24, 2025) found that untreated Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) can nearly double the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease.
  • The study analysed 11 million+ U.S. military veterans’ medical records (1999–2022).
  • Use of CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) significantly reduces the elevated risk, making sleep quality a potential neuroprotective factor.

Key Findings

  • Untreated OSA → ~2× higher likelihood of developing Parkinson’s.
  • CPAP therapy helps maintain oxygen levels → reduces neurodegeneration risk.
  • Repeated oxygen drops during sleep may lead to long-term neuronal stress.
  • Parkinson’s disease risk increases naturally with age, especially >60 years, but untreated OSA further elevates vulnerability.

About Parkinson’s Disease 

  • A progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting movement.
  • Caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
  • Symptoms: tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, cognitive decline (late stages).
  • No cure; treatments focus on symptom management.

Prelims Pointers

  • New association identified: OSA ↔ Parkinson’s disease risk.
  • Published in JAMA Neurology.
  • Largest dataset used for this linkage: 11 million veterans.
  • CPAP is not just a sleep device—it may offer neuroprotection.
  • Chronic intermittent hypoxia implicated in neurodegeneration.
Excessive release of the pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) into the air may produce a condition in which oxygen supply in the human body decreases. What causes this condition? (2010)

(a) When inhaled into the human body CO is converted into CO2 

(b) The inhaled CO has much higher affinity for haemoglobin as compared to oxygen 

(c) The inhaled CO destroys the chemical structure of haemoglobin 

(d) The inhaled CO adversely affects the respiratory centre in the brain

This PYQ is chosen because the core pathological connection linking Sleep Apnea and Parkinson’s disease is the concept of chronic oxygen deprivation (Hypoxia) and its neurodegenerative impact.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Aravalli Hills: 90% Lose Protection, FSI Red-Flag Ignored

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

  • On 20 Nov 2025, the Supreme Court approved the government’s definition of Aravalli Hills as any hill 100 m or higher above local ground.
  • Problem: This definition excludes 90% of Aravalli hills, making them open for mining and construction.

Background

  • The Aravalli Range runs from Delhi to Gujarat through Haryana and Rajasthan.
  • It is oldest fold mountains in India and plays a key role in ecology, dust control, groundwater, and wildlife corridors.
  • In 2024, the SC asked the government to create a uniform Aravalli definition.

FSI’s Warning

  • Lower hills (20–100 m) act as natural windbreaks, blocking sand and dust from Thar desert.
  • Removing protection risks:

    • Higher air pollution in NCR
    • Loss of wildlife corridors
    • Impact on agriculture and farmer livelihoods
If there were no Himalayan ranges, what would have been the most likely geographical impact on India? (2010)

1. Much of the country would experience the cold waves from Siberia. 

2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid of such extensive alluvial soils. 

3. The pattern of monsoon would be different from what it is at present. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only 

(b) 1 and 3 only 

(c) 2 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3

The profound geographical and ecological functions of a major mountain range, which directly parallels the catastrophic risks associated with losing the Aravallis.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

[26th November 2025] Hindu OpED Trump-MbS summit- $1 trillion among friends

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union. Explain.

Linkage: The Trump-MbS summit reflects the U.S. strategy of rebuilding alliances to counter China’s growing influence in West Asia, where Beijing has expanded economically and diplomatically. The revived U.S.-Saudi partnership strengthens America’s geopolitical position in a region where China had begun to outpace it.

Mentor’s Comment

The Trump-Mohammed bin Salman (MbS) summit marks a major inflection in West Asia’s geopolitical landscape. The article examines the renewed U.S.-Saudi alignment, its military-economic scale, its contrast with earlier strains, and its strategic implications for India. This simplified yet UPSC-rich analysis helps aspirants understand the evolving balance of power in West Asia and its global consequences.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

The article is significant because the U.S.-Saudi bilateral relationship has revived after years of drift, culminating in Trump’s first West Asia visit where both sides advanced $242 billion defence deals and $270 billion investment commitments, a scale unseen since the 1945 FDR-Saudi pact. The summit signals the return of transactional, high-value U.S.-Saudi cooperation, a sharp contrast to the Biden years of friction, Khashoggi tensions, and Saudi diversification toward China and Russia. This reset represents one of the largest bilateral economic-military consolidations globally, reshaping energy, security, and global power equations.

INTRODUCTION

The U.S.-Saudi partnership has historically shaped post-Second World War geopolitics, especially in energy and security. The Trump-MbS summit renews this legacy by combining massive defence sales, investment promises, and realignment on regional issues such as Iran, sanctions, and energy security. The revived partnership represents both strategic opportunity and geopolitical recalibration.

What drives the renewed U.S.-Saudi strategic alignment?

  1. Historic continuity: Reconnects with the 1945 FDR-Ibn Saud “oil-for-security” pact revived in 2005 and 2025.
  2. Exceptional summit chemistry: Trump and MbS elevated bilateral commitments during Trump’s first regional visit.
  3. High-value agreements: $242 billion military commitments and $270 billion investment forum deals signal unprecedented scale.
  4. Shared interests: Addresses U.S. need for Gulf stability and Saudi need for defence, investment, and autonomy.

How has the bilateral relationship evolved from past highs and lows?

  1. Historical tensions: 1973 oil embargo, 1980s missile purchases from China, Yemen war tensions, and the Khashoggi killing strained ties.
  2. Biden-era rifts: Public criticism of Saudi human rights issues pushed Riyadh closer to China and Russia.
  3. Saudi diversification: Riyadh’s engagement with Xi Jinping and Middle Eastern summits signal multipolar diplomacy.
  4. Return to U.S. orbit: Trump’s visit and renewed defence-economic convergence restore traditional alignment.

What are the key outcomes of the Trump-MbS summit?

  1. Massive defence deals: Commitment to supply $242 billion in U.S. military equipment.
  2. Investment surge: MbS aims to raise Saudi investments in the U.S. economy from $600 billion to $1 trillion.
  3. Energy cooperation: Coordination on oil production to maintain a moderate, sustainable price.
  4. AI & tech collaboration: U.S. and Saudi firms advance “future-ready AI projects,” including AI chips.
  5. Regional stabilisation agenda: Coordination on Iran, Yemen ceasefire, and navigation security.

What are the emerging regional geopolitical implications?

  1. U.S.-Saudi-Russia triangle: Saudi alignment tempers Russian oil revenue by stabilising global oil prices.
  2. Sanctions dynamics: U.S.-Saudi cooperation supports enforcement of sanctions on Iran and Venezuela.
  3. Security architecture: Signals continuity of U.S. commitment to Gulf security despite regional volatility.
  4. NATO+ narrative: U.S. sees Saudi as a “major non-NATO ally,” pushing deeper defence integration.

What does this recalibration mean for India?

  1. Energy stability: Coordinated U.S.-Saudi oil policy keeps prices moderate, critical for India’s energy security.
  2. Defence + tech prospects: Saudi Vision 2030 and U.S. tech investments open new opportunities for Indian firms.
  3. Strategic partnership: India needs to accelerate the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with Saudi Arabia.
  4. Geopolitical balancing: India must navigate U.S.-Saudi rapprochement while maintaining ties with Iran and Russia.

CONCLUSION

The Trump-MbS summit revives a historic partnership at a scale unmatched in recent years. By combining large defence contracts, investment flows, and re-alignment on energy security, the U.S.-Saudi partnership is again central to West Asian geopolitics. For India, this moment offers both opportunity and the need for strategic agility.

 

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Banking Sector Reforms

Rupee is Asia’s worst performing currency

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

The Indian Rupee has depreciated 4.3% against the US Dollar in 2025, making it Asia’s worst-performing currency. Analysts warn that the INR may slide to ₹90 per USD if the India-US trade deal does not materialise soon. The rupee’s movement is now driven more by global dollar strength than by domestic fundamentals. Persistent capital outflows, a rising trade deficit, U.S. tariffs, and a surge in gold imports have intensified pressure on the domestic currency.

Why This Matters: Rupee Hits Asia’s Lowest Position

The rupee’s sharp 4.3% calendar-year depreciation marks one of the steepest declines among Asian currencies. This contrasts sharply with the appreciation seen in much of the Asian currency complex, led by the Chinese Yuan through strong intervention by China’s central bank. The situation is aggravated by India’s record $41.7 billion trade deficit, U.S. tariff shocks, and a gold price spike that spurred a 200% rise in ETF investments. The worsening outlook raises concerns of the rupee breaching ₹90 per USD, a level not previously approached in recent years.

Drivers Behind the Rupee’s Depreciation

  1. Global Dollar Strength: Dollar appreciation of 3.6% over two months increased pressure on most Asian currencies, including the INR.
  2. External Shocks:
    1. U.S. tariffs on Indian goods directly added stress.
    2. High precious metal prices increased import bills.
  3. Capital Outflows: The current account remains “benign”, but the depreciation is driven by capital flight, not trade fundamentals.
  4. Comparative Weakness: INR weakened more than IDR (2.9%) and PHP (1.3%), marking a distinct underperformance.

Rupee’s Position Relative to Asian Peers

  1. Underperformance vs. China and Indonesia: Specialists note that while Indonesian Rupiah and Chinese Yuan have depreciated, INR weakened further.
  2. Better Than Structurally Weak Majors: INR still fares better than the Japanese Yen and Korean Won, which face domestic policy constraints.
  3. Asian Currency Complex Trend: Most Asian currencies appreciated, driven by Chinese intervention through PBOC/SAFE signalling.

Market Movements and Recent Lows

  1. New Lows Recorded: Rupee touched 88.8 per USD on 21 November 2025, breaking earlier RBI-supported levels.
  2. Intraday Weakness: Fell further to 89.66, signalling intense currency-market stress.
  3. Partial Recovery: Rupee recovered to 89.22 by Tuesday, though still significantly weaker on a monthly basis.

Trade Deficit and Macro Pressures Intensifying Rupee Weakness

  1. Record Trade Deficit: October witnessed a $41.7 billion merchandise trade deficit triggered by tariff hikes.
  2. Gold Import Surge:
    1. Gold imports spiked to $14.72 billion in October.
    2. Gold ETF demand rose by 200% due to soaring global prices.
  3. Twin External Shocks: Tariffs + gold price rise combine with geopolitical uncertainty to pressure the currency.

Impact of the U.S. Tariffs and Policy Changes

  1. 50% Tariff Imposed by U.S.: Direct impact on India’s export competitiveness, worsening the trade deficit.
  2. Cumulative Effect on Rupee: Tariffs + gold imports + dollar strength + capital outflows create a compounding depreciation effect.
  3. Forward Outlook: Without a trade deal with the U.S., the rupee may breach ₹90 per USD.

Conclusion

The rupee’s position as Asia’s worst-performing currency signals deeper stresses in India’s external sector. The depreciation stems from global dollar dominance, tariff shocks, capital outflows, and rising import bills. While partial recoveries occur, the broader trajectory depends heavily on the India-US trade negotiations and management of external vulnerabilities. Ensuring macroeconomic stability will require coordinated steps in trade policy, forex management, and domestic economic resilience.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: It is directly linked to GS-3: External Sector, as it examines how tariffs and currency moves affect India’s macroeconomic stability. It is relevant for understanding exchange-rate volatility, CAD pressures, and global protectionist trends.

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Right To Privacy

Decoding personality rights in the age of AI

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

Personality rights, traditionally rooted in privacy, dignity, and control over one’s identity—are facing unprecedented stress due to generative AI. Deepfake technologies, synthetic media, and AI-generated impersonation are creating new risks of deception, reputational harm, financial loss, and large-scale identity exploitation. Recent legal disputes involving celebrities highlight widening vulnerabilities and the absence of a robust legal framework in India.

Why in the News? 

Amitabh Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai recently approached the Delhi High Court seeking protection against AI-generated videos that imitated their identity, voice, and catchphrases. This marks a major turning point because AI deepfakes are now powerful enough to replicate personalities at scale and for commercial misuse, something never seen before. The case exposes how India lacks a unified personality-rights legislation even as misuse grows rapidly, contrasting sharply with the stricter frameworks in the US, EU, and China.

Erosion of Personality Rights in the AI Era

  1. AI Deepfakes: Enable face swaps, voice clones, and synthetic content that manipulate identity and support misinformation, malice, extortion, and erosion of trust.
  2. Unchecked AI Use: Generates mass commodification of human identity, intensifying reputational and financial vulnerabilities.
  3. Technological Trigger: The rise of generative AI tools has amplified impersonation risks and blurred lines between authenticity and deception.

How Does Indian Law Currently Address Personality Rights?

  1. Fragmented Framework: India relies on privacy principles, constitutional protection, and selective case law but lacks a dedicated statute.
  2. Judicial Protection:
    1. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) upheld privacy as a fundamental right.
    2. Amitabh Bachchan v. Rajat Nagi (2022) recognised personality rights.
    3. Anil Kapoor v. Simply Life India (2023) banned misuse of his catchphrase “jhakaas” and likeness for diluted brand value.
    4. Arijit Singh v. Golden Ventures LLP (2024) protected his voice from AI replication.
  3. Regulatory Limits: IT Act 2000 and Intermediary Guidelines 2021 address impersonation and deepfakes but lack enforcement clarity, especially for cross-border misuse.

How Do Global Jurisdictions Handle Personality Rights?

  1. United States
    1. Right of Publicity: Treated as transferable property.
    2. Tennessee’s ELVIS Act (2024) bans unauthorized AI voice cloning and deepfake performances.
    3. Character.AI Cases: Highlight how AI models create digital personas that blur reality.
    4. First Amendment Constraints: Free speech limits over-regulation.
  2. European Union
    1. GDPR: Provides dignity-based protection over personal and biometric data.
    2. EU AI Act (2024): Classifies deepfakes as high risk, mandates transparency and labelling.
  3. China
    1. Internet Court Rulings (2024): AI-generated synthetic voices must not deceive consumers.
    2. AI-related cases treat voice actors and media workers as harmed individuals needing redress.

Why Does India Need a Comprehensive Personality-Rights Law?

  1. Legal Vacuum: No dedicated statute addressing AI impersonation, deepfakes, monetisation of likeness, and cross-border exploitation.
  2. AI Platforms’ Liability: Lack of clear obligations for watermarking, transparency, and algorithmic accountability.
  3. Global Pressure: AI’s transnational nature demands compliance with international standards.
  4. Growing Harm: Cases of identity theft, synthetic celebrity endorsements, and psychological impact from digital cloning are rising.

What Should India’s Legal Framework Include?

  1. Explicit Definition: Clear categorisation of personality rights, covering image, voice, likeness, name, gestures, and distinctive traits.
  2. Platform Accountability: Mandatory watermarking, AI content labelling, and traceability.
  3. Consent Architecture: Requirement of explicit consent for any AI-generated replication.
  4. Civil and Criminal Remedies: Compensation mechanisms and penalties for willful impersonation.
  5. Cross-Border Enforcement: Harmonisation with EU, US, and global regulatory practices.
  6. Ethical AI Standards: Transparency norms, audit trails, and safeguards against dataset misuse.

Conclusion

AI has radically transformed the nature of identity and personhood, challenging traditional legal doctrines surrounding privacy and personality rights. India must move from fragmented protections to a comprehensive, future-ready framework that secures individual autonomy while supporting responsible AI innovation. Without such reform, the risks of impersonation, exploitation, and identity erosion will only multiply.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain.

Linkage: This question directly links to personality rights and AI deepfakes, as both derive from the privacy-autonomy framework under Article 21. It is relevant because the erosion of digital identity through AI impersonation tests the very constitutional protection the Puttaswamy judgment established.

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River Interlinking

Pazhayar River Pollution in Nagercoil

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

  • Rampant sewage discharge into the Pazhayar River in Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu), especially near Ozhuginesary, has raised serious environmental and public health concerns.
  • A 2024 situational report highlighted severe domestic, agricultural, and industrial (rubber processing) pollution in the river.
  • Nagercoil Corporation has initiated steps to seal sewage inlets, but pollution remains widespread.

About the Pazhayar River

  • A perennial river in Kanniyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.
  • Part of the Kodhayar River Basin, covering 1,646.964 sq km.
  • Basin lies entirely within Tamil Nadu, with a small stretch in Radhapuram (Tirunelveli district).

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (2017)

(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood 

(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems 

(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems 

(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Volcanic Eruption in Ethiopia and Impact on India

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location,Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the news?

The Hayli Gubbi volcano in Ethiopia’s Afar region erupted on 23 November 2025 after nearly 12,000 years of dormancy, producing a massive ash plume rising to ~14 km (45,000 ft). High-level winds transported volcanic ash across the Red Sea and Arabian Peninsula towards western and northern India, causing temporary disruption in aviation operations.

Key Facts: Location & Geological Background 

Hayli Gubbi Volcano

  • Type: Shield volcano
  • Location: Afar Region, Ethiopia (part of the East African Rift System)
  • Dormancy: Last known activity ~10,000–12,000 years ago (Holocene threshold)
  • Geological Setting: Lies on the triple junction where the Arabian, Nubian, and Somali plates are diverging → high tectonic activity.

East African Rift System (EARS)

  • A major continental rift zone.
  • Known for active volcanism (Erta Ale, Dabbahu, Nabro, etc.).
  • Possible future site of a new ocean basin due to plate divergence.

Impact on India

1. Flight Disruptions

  • Several international flights cancelled or delayed (Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Kochi).
  • Airlines: Air India, IndiGo, Akasa Air initiated precautionary measures.
  • Aircraft inspections ordered for those that flew through potentially affected air corridors.

2. Airspace Management

  • Civil Aviation Ministry, Air Traffic Control (ATC), and the India Meteorological Department (IMD) issued continuous advisories.\
  • No major safety threat, but routing adjustments and cancellations made as precaution.

3. No Impact on Local Weather or Air Quality

  • IMD clarified:
    • Ash remained in upper troposphere.
    • No impact on ground-level AQI.
    • Delhi’s poor air quality is unrelated, caused by local pollution.

4. Clearance Timeline

  • Ash plume expected to move completely towards China by 7:30 pm, Nov 25.

Why Aviation Avoids Volcanic Ash? 

  • Ash melts inside jet engines → forms glassy deposits → engine flameout.
  • Damages navigation systems & windshields.
  • Reduces visibility.
  • Can cause stalls, loss of thrust, and total engine failure.

Relevant Organisation:
 ▶ Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs) issue global alerts—here, Toulouse VAAC monitored the plume.

Consider the following: (2024)

1. Pyroclastic debris 

2. Ash and dust 

3. Nitrogen compounds 

4. Sulphur compounds 

How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions? 

(a) Only one 

(b) Only two 

(c) Only three 

(d) Only four

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Financial Inclusion in India and Its Challenges

Capital Gains Accounts (Second Amendment) Scheme, 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth,Government Budgeting,Indian Economy

Why in the news? 

The Ministry of Finance has notified the Capital Gains Accounts (Second Amendment) Scheme, 2025, introducing major changes to the existing Capital Gains Account Scheme (CGAS), 1988. The amendments aim to modernise processes, expand banking access, and increase clarity for taxpayers seeking capital gains exemptions.

About Capital Gains Account Scheme (CGAS), 1988

  • Launched by the Central Government in 1988.
  • Objective: To help taxpayers claim exemptions on long-term capital gains when reinvestment cannot be completed before the ITR filing due date.
  • Linked mainly to Section 54, 54F, and related provisions of the Income Tax Act.

Why CGAS is Needed?

  • Exemption requires reinvestment of capital gains within:
    • 2 years (purchase of property)
    • 3 years (construction of property)
  • If this period extends beyond the ITR filing deadline, the taxpayer can temporarily deposit unutilised gains in CGAS to keep the exemption claim valid.

Important Conditions

  • Deposit must be made before filing Income Tax Return.
  • Money deposited is treated as reinvested for exemption.
  • If the amount is not utilised within the stipulated period, it becomes taxable long-term capital gains in that year.
  • Only long-term capital gains qualify — short-term gains are NOT eligible.

Who Can Deposit in CGAS?

  • Any person with long-term capital gains, including: Individuals, HUFs, Companies, Firms, Trusts, and Any eligible taxpayer seeking exemption
  • Mainly used by property sellers who need more time to reinvest.

Capital Gains Accounts (Second Amendment) Scheme, 2025 — Key Changes

  • Expansion of Authorized Banks: Previously limited mostly to Public Sector Banks + IDBI Bank.
    • Now extended to 19 private and small finance banks at all non-rural branches.
  • Non-rural branch condition: Branch must be located in an area with population ≥ 10,000 (2011 Census).
    • Rural branches cannot open CGAS accounts.
  • Wider Definition of Electronic Payments: Electronic deposits can now be made through: Credit cards, Debit cards, Net banking, IMPS, UPI, RTGS, NEFT and BHIM Aadhaar Pay.This modernises the earlier narrow definition of “electronic mode”.
  • Online Closure of CGAS Accounts (From April 1, 2027): Closure requests can be submitted electronically using:
    • Digital Signature (DSC)
    • Electronic Verification Code (EVC)
    • Earlier: Closure only through physical branches.
  • Clarification on Effective Date of Deposit: For cheque/DD/electronic transfers, the date of receipt of the payment instrument along with account application at the Deposit Office is treated as the effective date.Removes ambiguity around last-day deposits for tax exemption.
  • Electronic Statements Permitted: Banks can now issue electronic statements instead of physical passbooks.
    • Aligns CGAS with general digital banking norms.
  •  Extension of CGAS to Section 54GA: CGAS can now be used for exemptions under Section 54GA:

    • Relates to capital gains arising from shifting an industrial undertaking from an urban area to a Special Economic Zone (SEZ).
    • Broadens applicability beyond property-related reinvestments.
Consider the following statements: (2025)

I. Capital receipts create a liability or cause a reduction in the assets of the Government. 

II. Borrowings and disinvestment are capital receipts. 

III. Interest received on loans creates a liability of the Government. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

(a) I and II only 

(b) II and III only 

(c) I and III only 

(d) I, II and III

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

African Grey Parrot Trade in India

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

  • A series of RTI applications filed by The Hindu across 19 States/UTs revealed that most State Forest Departments have no records of breeders, pet shops, or ownership registrations for the African Grey Parrot, despite the species being widely available in pet markets.
  • Only Kerala reported receiving 17 breeder licence applications through the PARIVESH portal, exposing major gaps in India’s monitoring of exotic species trade.

About Species Profile

  • African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus)
  • IUCN Status: Endangered
  • CITES Status: Appendix I (Highest level of protection; commercial international trade highly restricted)
  • WPA 1972: Listed under Schedule IV (post-2022 amendments)

Legal & Regulatory Framework (India)

Living Animal Species (Reporting and Registration) Rules, 2024

  • Mandatory registration of all exotic live species on PARIVESH 2.0.
  • Applies to: Pet owners, Pet shops and Breeders.

Breeders of Species Licence Rules, 2023

To breed any CITES Appendix I species, an applicant must possess:

  • Breeding Licence from State Chief Wildlife Warden
  • CITES Import Permit
  • DGFT Import Licence Number
  • NOC from State Chief Wildlife Warden prior to import

Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972

  • African Grey Parrot → Schedule IV
  • Illegal possession/trade punishable under WPA
With reference to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which of the following statements is/are correct? (2015)

(1) IUCN is an organ of the United Nations and CITES is an international agreement between governments. 

(2) IUCN runs thousands of field projects around the world to better manage natural environments. 

(3) CITES is legally binding on the States that have joined it, but this Convention does not take the place of national laws. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below. 

(a) 1 only 

(b) 2 and 3 only 

(c) 1 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Food Safety Standards – FSSAI, food fortification, etc.

Auramine O Adulteration in Food: A Persistent Food-Safety Challenge in India

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields,Food Processing & Related Industries In India

Why in the News?

  • Recent inspections by state food-safety departments and laboratory analyses by academic institutions have once again detected the presence of Auramine O — a banned industrial dye — in sweets, savoury items, and brightly coloured chickpeas sold in public.

What is Auramine O?

  • A synthetic bright yellow industrial dye.
  • Uses: textiles, leather, printing inks, paper, microbiological staining.
  • Not permitted as food colour in India, USA, EU, or most countries.
  • IARC Classification: Possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B).

Why is Auramine O Harmful?

  • Toxicological risks:
    • Liver & kidney damage
    • Spleen enlargement
    • Mutagenic effects
    • Potential carcinogenicity
    • Organ lesions even at low doses

How Does Auramine Enter the Food Chain?

  • Cheap industrial dyes are sold informally in markets.
  • Used by small vendors to mimic:
    • Saffron
    • Turmeric
    • Approved synthetic colours
  • Usage spikes during festivals when brightly coloured sweets/snacks are in demand.
  • Lack of awareness and cost pressure lead to misuse.

Commonly Adulterated Food Items

  • Bright yellow chickpeas
  • Laddus, peda, halwa
  • Namkeen, mixtures
  • Pickles and condiments

Regulatory Framework – India

Food Safety and Standards Act (2006)

  • Defines adulteration.
  • Penalties: fines + imprisonment (for injury/death).

FSSAI Initiatives

  • Sampling & crackdown during festive seasons.
  • Seizures of illegal dyes and prosecution.
  • New order: bold, larger nutritional information on labels.
  • Awareness programs for:
    • Micro and small enterprises
    • Street vendors

 

Consider the following statements: (2018)

  1. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 replaced the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954. 
  2. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is under the charge of Director General of Health Services in the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

  1. 1 only 
  2. 2 only 
  3. Both 1 and 2 
  4. Neither 1 nor 2

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Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

[25th November 2025] Hindu OpED Bridging India’s numeracy gap

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2020] National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.
Linkage: NEP 2020 aligns with SDG-4 by focusing on equitable, high-quality education and foundational learning. However, implementation gaps and weak learning outcomes, especially in numeracy, limit its SDG-4 impact so far.
Mentor’s Comment
India’s learning crisis has silently shifted from illiteracy to numeracy failure. While the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and NIPUN Bharat Mission strengthened foundational literacy, recent evidence shows that numeracy continues to stagnate sharply, closing the doors of higher education for millions. This article decodes why numeracy outcomes matter for economic, cognitive, and social mobility, and what a multi-pronged policy roadmap must look like.
INTRODUCTION
NEP 2020 identifies Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) as the cornerstone of future learning, and NIPUN Bharat translated this into classroom action. While literacy outcomes have shown improvement, numeracy remains stubbornly low, particularly in conceptual understanding and real-life application. India is now at a point where foundational literacy success must be expanded to higher-order mathematical learning.
WHY IN THE NEWS 
The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2024 shows that while 48.7% of Class 5 students read fluently, only 30.7% can solve a basic division problem, marking an 18% performance gap between literacy and numeracy. No State reports higher numeracy than literacy, highlighting a national trend of mathematics stagnation. Also, nearly 70% of Class 8 students and more than 50% of Class 5 students remain unable to perform basic division, despite classroom-based math instruction. The gap between school learning and real-life mathematical use is widening, closing higher-education opportunities as teens fail to cross the Class 10 board exam numeracy threshold.
Where does India’s numeracy gap originate?
  1. Hierarchical nature of mathematics: partial understanding in lower grades (e.g., place value) blocks higher concepts such as addition and decimals.
  2. Cumulative error effect: once gaps form, students rarely recover, unlike in language.
  3. Traditional syllabus-driven pedagogy: focuses on advancement, not mastery; students progress without clearing conceptual blocks.
Why does classroom learning not translate into real-world mathematical ability?
  1. High classroom performance, low life applicability: Evidence from the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab: students who excel in assessments fail to apply math in real-life situations.
  2. Real-world tasks do not transfer to classroom problems: Children able to handle money or shop-related calculations cannot solve textbook problems.
  3. Mismatch in learning environment: Schooling moves faster than the pace of conceptual consolidation.
What are the consequences of India’s numeracy stagnation?
  1. Academic roadblocks: students struggle in science and mathematics subjects that dominate board exams.
  2. Early exit from education: adolescents leave school before Class 10 due to fear of mathematics.
  3. Reduced human capital formation: failure to master numeracy blocks access to high-skill employment and technical careers.
Why does Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) need expansion beyond early grades?
  1. Persistent learning gaps after Grade 3: 70% of Class 5 and more than 50% of Class 8 students cannot divide.
  2. COVID-19 widened numeracy deficits: most Class 3 students reached upper-primary without core math skills.
  3. Transferable higher-grade pedagogy required: FLN-style teaching must be extended to older students.
What does an effective multi-pronged response look like?
  1. Strengthening middle-grade support: extend FLN interventions to Class 8 to prevent permanent numeracy loss.
  2. Teaching math through everyday life: bills, ratios, fractions, percentages, and measurements.
  3. Child-friendly activity-based pedagogy: aligned with real literacy levels rather than grade-based syllabus.
  4. Embedding numeracy across subjects: problem-solving in science, geography, social sciences.
CONCLUSION
India has cracked foundational literacy but not foundational numeracy. The nation stands at a turning point where classroom success must evolve into real-life mathematical competence, ensuring that students not only pass but thrive academically and economically. Extending FLN-style pedagogy to middle-grade stages remains the most urgent policy priority.

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Governor vs. State

What will mean for Chandigarh if it is brought under Article 240

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary
Introduction
Chandigarh is a Union Territory that also serves as the shared capital of Punjab and Haryana. The Governor of Punjab currently holds additional charge as the Administrator of Chandigarh. The proposal to place Chandigarh under Article 240 of the Constitution may allow the Centre to appoint an independent Administrator and frame regulations for Chandigarh without relying on state mechanisms. The move carries political, administrative, and federal ramifications, especially for Punjab and Haryana.
Why in the news? 
Bringing Chandigarh under Article 240 could give the Centre sweeping legislative and administrative powers over the Union Territory, including the ability to repeal or amend laws applicable to Chandigarh through Parliament or Presidential regulations. This marks a sharp departure from the existing model, where Punjab’s Governor also administers Chandigarh. The move could influence bureaucratic control, fiscal provisions, and power distribution among Punjab, Haryana, and the Centre, making the stakes exceptionally high.
What is Article 240?
  • Empowers the President to make regulations for the peace, progress and good government of certain Union Territories.
  • Regulations issued under Article 240 have the force of Parliamentary law, making them equivalent to an Act of Parliament.
  • Allows amendment or repeal of existing laws in a UT, giving the Union direct legislative authority.
  • Applies to UTs without a legislative assembly: Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.
  • Applies to Puducherry only when its Assembly is dissolved or suspended, enabling temporary Central control.
  • Enables the Centre to bypass State governments in UT governance, creating a more unitary administrative model.
Chandigarh’s current administrative arrangement
  1. Shared capital system: Chandigarh serves as the capital of both Punjab and Haryana.
  2. Additional charge: The Governor of Punjab functions as the Administrator of Chandigarh.
  3. UT governance limitations: Chandigarh lacks its own Legislative Assembly.
What Article 240 enables
  1. Sweeping Central authority: The President can make regulations for peace, progress, and good government for UTs.
  2. Regulatory override: Any law applicable to Chandigarh can be repealed or amended via Parliamentary legislation.
  3. Direct central rule template: Similar model followed in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu, Puducherry (when its Assembly is dissolved/suspended).
Implications if Chandigarh is brought under Article 240
  1. Independent Administrator: No additional charge by Punjab Governor; Centre appoints directly.
  2. Bureaucratic restructuring: Large administrative staff of Punjab and Haryana currently posted in Chandigarh may face institutional and coordination changes.
  3. Legislative possibilities: May enable eventual Legislative Assembly for Chandigarh in the future.
  4. Greater Central oversight: Budgetary and policy matters would fall more firmly under Union control.
  5. Concerns raised: Critics fear this would give excessive control to the Centre.
Arguments that the move benefits Chandigarh
  1. Clear autonomy: Reduced administrative overlap from two states.
  2. Institutional accountability: A dedicated Administrator creates faster decision-making.
  3. Long-term governance clarity: Removes ambiguity caused by shared capital model.
Previous administrative attempts
  1. 1984 attempt: Proposal to appoint an independent Administrator linked to counter-terror coordination; Punjab was under President’s Rule.
  2. 2016 attempt: Opposition arose due to the practice of Punjab Governor holding Administrator’s charge.
Conclusion
Placing Chandigarh under Article 240 reflects a significant recalibration of Centre-State dynamics. While the move promises administrative clarity and efficiency, it raises questions of federal balance and the political stakes of Punjab and Haryana. The issue remains a critical case-study in Indian federalism, constitutional design, and UT governance.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.
Linkage: The question reflects the recent shift in Centre-State power balance through greater Union control in administrative, fiscal and institutional domains. It links directly with debates like Chandigarh under Article 240, Governor-State tensions, GST Council dynamics and UT re-organisation, core themes of Indian federalism in GS-II.

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Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

What does the SC’s advisory opinion imply?

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Constitutional Bodies,Executive & Judiciary,Federalism

INTRODUCTION

The advisory opinion of the Supreme Court was sought to address concerns raised by delays in assent to Bills passed by State Assemblies and the earlier judicial attempt to impose fixed timelines on Governors. The reference involved 14 constitutional questions focused on the interpretation of Articles 200 and 201 and the Court’s jurisdiction to intervene. The new opinion aims to clarify the contours of discretionary powers while protecting legislative authority under the Constitution.

WHY IN THE NEWS

The Supreme Court has issued a landmark advisory opinion on a Presidential reference under Article 143, reversing the April 2025 ruling that introduced the concept of “deemed assent” and mandated a three-month timeline for Governors and the President to act on Bills. The Court has clarified that while Governors ordinarily act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers, their powers under Articles 200 and 201 are discretionary, without any judicially enforceable time limits. This ruling has reshaped the dynamics between constitutional heads and elected State governments, impacting legislative functioning and federal balance.

What triggered the Supreme Court’s advisory opinion

  1. Presidential reference origin: Resulted from the two-judge bench judgment in State of Tamil Nadu vs Governor of Tamil Nadu (April 2025).
  2. Three-month timeline mandate: The earlier ruling specified that Governors and the President must act on Bills within three months.
  3. Deemed assent invocation: The bench used Article 142 to grant deemed assent for Tamil Nadu Bills pending with the Governor.
  4. Government concern: The Union Government sought clarity on whether Bills become justiciable before enactment and whether courts can prescribe time limits.
  5. Magnitude of reference: A total of 14 constitutional questions were raised relating to Articles 200 and 201 and the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction.

What were the key takeaways from the Supreme Court’s opinion?

  1. Three constitutional choices under Article 200: The Governor may assent, return the Bill for reconsideration, or reserve it for the President’s consideration.
  2. Discretion of Governor: The Governor exercises discretion in choosing among the three options and is not necessarily bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers.
  3. Non-justiciability before enactment: Courts cannot compel Governors to act before a Bill becomes law due to absence of constitutionally prescribed timelines.
  4. Autonomy of President under Article 201: The President’s powers operate independently and cannot be substituted by judicial directives.
  5. Absence of deemed assent: The Constitution does not provide for deemed assent; judicial power under Article 142 cannot be used to invent such a mechanism.

Does this opinion contradict earlier judicial interpretations?

  1. Earlier judicial logic: Decisions in Shamsher Singh (1974) and Nabam Rebia (2016) held that Governors act on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
  2. Present reinterpretation: The Court has held that Article 200 functions fall within discretionary power despite the general rule of acting on ministerial advice.
  3. Shift in constitutional balance: The new interpretation expands discretionary authority when dealing with State legislation.
What about time limits for Governors and the President?
  1. Punchhi Commission recommendation (2010): Suggested that the Governor should decide on assent within six months.
  2. Precedent in K.M. Singh case (2020): The Court had earlier prescribed a three-month limit for the Speaker to decide disqualification petitions; however, no such limit exists for Governors.
  3. Current ruling: The Supreme Court held that no enforceable time limit applies because the Constitution does not prescribe one.
  4. Implication: The possibility of prolonged delays in assent continues to exist, which may contribute to legislative gridlock.
What concerns emerge from the current interpretation
  1. Democratic risk: Legislative functioning may be hindered when Bills remain pending without a time frame for disposal.
  2. Centre-State tension: Expanded discretion may tilt the institutional balance toward appointed constitutional heads over elected State governments.
  3. Potential politicisation: Use of gubernatorial office could intensify where State and Union Governments are politically opposed.
Way Forward
  1. Introduce timelines: Fix a statutory/constitutional time limit for assent to Bills.
  2. Record reasons: Make reservation of Bills and delays explainable in writing.
  3. Structured coordination: Establish periodic Raj Bhavan-State Government consultation mechanism.
  4. Federal ethics: Encourage Governors to follow constitutional neutrality over political alignment.
  5. Legislative reporting: Present pendency reports of Bills before the State Legislature annually.
  6. Capacity building: Train Raj Bhavan staff on constitutional conventions and cooperative federalism.
CONCLUSION
The Supreme Court’s advisory opinion carefully aligns with constitutional text by overturning “deemed assent” and reaffirming discretion under Articles 200 and 201. However, it leaves unresolved the core challenge of prolonged delays in gubernatorial action on Bills passed by elected Assemblies. While the opinion respects constitutional separation of powers and prevents judicial overreach, it simultaneously highlights the need for clearer institutional safeguards to protect democratic accountability and cooperative federalism.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
Linkage: This PYQ connects directly to current debates on Governors’ discretionary powers, assent to Bills, and constitutional limits on ordinance-making. It is highly relevant after the Supreme Court’s recent advisory opinion on Articles 200 and 201, which redefines executive-legislature balance and safeguards federalism.

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Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

Justice Surya Kant Sworn in as the 53rd Chief Justice of India (CJI)

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

Justice Surya Kant took oath as the 53rd Chief Justice of India (CJI) on November 24, 2025, administered by President Droupadi Murmu at Rashtrapati Bhavan.

About Justice Surya Kant

  • Born: 10 February 1962, Hisar, Haryana.
  • Youngest Advocate General of Haryana (appointed 2000).
  • Judge, Punjab & Haryana High Court (2004).
  • Chief Justice, Himachal Pradesh High Court (2018).
  • Appointed to Supreme Court: 24 May 2019 (along with Justice B.R. Gavai).

Tenure

  • Will serve until 2 February 2027 — a little over one year.

Major Priorities as the 53rd CJI

  • Reduce pendency of 90,000+ cases in the Supreme Court to a “manageable number.”
  • Address growing trend:
    • Litigants bypassing High Courts and approaching SC directly.
    • Repeated “miscellaneous applications” causing prolonged litigation

Major Cases Involving Justice Surya Kant

  • Abrogation of Article 370 (J&K’s special status removed).
  • Electoral Bonds Case – Bench struck down the scheme as unconstitutional.
  • Pegasus spyware case.
  • Suspension of sedition law deliberations.
  • Granted conditional interim bail to Ashish Mishra (Lakhimpur Kheri incident).

Procedure for Selection of the Chief Justice of India (CJI)

Constitutional Basis

  • Article 124(2) of the Constitution deals with the appointment of Supreme Court judges (including the CJI). The CJI is appointed by the President of India.

Seniority Convention

  • By long-standing constitutional convention, the most senior judge of the Supreme Court is appointed as the next CJI.
  • Seniority = date of appointment to the Supreme Court Bench.

Role of the Collegium

When the CJI’s post is falling vacant:

  • The outgoing CJI recommends the name of the senior-most SC judge to the Government of India.
  • This recommendation is part of the Collegium system, but only the CJI’s advice is required, not the full Collegium.

Role of the Law Ministry

  • The Ministry of Law & Justice processes the recommendation.
  • Sends it to the Prime Minister, who advises the President.

Appointment by the President

  • The President formally appoints the recommended judge as the Chief Justice of India.
  • Appointment is notified in the Gazette.

Oath of Office

  • The President administers the oath of office to the new CJI at Rashtrapati Bhavan.
  • Oath is under Article 124(6).

Tenure

  • The CJI holds office until the age of 65.

Q. With reference to Indian Judiciary, consider the following statements:

1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.

2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

[A] 1 only 

[B] 2 only 

[C] Both 1 and 2 

[D] Neither 1 nor 2

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