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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

[28th November 2025] Hindu OpED Are the labour codes labour friendly

op-ed snap | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Discuss the merits and demerits of the four ‘Labour Codes’ in the context of labour market reforms in India. What has been the progress so far in this regard?

Linkage: The article’s debate on worker protection vs. industry flexibility directly reflects the merits and demerits raised in this PYQ. It also covers the slow implementation and stakeholder resistance, matching the question’s focus on progress.

Mentor’s Comment

The introduction of India’s four consolidated labour codes has triggered a high-stakes national debate on whether they truly modernise labour regulation or dilute long-standing protections. This article dissects the core arguments expanding them into a UPSC-focused analytical framework. The aim is to help aspirants understand the political economy of labour reforms, their implications for workers and industry, and their place in India’s growth policy discourse.

WHY IN THE NEWS?

India’s four consolidated labour codes, wage, social security, industrial relations, and occupational safety, have reignited debate as trade unions accuse the government of diluting protections while industries argue they streamline a fragmented regulatory environment. The issue is significant because India has not attempted such a comprehensive codification since Independence, and the codes come at a time when informal workers form 93% of the workforce but only 7% receive social security. The codes also affect hiring, firing, job security, and collective bargaining, core issues shaping labour productivity and industrial peace.

INTRODUCTION

India’s labour market operates at the intersection of rapid economic modernization and persistent structural informality. The four new labour codes aim to consolidate 29 existing laws, reduce compliance rigidity, support ease of doing business, and expand social security. However, the reforms have triggered disagreements between trade unions, who fear erosion of worker rights, and industries, who seek flexibility to improve competitiveness. This article examines the institutional debates and policy implications emerging from the new codes.

The Historical Context of Labour Law Reform

  1. Fragmented Legislation: Consolidated 29 separate laws, many framed in the 1940s-50s, marked by overlapping definitions, multiple inspections, and differing interpretations across states.
  2. Changing Labour Landscape: Witnessed rapid industrial growth, gig work, platforms, logistics, contract labour, and digital-era employment, demanding updated regulatory structures.
  3. Productivity Imperatives: Industries argue workers must be protected and empowered but rigidities must reduce to strengthen India’s global competitiveness.

What Necessitated the Labour Codes?

  1. Regulatory Overlap: Multiple laws with inconsistent provisions complicated compliance and enforcement.
  2. Economic Modernisation Need: Traditional industry structure gave way to gig work, platform work, logistics, e-commerce and new forms of employment, requiring modern regulation.
  3. Social Protection Gap: Only 7% of workers covered by social security; informal economy workers remain largely unprotected.
  4. Investment Climate Concerns: Procedural delays in hiring/firing, disputes, and closures deterred global investment.

Do the Labour Codes Promote or Restrict Worker Rights?

  1. Trade Union Concern-Reduced Security: Fears that fixed-term contracts, easier retrenchment thresholds, and union restrictions weaken bargaining power.
  2. Collective Bargaining Apprehension: Codes allow only a single negotiating union, potentially marginalising smaller unions.
  3. Industry Perspective-Greater Formalisation: Codification ensures predictable rules, reduces litigation, and encourages job creation.
  4. Worker Protection Measures: Codes extend minimum wage applicability, mandate formalised contracts, introduce new safety norms, and expand the definition of employees.

How Will the Codes Impact Social Security and Gig Workers?

  1. Social Security Expansion: Gig and platform workers added under social security, but benefits remain contingent upon schemes and government implementation.
  2. Funding Challenges: Industry argues government and employees must co-contribute; trade unions insist government should shoulder primary responsibility.
  3. Small Share of Gig Workers: Currently form a small slice of the informal sector but rapidly growing; require future-ready welfare structures.

Do the Codes Improve Industrial Relations and Productivity?

  1. Industry View: Ensures Stability
    • Predictability and ease of compliance strengthen investment climate and reduce industrial disputes.
  2. Trade Union View: Risk of Industrial Unrest
    • Dissatisfaction due to inadequate representation and perceived dilution of rights may trigger strikes.
  3. Flexibility vs. Protection Debate: Government seeks a balance between global competitiveness and worker protection.

Will the Codes Expand Organised Employment?

  1. Industry Assertion: Broader wage definitions, coverage of establishments, and social security norms bring more workers under formal sector protections.
  2. Union Counterpoint: Without job stability, contract labour proliferation may worsen precarity.

CONCLUSION

India’s labour codes represent an ambitious attempt to modernise outdated labour laws, enhance productivity, and integrate India into global manufacturing networks. However, the success of these reforms will depend on transparent implementation, a balanced approach to worker protection, and sustained dialogue with trade unions. A labour ecosystem that provides both flexibility and security is essential for equitable and sustainable growth.

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G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

Without great powers on board, G20 is a drift

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Introduction

The G20 emerged from the ashes of the 2008 crisis as the principal platform steering global financial stability, representing both advanced and rising powers. Over time, however, geopolitical rifts, protectionist shifts, and weakened multilateralism have steadily eroded its efficacy. The absence of great powers, divergent national priorities, and competing minilaterals now raise questions about the G20’s ability to act as an anchor for global economic coordination.

Why in the News

The G20 has entered a phase of visible fragmentation as major powers like the US, China, and Russia increasingly skip or downgrade their participation, marking a sharp contrast to its central role during the 2008 global financial crisis. Trump chose to boycott the 2025 G20 summit, which was hosted by South Africa in Johannesburg. The earlier summits, including Bali 2022 and New Delhi 2023, were marked by absence of key leaders such as Putin and Xi, signalling an unprecedented weakening of multilateral cooperation. The article highlights how the G20, once elevated to the “premier forum for international economic cooperation,” is now reduced to a middle-power platform with diminishing relevance. This drift, caused by unilateralism, great-power tensions, and rival blocs, is a major setback for global governance.

How Did the G20 Rise From Crisis to Centrality?

  1. Global Financial Crisis (2008): Elevated from a finance ministers’ forum to a leaders’ summit after the Lehman collapse, recognising the need for collective economic stabilisation.
  2. US-EU Leadership: President Bush convened the first summit; European leaders pushed to formalise it as the central platform for crisis response.
  3. Inclusive Membership: Plural representation of middle powers, India, China, Brazil, Indonesia, gave the G20 legitimacy beyond the G7.

Why Is the G20 Losing Relevance Today?

  1. Great-Power Withdrawal: Absence of Xi and Putin (2023) indicates declining commitment by major actors.
  2. Shift to Bilateralism: 2022 Bali summit dominated by US-China bilateral diplomacy, overshadowing collective agenda.
  3. Competing Priorities: US focus on securitising trade; China’s rivalry; Russia’s Ukraine conflict, reducing appetite for multilateral compromise.
  4. Fragmentation: Emergence of parallel groups like G2 ideas, Quad, IPEF, diluting G20 centrality.

What Role Did Unilateralism Play in Weakening the G20?

  1. America First (Trump Era):
    1. Protectionist shift and retreat from multilateral commitments.
    2. Trade war with China and sanctions redirected US focus to bilateral power play.
    3. Undermined collective financial architecture, making G20 coordination difficult.
  2. Return of Great-Power Rivalry:
    1. US-China confrontation replaced cooperative economic agenda.
    2. Russia’s isolation post-Ukraine war created a split within member states.

How Did the Absence of the Big Three Impact Multilateral Decision-Making?

  1. Reduced Negotiating Power: Without the US, China, and Russia at full participation, G20 communiqués lost substance.
  2. Lowered Stakes: Middle powers alone cannot push structural financial reforms.
  3. Decline in Issue Ambition: Meetings shifted from global macroeconomic governance to modest incremental outcomes.
  4. Loss of Crisis-Time Authority: Unlike 2008-09 summits which produced coordinated fiscal and financial action, recent meetings lacked decisive outcomes.

What Does the G20 Drift Mean for India?

  1. Opportunity Shrinks: India’s earlier success, G20 admitting AU under its presidency, may not translate into sustained influence without great-power participation.
  2. Rise of Minilaterals: Quad, I2U2, IPEF may overshadow the G20’s relevance for India’s long-term strategic and economic diplomacy.
  3. Squeezed between Powers: India must balance ties with the US, China, and Russia while leading middle-power groupings.
  4. Reduced Global Economic Voice: Weak G20 undermines India’s push for reforms in global financial architecture and voice of Global South.

Conclusion

The G20’s drift reflects the broader fragmentation of global governance, marked by strategic rivalry, unilateral policies, and weakened collective will. Without full engagement of great powers, the forum risks becoming symbolic rather than substantive. For India, the challenge is balancing leadership of the Global South with managing rival great-power agendas in an increasingly divided world.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] ‘Virus of Conflict is affecting the functioning of the SCO’. In the light of the above statement point out the role of India in mitigating problems.

Linkage: Great-power rivalry within SCO mirrors the G20’s paralysis, where conflicting interests of major powers weaken collective decision-making. India’s balancing role in SCO highlights how middle powers attempt to preserve multilateral relevance amid widening geopolitical fractures.

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Is Macaulay to blame for the colonial mindset or is he a convenient in politics?

Explained | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

INTRODUCTION

The original article presents two contrasting viewpoints on the legacy of Thomas Babington Macaulay and the larger question of whether India still carries a “colonial mindset.” One side argues that India must overcome colonial-era mental frameworks in governance and education, while the other contends that modern education, introduced during Macaulay’s era, opened unprecedented avenues for mobility, equality, and intellectual emancipation. The debate extends far beyond Macaulay himself, touching upon structural, cultural, and linguistic dimensions of Indian society.

WHY IN THE NEWS

Recent political speeches invoking the need to shed the “colonial mindset” have revived discussions originally linked to Macaulay’s educational policies. This has become a major talking point because India is undergoing curricular reforms, language policy changes, and institutional restructuring aimed at “decolonising” governance. The article’s sharply divergent interpretations of Macaulay’s role illustrate how deeply contested India’s intellectual foundations remain, signalling a transition moment in national identity formation.

Colonial Mindset and Institutional Continuity

  1. Bureaucratic culture: India’s administrative behaviour still follows colonial-era norms which are hierarchical functioning, rigid procedure, and deference to authority.
  2. Governance style: Parliamentary debate formats, legal drafting, and official communication structures reflect patterns institutionalised in the 19th century.
  3. State-society distance: Colonial governance cultivated separation between rulers and the public; remnants of this continue to shape administrative attitudes today.

Language Politics and the Question of English

  1. Symbolic centrality: English remains associated with power, aspiration, and official legitimacy, a legacy reinforced since Macaulay’s time.
  2. Cultural alienation: Critics argue that English-medium dominance creates distance from Indian culture and languages.
  3. Functional utility: Supporters highlight that English acts as a bridge across states, classes, and caste barriers, enabling mobility in education and employment.

Access to Knowledge: Who Controlled Learning?

  1. Caste-linked exclusion: Traditional Sanskritic education was historically limited to higher castes, restricting intellectual opportunities for marginalised groups.
  2. Modern education’s rupture: English-medium education introduced during and after Macaulay’s reforms allowed many excluded communities, especially lower castes, to enter learning spaces earlier denied to them.
  3. Emergence of new elites: Modern schooling produced a new professional class that reshaped politics, administration, and social reform movements.

Cultural Legitimacy and Competing Knowledge Traditions

  1. Hierarchy of knowledge: Colonial frameworks often positioned Western science and literature as superior, affecting how India valued its own traditions.
  2. Reclaiming indigenous systems: The current push for “decolonising education” attempts to restore space for Indian languages, philosophies, and scientific knowledge.
  3. Plural intellectual heritage: The article stresses that Indian modernity today requires balancing global knowledge with regional identities, rather than choosing one over the other.

Political Use of Historical Figures: The Macaulay Symbol

  1. Simplification of history: Macaulay is used as a political metaphor, either as a symbol of cultural loss or as an emblem of liberation through modernity.
  2. Narrative battles: Both sides selectively highlight aspects of his legacy to advance contrasting visions of nationalism and development.
  3. Identity construction: The debate signifies broader attempts to define what should constitute “Indian” knowledge and national pride.

CONCLUSION

The debate around Macaulay is not merely about a historical figure but about India’s contemporary struggle between decolonisation, modernity, and social justice. The article shows that India’s identity debates hinge on deeper questions: who gets access to knowledge, which languages define opportunity, how institutions remember their past, and what kind of society India aspires to build. A nuanced understanding requires moving beyond binaries, embracing global knowledge while valuing indigenous intellectual traditions.

Value Addition
Thomas Babington Macaulay (1800-1859)

  • A British historian, politician, and member of the Governor-General’s Council in India (1834-1838).
  • Key architect of British cultural, educational, and legal policy during early colonial rule.

Major Contributions / Reforms

Macaulay’s Minute on Education (1835)

  1. Pushed for English-medium education replacing Persian & Sanskrit as official languages of instruction.
  2. Advocated creating a class of “persons Indian in blood and colour but English in taste, morals and intellect.”
  3. Led to Anglicist victory over Orientalists.
  4. Directly shaped India’s modern schooling structure.

Introduction of English Education

  1. Helped expand Western science, literature, and rational thought in India.
  2. Facilitated spread of modern professions, law, medicine, engineering, administration.
  3. Enabled mobility for communities excluded from traditional Sanskritic learning.

Indian Penal Code (IPC)

  1. Macaulay chaired the First Law Commission (1834).
  2. Drafted the IPC (completed 1837, enacted 1860), foundation of India’s criminal law for 163 years.
  3. Promoted uniform, codified, written law replacing diverse customary systems.

Civil Services Ethos

  1. Strengthened the model of a centralised, rule-bound bureaucracy.
  2. Contributed to long-term continuity of British administrative culture in independent India.

Cultural-Epistemic Impact

  1. Elevated Western knowledge as superior to traditional Indian systems.
  2. Influenced linguistic hierarchies, English became linked to power, prestige, and opportunity.
  3. Triggered long-term debates on colonial mindset, cultural legitimacy, and identity.

Criticisms (For Balance in Mains Answers)

  1. Dismissed Indian literature as inferior (“A single shelf of a good European library is worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia.”).
  2. Accused of fostering elitism and alienation through English dominance.
  3. Reinforced cultural and epistemic hierarchies privileging the West.

Positive Interpretations 

  1. English education enabled lower castes to bypass restricted Sanskritic order.
  2. Opened pathways to modernity, science, constitutionalism and global mobility.
  3. Created early Indian public sphere, newspapers, debates, modern nationalism.

Conclusion for Mains

Macaulay’s legacy is complex, he entrenched a colonial mindset but also enabled modern intellectual and social transformation. His ideas continue to influence India’s education, law and cultural debates even today.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Examine critically the various facets of economic policies of the British in India from mid-eighteenth century till independence. 

Linkage: The question aligns with the article’s themes of colonial economic restructuring, knowledge hierarchies, and institutional continuity introduced under British rule. It is relevant because British economic policies shaped the social, cultural and educational divides that the article highlights through the Macaulay debate.

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Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Why in the news?

  • A 3.5-billion-year-old Martian crater has been named after Indian geologist M.S. Krishnan. The naming was approved by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).
  • Several other names proposed by Kerala scientists for Martian landforms were also approved.

About the Martian Crater

  • Estimated to be 3.5 billion years old, dating back to Mars’ early geological history.
  • Located in a region studied for traces of ancient water and habitability.

Who Was M.S. Krishnan?

  • Full name: Maharajapuram Seetharaman Krishnan
  • One of India’s most influential geologists, known as a foundational figure in modern Indian geological studies.
  • Served as Director, Geological Survey of India (GSI) (1950–1956).

Major Contributions

  • Mapped India’s geological structures, including:
    • Indian stratigraphy
    • Peninsular shield
    • Himalayan formations
  • Played a leading role in mineral exploration and petroleum geology in India.
  • Contributed to studies on:
    • Gondwana formations
    • Economic geology
    • Earth resources of India

Famous Work

  • Author of the landmark textbook “Geology of India and Burma”, a globally referenced work in earth sciences.

About the International Astronomical Union (IAU)

  • Founded: 1919
  • A senior international body that governs professional astronomical activities worldwide.
  • Mission: Promote and safeguard astronomy through research, communication, education, development, and international cooperation.
  • Headquarters: Paris, France
  • India is a member of it 
What is the purpose of ‘evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (ELISA)’ project? (2017)

(a) To detect neutrinos 

(b) To detect gravitational waves 

(c) To detect the effectiveness of missile defence system 

(d) To study the effect of solar flares on our communication systems

This PYQ is selected because it directly tests knowledge of a major international scientific venture in the field of astronomy/cosmology, which is conceptually linked to the mandate of the IAU

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Skilling India – Skill India Mission,PMKVY, NSDC, etc.

Entrepreneur-in-Residence (EIR) Programme & BRIC  

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why in the news? 

At the 3rd Annual General Meeting of the Biotechnology Research and Innovation Council (BRIC), Union Minister Dr. Jitendra Singh highlighted the growing importance of the Entrepreneur-in-Residence (EIR) Programme and India’s rising biotech innovation ecosystem.

Entrepreneur-in-Residence (EIR) Programme

  • It is one of the programmes launched under the National Initiative for Developing and Harnessing Innovations (NIDHI).
  • A Government of India initiative to bridge the gap between research and enterprise.
  • Encourages young scientists, innovators, and researchers to become scientist-entrepreneurs.
  • Helps convert lab research → market-ready innovations.

About BRIC

  • Established: 2023
  • Type: Pan-India umbrella network of biotechnology research institutions.
  • First major experiment in merging multiple institutes under one collaborative body.
  • Ranked as India’s top organization in biological sciences research (Nature Index India 2025).
Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding National Innovation Foundation India (NIF)? (2015)

(1) NIF is an autonomous body of the Department of Science and Technology under the Central Government. 

(2) NIF is an initiative to strengthen the highly advanced scientific research in India’s premier scientific institution in collaboration with highly advanced foreign scientific institution. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below. 

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Tribes in News

Israel to Bring Remaining 5,800 Bnei Menashe Jews From Northeast India

Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 1: Diversity Of India

Why in the news?

  • On 23 November 2025, Israel approved a major plan to bring all remaining 5,800 members of the Bnei Menashe Jewish community from Northeast India by 2030.
  • This marks a significant step in the decades-long Aliyah (immigration to Israel) process.

Who are the Bnei Menashe?

  • Indigenous community from Manipur and Mizoram.
  • Claim descent from Menashe (Manasseh), one of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel exiled by the Assyrian Empire ~2,700 years ago.
  • Faced historical disputes over their Jewish identity.
  • In 2005, Rabbi Shlomo Amar, the then Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel, formally recognised them as “descendants of Israel”, enabling immigration.
In India, if a religious sect/community is given “the status of a national minority, what special advantages is it entitled to? (2011)

1. It can establish and administer exclusive educational institutions. 

2. The President of India automatically nominates a representative of the community to Lok Sabha. 

3. It can derive benefits from the Prime Minister’s 15-Point Programme. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Special Category Status and States

Hawfinch Sighting in Jim Corbett National Park  

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the news?

  • A Hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes), a bird species native to Europe, North Africa, and temperate Asia, was recorded on 23 November in the Dhela zone of Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. This is considered a vagrant bird sighting.

About Hawfinch (Coccothraustes coccothraustes)

  • Family: Fringillidae (Finches)
  • Size: ~18 cm
  • Wingspan: 29–33 cm
  • Distinctive Feature: Very powerful, heavy bill capable of cracking extremely hard seeds/nuts.
  • Plumage: Males and females similar; males slightly darker.

Native Range

  • Europe and North Africa
  • Temperate Asia, including:
    • Mongolia and Kazakhstan
  • Not native to India.

Status in India

  • Sighting classified as a vagrant record—bird appears outside its usual distribution range.
  • Only two previous records in the Indian subcontinent:
    • Muzaffarabad (1908) – PoK
    • Aliabad (2017) – PoK
  • This is one of the very few confirmed sightings.
Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in the news? (2018) 

(a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics. 

(b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows

(c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides

(d) None of the above

This question tests the critical concept of non-native or exotic species impacting biodiversity, which is the implicit environmental concern raised by the Hawfinch sighting.

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

Mekedatu Balancing Reservoir Project

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

Why in the news?

  • Karnataka has decided to submit a revised Detailed Project Report (DPR) for the Mekedatu balancing reservoir across the Cauvery River.
  • The Supreme Court termed Tamil Nadu’s challenge as “premature”, enabling the CWMA and CWC to examine the project.

Location & River

  • Mekedatu is located in Ramanagara district, ~100 km from Bengaluru.
  • The project is proposed on the inter-State Cauvery river.
  • Karnataka = upper riparian; Tamil Nadu = lower riparian.

Why Does Karnataka Want It?

  • Bengaluru water demand:
    • Present: 2,600 MLD
    • Supply: 2,100 MLD → shortage of 500 MLD
  • Population to reach 20 million in 6 years → demand may rise to 4,000 MLD.
  • Shivakumar argues Mekedatu will ensure regulated release to Tamil Nadu, even in poor rainfall years.

Why Is Tamil Nadu Opposed?

  • Trust deficit due to the history of Cauvery disputes.
  • Concern: Karnataka may store more water and release it selectively.
  • TN argues the project violates the 2018 SC judgment and Cauvery Tribunal’s final award.

Centre’s Position

  • 2019: Karnataka submitted DPR → CWC → CWMA.
  • MoEFCC (2019): Sought an “amicable solution” due to inter-State dispute.
  • 2024 (Feb): CWMA referred DPR back to CWC after deliberations.
  • Now: DPR to be examined afresh; CWMA/CWC can facilitate dialogue.

Constitutional & Legal Angle

  • Inter-State Rivers: Union List Entry 56 – regulation and development of inter-State rivers.
  • River Boards Act, 1956 (not effectively implemented).
  • Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT): Award notified in February 2013.
  • Supreme Court Judgment (2018):
    • Reallocated shares;
    • Gave 4.75 TMC drinking water allocation to Bengaluru.

 

Recently, linking of which of the following rivers was undertaken? (2016)

(a) Cauvery and Tungabhadra 

(b) Godavari and Krishna 

(c) Mahanadi and Son 

(d) Narmada and Tapti

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RBI Notifications

[27th November 2025] Hindu OpED Limited room: On the Indian rupee

op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth,Indian Economy
PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: Protectionism and currency pressures weaken the rupee, widen the CAD, and raise imported inflation. This directly affects India’s macroeconomic stability, as seen in the article’s emphasis on dollar strength and RBI’s limited room.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s recent 7% rupee depreciation has revived an uncomfortable truth, monetary tools alone cannot stabilise the currency when structural vulnerabilities remain unaddressed. The article examined today highlights India’s long-standing dependence on oil imports, the RBI’s limited manoeuvring room, and why external pressures have outweighed domestic macro stability. For UPSC aspirants, this topic offers rich intersections across macroeconomics, external sector management, energy security, inflation dynamics, trade policy, and structural reforms.

Introduction

India’s rupee has depreciated about 7% between late November 2024 and now, sliding from ₹83.4/$ to nearly ₹89.2/$. Despite large-scale RBI intervention, including selling nearly $50 billion in forex, the currency continues to weaken amid external pressures. The episode mirrors the 2018 phase of global dollar strength and U.S. interest rate hikes, exposing India’s long-standing vulnerability: heavy dependence on expensive crude oil imports. With crude forming more than one-fifth of total imports, and India transitioning away from Russian supplies, monetary stabilisation alone is insufficient.

Why in the News 

The rupee has dropped nearly 7% to ₹89.2 per dollar, even after the RBI sold $50 billion to stabilise it. This mirrors the 2018 downturn when global dollar strength and U.S. rate hikes triggered similar pressure. What makes this episode striking is the contradiction: inflation is low (0.25% in Oct 2025), forex reserves remain comfortable at $693 billion, yet the rupee continues to slide. The rapid fall highlights India’s structural weakness, oil import dependence, which raises the current-account deficit and inflation risks despite favourable domestic conditions.

What Explains the Recent Rupee Depreciation?

  1. Global Dollar Strength: Mirrors 2018 trends where strong U.S. interest rates and trade tensions pressured emerging market currencies.
  2. Widening Current Account Deficit: Rising bullion imports as a hedge in uncertain times widened the CAD.
  3. Exporter Competitiveness Issues: Exporters struggled to maintain margins due to high U.S. tariffs, increasing pressure on the INR.

Why Are RBI Tools Proving Insufficient?

  1. Floating-but-Managed Regime: RBI can only “smoothen volatility”, not fix the rate.
  2. Forex Market Intervention: RBI sold nearly $50 billion, yet depreciation continued, signalling strong external headwinds.
  3. Liquidity Supports via Swaps:
    1. 2018: First longer-term currency swap as a systemic liquidity check.
    2. 2019: Completed a $5 billion three-year swap.
    3. Feb 2025: Conducted a $10 billion buy-sell auction to infuse long-term rupee liquidity.

Why Is This Rupee Slide Concerning Despite Low Inflation?

  1. Exceptionally Low CPI Inflation: Headline CPI at 0.25% (Oct 2025), well below RBI’s 2-6% band, should normally support the rupee.
  2. Transition-Induced Cost Pressures: Shift from cheaper Russian crude toward costlier U.S. imports exerts upward pressure.
  3. Risk of Imported Inflation: Higher oil prices raise logistics, manufacturing, and CPI components.

Why Must India Reduce Dependence on Oil Imports?

  1. Over One-Fifth of FY25 Imports Are Crude: A single commodity dominates the import basket, creating vulnerability.
  2. Rupee-Oil Linkage: Any crude price rise automatically weakens the rupee by widening CAD.
  3. Limited Monetary Space: Rupee stabilisation cannot rely solely on forex intervention or interest rate changes.

What Structural Reforms Are Needed?

  1. Faster Transport Electrification: Must be treated as a strategic imperative, not a long-term aspiration.
  2. Holistic Trade Policy: India’s bilateral deals (Japan, UAE, ASEAN) have tilted the trade balance against it, offering limited diversification of energy trade routes.
  3. Reduced Oil Intensity in GDP: Accelerating renewable capacity, green hydrogen, and domestic energy alternatives.

Conclusion

The current rupee slide highlights a deeper structural flaw: India’s dependence on oil imports exposes it to global price volatility and external shocks. With RBI intervention offering only temporary relief, sustainable currency stability requires reducing crude dependence, reforming trade strategy, and accelerating energy transition. Unless structural measures address the root vulnerability, India cannot insulate the rupee from future external pressures.

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G20 : Economic Cooperation ahead

Return of the G2: Trump, China and the mirage of a bipolar world

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

INTRODUCTION

The reference to a “G2” resurfaced when US President Trump publicly announced that “The G2 will be convening shortly,” signalling a possible US-China duopoly in global decision-making. The Trump-Xi Busan meeting revived an older idea first articulated by economist C. Fred Bergsten in 2005. However, despite dramatic optics, the summit lacked institutional depth and showcased a transactional, spectacle-driven diplomatic approach. The renewed G2 talk generated global unease, especially among allies and emerging economies, given the risks of marginalisation and disruption of regional balances in the Indo-Pacific.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

Trump’s declaration that the US and China would meet as a “G2” revived the idea of a US-China duopoly at a moment of systemic geopolitical flux. The Busan meeting created significant global debate because, despite high-profile optics and selective trade concessions (soybean purchases, tariff relief, fentanyl cooperation), there were no structural commitments or conflict-management mechanisms. The sudden bypassing of broader multilateral processes unsettled allies and intensified concerns of shrinking strategic space for countries like India, especially amid shifting economic projections that show a long-term move toward a tripolar world rather than a bipolar G2.

G2 Revival: What Does the Busan Moment Signify?

  1. Performative Diplomacy: Trump framed the meeting as a G2 encounter, signalling a claim to architect a new global order driven by bilateral spectacle rather than institutional negotiations.
  2. Transactional Bargains: China resumed US soybean imports; the US eased select tariffs and technology restrictions; cooperation was pledged on fentanyl precursors and rare-earth supply chains.
  3. Absence of Structure: No new institutions, principles, or crisis-management mechanisms were created, making the meeting high on optics but low on structural impact.

China’s Strategic Calculus Behind the G2 Optics

  1. Symbolic Parity: Great-power parity aligns with China’s long-term ambition for equal status with the US, enhancing its global narrative.
  2. Economic Off-ramp: Tariff relief and tech flexibility help stabilise China’s domestic economy amid headwinds such as overcapacity and slowing productivity.
  3. Controlled Ambiguity: China avoided endorsing a formal duopoly, using strategic ambiguity to retain flexibility while cultivating Global South networks.

Structural Fragility of a US-China Duopoly

  1. Deep Bilateral Contradictions: Taiwan, technology dependence, and military rivalry create structural barriers to stable cooperation.
  2. Lack of Institutional Grounding: No formal mechanisms exist to manage disputes or align long-term strategic objectives.
  3. Risk to Alliances: The G2 idea signals that alliances are expendable, undermining confidence among US partners in Asia and Europe.

Global Implications of the G2 Notion

  1. Destabilising for Allies: Japan, South Korea, Australia fear erosion of regional balance if the US deprioritises alliances.
  2. Institutional Marginalisation: G2 bypasses multilateral institutions, weakening global governance frameworks.
  3. Supply-Chain Reconfiguration: A US-China bilateral alignment could redirect global supply chains, adversely affecting Indo-Pacific economies.

Why the G2 Idea Alarms India

  1. Risk of Strategic Sidelining: A bilateral shortcut between the US and China may marginalise India despite its rising economic weight.
  2. Supply Chain Dependence: India’s dependence on Chinese imports (electronics, APIs, critical minerals) becomes more vulnerable.
  3. Quad Uncertainty: A possible thaw between the US and China creates ambiguity around the Indo-Pacific strategy and Quad commitments.
  4. Manufacturing Disadvantage: Reduced US pressure on China undercuts India’s ambition to position itself as a credible alternative manufacturing hub.

Long-term Trend: A Tripolar, Not Bipolar, World

  1. Economic Projections: PwC and Goldman Sachs project by 2050 a tripolar structure: China (1st), India (2nd), US (3rd) in PPP terms.
  2. Limits on China’s Rise: Demographic contraction and industrial overcapacity constrain China’s long-term dominance.
  3. India’s Structural Advantages: Young workforce, expanding market, tech ambitions support India’s rise as a major economic pole.
  4. US Position: Innovation strength persists, but political polarisation and ageing demographics slow future growth.

CONCLUSION

Trump’s revival of the G2 is more spectacle than substance, reflecting a transitional phase rather than a durable geopolitical redesign. Structural contradictions, alliance concerns, and global economic shifts limit the feasibility of a US-China duopoly. The long-term trajectory points to broader multipolarity, with India emerging as a critical pole in global politics. The Busan moment thus underscores the instability of great-power bargains that bypass wider global participation and institutional frameworks.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain.

Linkage: The PYQ statement directly connects to intensifying US-China strategic rivalry, which shapes the global balance of power, technology races, and Indo-Pacific security dynamics. It is highly relevant for GS-II (IR) as it influences India’s strategic space, Quad calculus, supply-chain realignments, and the emerging multipolar world order.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

How Delhi’s air quality monitors work and why their readings can falter

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

INTRODUCTION

Delhi operates a dense network of 40 Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAAQMS) that serve as automated laboratories tracking eight key pollutants. These stations guide the daily AQI, enable pollution-control measures and emergency responses, and form the backbone of environmental governance. However, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific studies highlight significant gaps in equipment suitability, calibration, meteorological sensitivity, and data reliability, creating a critical governance challenge.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

The Supreme Court recently demanded clarity on whether Delhi’s air-quality monitoring equipment is suited to city-specific pollution and meteorological conditions. This scrutiny is significant because Delhi heavily depends on AQI data for health advisories and regulatory actions, yet multiple stations fail to generate adequate, validated data on many days. A CAG report and recent scientific studies show systematic errors, including 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 under high humidity, raising concerns about the credibility of pollution data itself.

How Delhi’s Air Quality Monitoring System Functions

  1. CAAQMS Network: Operates 40 automated, temperature-controlled stations functioning as compact laboratories across different city zones.
  2. Regulatory Basis: Functions under CPCB’s 2012 guidelines, which define calibration steps, quality-control procedures, and uniform monitoring standards.
  3. Pollutant Coverage: Tracks eight pollutants, PM2.5, PM10, NO₂, SO₂, CO, O₃, NH₃, Pb, ensuring representative citywide measurement.
  4. Instrumentation Setup: Stations contain racks of analysers, pumps, and data loggers, with sampling inlets mounted on masts above the roof to capture ambient air.

How Pollutants Are Measured Inside the Stations

  1. Beta Attenuation Monitors (BAM): Use beta ray attenuation to measure particulate concentration by assessing signal weakening through collected particulate mass.
  2. Gaseous Pollutant Monitors: Use optical and chemiluminescent methods, depending on pollutant type, to detect gas behaviour under specific wavelengths.
  3. National Standards: Measurements follow NAAQS procedures, including “gravimetric, wet-chemical and automatic instrument-based techniques” ensuring comparable data across India.

Factors That Distort or Corrupt Monitoring Readings

  1. Equipment Performance: AQI depends on validated data; CPCB requires 16 hours of reliable data per day for at least three pollutants, including PM2.5 or PM10.
  2. System Failures: Calibration lapses, power outages, and extreme weather cause routine station downtime.
  3. CAG Findings: A report tabled in Parliament revealed several stations failed to generate adequate, valid, real-time data, especially for pollutants like lead, Ammonia, etc.
  4. Location-Based Distortions: Stations placed near buildings, trees, or exhaust vents risk skewed results due to poor dispersion.
  5. Meteorological Disruptions: Severe weather disrupts data transmission, reducing continuity in real-time updates.

What Scientific Studies Reveal About Measurement Accuracy

  1. Variability with Humidity: CSIR–NPL’s 2021 analysis showed PM2.5 measurements vary with RH, particle mass loading, boundary layer height, and ventilation effects.
  2. Overestimation Threshold: When RH > 60%, BAM monitors exhibited 30-40% overestimation of PM2.5 because water absorption artificially increases mass signal attenuation.
  3. High-Pollution Episodes: Dust-heavy conditions can cause a factor up to 5 underestimation, as heavy loading disturbs air beam pathways.
  4. USEPA Insights: Notes that “high filter loading can lead to flow perturbations,” and “excessive particulate accumulation” disrupts instrument stability.
  5. Recommended Corrections: Scientists recommend site-specific correction factors, which were shown to reduce overestimation errors from 46% to under 2%.

Why This Issue Matters for Governance and Public Health

  1. Policy Dependence on Data: Emergency actions (GRAP stages, school closures, construction bans) rely on AQI accuracy.
  2. Public Health Impact: Misreporting distorts exposure assessments, health risk communication, and hospital preparedness.
  3. Environmental Justice: Vulnerable groups (elderly, children, labourers) depend on reliable alerts for safe mobility.
  4. Accountability: Data reliability determines CPCB, DPCC and state-level regulatory performance.

CONCLUSION

Delhi’s air pollution management depends critically on trustworthy, scientifically robust, and well-maintained monitoring infrastructure. While the city has one of India’s largest automatic monitoring networks, recent judicial scrutiny and scientific findings reveal persistent calibration errors, equipment inconsistencies, and meteorological vulnerabilities. Ensuring accuracy requires standardised maintenance, site-specific correction factors, stronger institutional oversight, and resilient instrumentation capable of performing reliably under Delhi’s complex pollution environment.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) released by WHO (2021). How are these different from the 2005 update? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these standards?

Linkage: The question links directly to GS-III themes of environmental pollution, health-based standards, and regulatory capacity. It is highly relevant as India’s NCAP, NAAQS and AQI-based governance must realign with WHO’s stricter 2021 guidelines to ensure credible monitoring, policy effectiveness, and public health protection.

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Bastar Olympics

Prelims Only | Trivia | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Why in the news? 

  • The Bastar Olympics is a government-led sporting initiative in Chhattisgarh’s Bastar region, an area historically affected by Left-Wing Extremism (LWE).
  • It has become a symbol of normalisation, trust-building, and socio-cultural revival as Maoist influence recedes.

What are the Bastar Olympics?

  • A regional multi-sport event launched by the Chhattisgarh government.
  • Conducted across all 7 districts of the Bastar region:
    • Bastar, Dantewada, Kanker, Kondagaon, Narayanpur, Sukma, Bijapur.
  • Includes 11 sports:
     Archery, Kabaddi, Athletics, Badminton, Football, Hockey, Karate, Weightlifting, Kho-Kho, Volleyball, Tug-of-war.
Prelims-Relevant Themes Emerging

  • Internal Security: Platform for reducing alienation in LWE regions.
  • Social Issues: Women’s participation & empowerment.
  • Tribal Affairs: Inclusion of PVTGs, revival of cultural identity.
  • Governance: Last-mile delivery and state presence in remote areas.
  • Sports & Youth: Identification of rural sporting talent.
Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: 

1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 

2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status. 

3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 

4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

(a) 1, 2 and 3 

(b) 2, 3 and 4 

(c) 1, 2 and 4 

(d) 1, 3 and 4

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Ningaloo Reef Mass Coral Mortality 

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

A new survey in 2025 shows that nearly 70% of corals in Australia’s UNESCO World Heritage–listed Ningaloo Reef have died due to the most intense and prolonged marine heatwave on record.

About Ningaloo Reef  

  • Located in Western Australia.
  • A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • One of the largest fringing reefs in the world (~260 km long).
  • Important for marine biodiversity, supporting whale sharks, turtles, reef sharks, and diverse coral species.

Extent of Coral Mortality

  • ~70% mortality recorded in latest survey.
  • In eight northern lagoon sites (Osprey → Tantabiddi Sanctuary Zones), mortality >60%.
  • Of 1,600+ corals assessed in March, only ~600 survived by October.

Species Impact

  • Highly Affected (Dominant Species Lost)

      • Staghorn corals: Acropora tenuis, Acropora millepora and Acropora spicifera
      • Thin birdsnest coral (Seriatopora hystrix).

  • Relatively Resilient

    • Veron’s tube coral (Echinopora ashmorensis)
    • Lesser knob coral (Cyphastrea microphthalma)
  • Structural decline:
    • Dead corals now overgrown by sponges, turf algae, reducing reef stability & biodiversity.

Broader Ecological Significance

  • Coral reefs support ~1/3 of global marine species.
  • Mass mortality compromises: Fish breeding grounds, Shelter for marine organisms, Coastal protection and Tourism & local economies.

Widespread Global Coral Stress

According to the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA):

  • 84.4% of the world’s reef areas experienced bleaching-level heat stress (Jan 2023–Sept 2025).
  • Mass bleaching in 83+ countries.
  • Marine heatwaves in 2023 lasted 4× longer than the long-term average and affected 96% of the world’s oceans.
The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 ∘ C above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3 ∘ C above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world? 

1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source. 

2. Widespread coral mortality will occur. 

3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear. 

4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only

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Operation Pawan  

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

  • For the first time, the Chief of Army Staff (COAS) General Upendra Dwivedi paid homage at the National War Memorial to soldiers who died during Operation Pawan (1987–1990).
  • Event held on 25 November 2025.

What was Operation Pawan?

  • A major military operation launched by the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka.
  • Objective: Disarm the LTTE under the Indo–Sri Lanka Accord (1987).
  • Duration: October 1987 – 1990.

Background

  • Under the Indo–Sri Lanka Peace Accord (July 1987):
    • India agreed to deploy IPKF to enforce peace in Northern & Eastern Sri Lanka.
    • The LTTE initially agreed to surrender weapons but soon reneged.

Casualties in Operation

  • Hundreds of Indian soldiers killed, and over 1,000 injured.
  • One of India’s largest overseas military operations.

National War Memorial

  • Location: New Delhi, near India Gate.
  • Dedicated to soldiers of post-Independence operations including:
    • 1947–48, 1962, 1965, 1971 wars
    • Kargil 1999
    • IPKF operations, and counter-insurgency missions.

Importance of the IPKF Mission 

  • First large-scale out-of-country deployment of Indian forces.
  • Political and military complexities:
    • Fighting LTTE, once seen sympathetically by India.
    • Hostile terrain and guerrilla warfare challenges.
Operations undertaken by the Army towards upliftment of the local population in remote areas to include addressing of their basic needs is called:  (2024)

(a) Operation Sankalp 

(b) Operation Maitri 

(c) Operation Sadbhavana 

(d) Operation Madad

This question is highly relevant as it tests the specific format of knowledge required for Operation Pawan (the name and mission of a defence action).

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Sleep Apnea & Parkinson’s Disease 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

  • A new study published in JAMA Neurology (Nov 24, 2025) found that untreated Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) can nearly double the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease.
  • The study analysed 11 million+ U.S. military veterans’ medical records (1999–2022).
  • Use of CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) significantly reduces the elevated risk, making sleep quality a potential neuroprotective factor.

Key Findings

  • Untreated OSA → ~2× higher likelihood of developing Parkinson’s.
  • CPAP therapy helps maintain oxygen levels → reduces neurodegeneration risk.
  • Repeated oxygen drops during sleep may lead to long-term neuronal stress.
  • Parkinson’s disease risk increases naturally with age, especially >60 years, but untreated OSA further elevates vulnerability.

About Parkinson’s Disease 

  • A progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting movement.
  • Caused by loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.
  • Symptoms: tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia, cognitive decline (late stages).
  • No cure; treatments focus on symptom management.

Prelims Pointers

  • New association identified: OSA ↔ Parkinson’s disease risk.
  • Published in JAMA Neurology.
  • Largest dataset used for this linkage: 11 million veterans.
  • CPAP is not just a sleep device—it may offer neuroprotection.
  • Chronic intermittent hypoxia implicated in neurodegeneration.
Excessive release of the pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) into the air may produce a condition in which oxygen supply in the human body decreases. What causes this condition? (2010)

(a) When inhaled into the human body CO is converted into CO2 

(b) The inhaled CO has much higher affinity for haemoglobin as compared to oxygen 

(c) The inhaled CO destroys the chemical structure of haemoglobin 

(d) The inhaled CO adversely affects the respiratory centre in the brain

This PYQ is chosen because the core pathological connection linking Sleep Apnea and Parkinson’s disease is the concept of chronic oxygen deprivation (Hypoxia) and its neurodegenerative impact.

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

Aravalli Hills: 90% Lose Protection, FSI Red-Flag Ignored

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

  • On 20 Nov 2025, the Supreme Court approved the government’s definition of Aravalli Hills as any hill 100 m or higher above local ground.
  • Problem: This definition excludes 90% of Aravalli hills, making them open for mining and construction.

Background

  • The Aravalli Range runs from Delhi to Gujarat through Haryana and Rajasthan.
  • It is oldest fold mountains in India and plays a key role in ecology, dust control, groundwater, and wildlife corridors.
  • In 2024, the SC asked the government to create a uniform Aravalli definition.

FSI’s Warning

  • Lower hills (20–100 m) act as natural windbreaks, blocking sand and dust from Thar desert.
  • Removing protection risks:

    • Higher air pollution in NCR
    • Loss of wildlife corridors
    • Impact on agriculture and farmer livelihoods
If there were no Himalayan ranges, what would have been the most likely geographical impact on India? (2010)

1. Much of the country would experience the cold waves from Siberia. 

2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid of such extensive alluvial soils. 

3. The pattern of monsoon would be different from what it is at present. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only 

(b) 1 and 3 only 

(c) 2 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3

The profound geographical and ecological functions of a major mountain range, which directly parallels the catastrophic risks associated with losing the Aravallis.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

[26th November 2025] Hindu OpED Trump-MbS summit- $1 trillion among friends

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union. Explain.

Linkage: The Trump-MbS summit reflects the U.S. strategy of rebuilding alliances to counter China’s growing influence in West Asia, where Beijing has expanded economically and diplomatically. The revived U.S.-Saudi partnership strengthens America’s geopolitical position in a region where China had begun to outpace it.

Mentor’s Comment

The Trump-Mohammed bin Salman (MbS) summit marks a major inflection in West Asia’s geopolitical landscape. The article examines the renewed U.S.-Saudi alignment, its military-economic scale, its contrast with earlier strains, and its strategic implications for India. This simplified yet UPSC-rich analysis helps aspirants understand the evolving balance of power in West Asia and its global consequences.

WHY IN THE NEWS 

The article is significant because the U.S.-Saudi bilateral relationship has revived after years of drift, culminating in Trump’s first West Asia visit where both sides advanced $242 billion defence deals and $270 billion investment commitments, a scale unseen since the 1945 FDR-Saudi pact. The summit signals the return of transactional, high-value U.S.-Saudi cooperation, a sharp contrast to the Biden years of friction, Khashoggi tensions, and Saudi diversification toward China and Russia. This reset represents one of the largest bilateral economic-military consolidations globally, reshaping energy, security, and global power equations.

INTRODUCTION

The U.S.-Saudi partnership has historically shaped post-Second World War geopolitics, especially in energy and security. The Trump-MbS summit renews this legacy by combining massive defence sales, investment promises, and realignment on regional issues such as Iran, sanctions, and energy security. The revived partnership represents both strategic opportunity and geopolitical recalibration.

What drives the renewed U.S.-Saudi strategic alignment?

  1. Historic continuity: Reconnects with the 1945 FDR-Ibn Saud “oil-for-security” pact revived in 2005 and 2025.
  2. Exceptional summit chemistry: Trump and MbS elevated bilateral commitments during Trump’s first regional visit.
  3. High-value agreements: $242 billion military commitments and $270 billion investment forum deals signal unprecedented scale.
  4. Shared interests: Addresses U.S. need for Gulf stability and Saudi need for defence, investment, and autonomy.

How has the bilateral relationship evolved from past highs and lows?

  1. Historical tensions: 1973 oil embargo, 1980s missile purchases from China, Yemen war tensions, and the Khashoggi killing strained ties.
  2. Biden-era rifts: Public criticism of Saudi human rights issues pushed Riyadh closer to China and Russia.
  3. Saudi diversification: Riyadh’s engagement with Xi Jinping and Middle Eastern summits signal multipolar diplomacy.
  4. Return to U.S. orbit: Trump’s visit and renewed defence-economic convergence restore traditional alignment.

What are the key outcomes of the Trump-MbS summit?

  1. Massive defence deals: Commitment to supply $242 billion in U.S. military equipment.
  2. Investment surge: MbS aims to raise Saudi investments in the U.S. economy from $600 billion to $1 trillion.
  3. Energy cooperation: Coordination on oil production to maintain a moderate, sustainable price.
  4. AI & tech collaboration: U.S. and Saudi firms advance “future-ready AI projects,” including AI chips.
  5. Regional stabilisation agenda: Coordination on Iran, Yemen ceasefire, and navigation security.

What are the emerging regional geopolitical implications?

  1. U.S.-Saudi-Russia triangle: Saudi alignment tempers Russian oil revenue by stabilising global oil prices.
  2. Sanctions dynamics: U.S.-Saudi cooperation supports enforcement of sanctions on Iran and Venezuela.
  3. Security architecture: Signals continuity of U.S. commitment to Gulf security despite regional volatility.
  4. NATO+ narrative: U.S. sees Saudi as a “major non-NATO ally,” pushing deeper defence integration.

What does this recalibration mean for India?

  1. Energy stability: Coordinated U.S.-Saudi oil policy keeps prices moderate, critical for India’s energy security.
  2. Defence + tech prospects: Saudi Vision 2030 and U.S. tech investments open new opportunities for Indian firms.
  3. Strategic partnership: India needs to accelerate the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with Saudi Arabia.
  4. Geopolitical balancing: India must navigate U.S.-Saudi rapprochement while maintaining ties with Iran and Russia.

CONCLUSION

The Trump-MbS summit revives a historic partnership at a scale unmatched in recent years. By combining large defence contracts, investment flows, and re-alignment on energy security, the U.S.-Saudi partnership is again central to West Asian geopolitics. For India, this moment offers both opportunity and the need for strategic agility.

 

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Banking Sector Reforms

Rupee is Asia’s worst performing currency

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

The Indian Rupee has depreciated 4.3% against the US Dollar in 2025, making it Asia’s worst-performing currency. Analysts warn that the INR may slide to ₹90 per USD if the India-US trade deal does not materialise soon. The rupee’s movement is now driven more by global dollar strength than by domestic fundamentals. Persistent capital outflows, a rising trade deficit, U.S. tariffs, and a surge in gold imports have intensified pressure on the domestic currency.

Why This Matters: Rupee Hits Asia’s Lowest Position

The rupee’s sharp 4.3% calendar-year depreciation marks one of the steepest declines among Asian currencies. This contrasts sharply with the appreciation seen in much of the Asian currency complex, led by the Chinese Yuan through strong intervention by China’s central bank. The situation is aggravated by India’s record $41.7 billion trade deficit, U.S. tariff shocks, and a gold price spike that spurred a 200% rise in ETF investments. The worsening outlook raises concerns of the rupee breaching ₹90 per USD, a level not previously approached in recent years.

Drivers Behind the Rupee’s Depreciation

  1. Global Dollar Strength: Dollar appreciation of 3.6% over two months increased pressure on most Asian currencies, including the INR.
  2. External Shocks:
    1. U.S. tariffs on Indian goods directly added stress.
    2. High precious metal prices increased import bills.
  3. Capital Outflows: The current account remains “benign”, but the depreciation is driven by capital flight, not trade fundamentals.
  4. Comparative Weakness: INR weakened more than IDR (2.9%) and PHP (1.3%), marking a distinct underperformance.

Rupee’s Position Relative to Asian Peers

  1. Underperformance vs. China and Indonesia: Specialists note that while Indonesian Rupiah and Chinese Yuan have depreciated, INR weakened further.
  2. Better Than Structurally Weak Majors: INR still fares better than the Japanese Yen and Korean Won, which face domestic policy constraints.
  3. Asian Currency Complex Trend: Most Asian currencies appreciated, driven by Chinese intervention through PBOC/SAFE signalling.

Market Movements and Recent Lows

  1. New Lows Recorded: Rupee touched 88.8 per USD on 21 November 2025, breaking earlier RBI-supported levels.
  2. Intraday Weakness: Fell further to 89.66, signalling intense currency-market stress.
  3. Partial Recovery: Rupee recovered to 89.22 by Tuesday, though still significantly weaker on a monthly basis.

Trade Deficit and Macro Pressures Intensifying Rupee Weakness

  1. Record Trade Deficit: October witnessed a $41.7 billion merchandise trade deficit triggered by tariff hikes.
  2. Gold Import Surge:
    1. Gold imports spiked to $14.72 billion in October.
    2. Gold ETF demand rose by 200% due to soaring global prices.
  3. Twin External Shocks: Tariffs + gold price rise combine with geopolitical uncertainty to pressure the currency.

Impact of the U.S. Tariffs and Policy Changes

  1. 50% Tariff Imposed by U.S.: Direct impact on India’s export competitiveness, worsening the trade deficit.
  2. Cumulative Effect on Rupee: Tariffs + gold imports + dollar strength + capital outflows create a compounding depreciation effect.
  3. Forward Outlook: Without a trade deal with the U.S., the rupee may breach ₹90 per USD.

Conclusion

The rupee’s position as Asia’s worst-performing currency signals deeper stresses in India’s external sector. The depreciation stems from global dollar dominance, tariff shocks, capital outflows, and rising import bills. While partial recoveries occur, the broader trajectory depends heavily on the India-US trade negotiations and management of external vulnerabilities. Ensuring macroeconomic stability will require coordinated steps in trade policy, forex management, and domestic economic resilience.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

Linkage: It is directly linked to GS-3: External Sector, as it examines how tariffs and currency moves affect India’s macroeconomic stability. It is relevant for understanding exchange-rate volatility, CAD pressures, and global protectionist trends.

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Right To Privacy

Decoding personality rights in the age of AI

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary,Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction

Personality rights, traditionally rooted in privacy, dignity, and control over one’s identity—are facing unprecedented stress due to generative AI. Deepfake technologies, synthetic media, and AI-generated impersonation are creating new risks of deception, reputational harm, financial loss, and large-scale identity exploitation. Recent legal disputes involving celebrities highlight widening vulnerabilities and the absence of a robust legal framework in India.

Why in the News? 

Amitabh Bachchan and Aishwarya Rai recently approached the Delhi High Court seeking protection against AI-generated videos that imitated their identity, voice, and catchphrases. This marks a major turning point because AI deepfakes are now powerful enough to replicate personalities at scale and for commercial misuse, something never seen before. The case exposes how India lacks a unified personality-rights legislation even as misuse grows rapidly, contrasting sharply with the stricter frameworks in the US, EU, and China.

Erosion of Personality Rights in the AI Era

  1. AI Deepfakes: Enable face swaps, voice clones, and synthetic content that manipulate identity and support misinformation, malice, extortion, and erosion of trust.
  2. Unchecked AI Use: Generates mass commodification of human identity, intensifying reputational and financial vulnerabilities.
  3. Technological Trigger: The rise of generative AI tools has amplified impersonation risks and blurred lines between authenticity and deception.

How Does Indian Law Currently Address Personality Rights?

  1. Fragmented Framework: India relies on privacy principles, constitutional protection, and selective case law but lacks a dedicated statute.
  2. Judicial Protection:
    1. Justice K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) upheld privacy as a fundamental right.
    2. Amitabh Bachchan v. Rajat Nagi (2022) recognised personality rights.
    3. Anil Kapoor v. Simply Life India (2023) banned misuse of his catchphrase “jhakaas” and likeness for diluted brand value.
    4. Arijit Singh v. Golden Ventures LLP (2024) protected his voice from AI replication.
  3. Regulatory Limits: IT Act 2000 and Intermediary Guidelines 2021 address impersonation and deepfakes but lack enforcement clarity, especially for cross-border misuse.

How Do Global Jurisdictions Handle Personality Rights?

  1. United States
    1. Right of Publicity: Treated as transferable property.
    2. Tennessee’s ELVIS Act (2024) bans unauthorized AI voice cloning and deepfake performances.
    3. Character.AI Cases: Highlight how AI models create digital personas that blur reality.
    4. First Amendment Constraints: Free speech limits over-regulation.
  2. European Union
    1. GDPR: Provides dignity-based protection over personal and biometric data.
    2. EU AI Act (2024): Classifies deepfakes as high risk, mandates transparency and labelling.
  3. China
    1. Internet Court Rulings (2024): AI-generated synthetic voices must not deceive consumers.
    2. AI-related cases treat voice actors and media workers as harmed individuals needing redress.

Why Does India Need a Comprehensive Personality-Rights Law?

  1. Legal Vacuum: No dedicated statute addressing AI impersonation, deepfakes, monetisation of likeness, and cross-border exploitation.
  2. AI Platforms’ Liability: Lack of clear obligations for watermarking, transparency, and algorithmic accountability.
  3. Global Pressure: AI’s transnational nature demands compliance with international standards.
  4. Growing Harm: Cases of identity theft, synthetic celebrity endorsements, and psychological impact from digital cloning are rising.

What Should India’s Legal Framework Include?

  1. Explicit Definition: Clear categorisation of personality rights, covering image, voice, likeness, name, gestures, and distinctive traits.
  2. Platform Accountability: Mandatory watermarking, AI content labelling, and traceability.
  3. Consent Architecture: Requirement of explicit consent for any AI-generated replication.
  4. Civil and Criminal Remedies: Compensation mechanisms and penalties for willful impersonation.
  5. Cross-Border Enforcement: Harmonisation with EU, US, and global regulatory practices.
  6. Ethical AI Standards: Transparency norms, audit trails, and safeguards against dataset misuse.

Conclusion

AI has radically transformed the nature of identity and personhood, challenging traditional legal doctrines surrounding privacy and personality rights. India must move from fragmented protections to a comprehensive, future-ready framework that secures individual autonomy while supporting responsible AI innovation. Without such reform, the risks of impersonation, exploitation, and identity erosion will only multiply.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain.

Linkage: This question directly links to personality rights and AI deepfakes, as both derive from the privacy-autonomy framework under Article 21. It is relevant because the erosion of digital identity through AI impersonation tests the very constitutional protection the Puttaswamy judgment established.

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River Interlinking

Pazhayar River Pollution in Nagercoil

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

  • Rampant sewage discharge into the Pazhayar River in Nagercoil (Tamil Nadu), especially near Ozhuginesary, has raised serious environmental and public health concerns.
  • A 2024 situational report highlighted severe domestic, agricultural, and industrial (rubber processing) pollution in the river.
  • Nagercoil Corporation has initiated steps to seal sewage inlets, but pollution remains widespread.

About the Pazhayar River

  • A perennial river in Kanniyakumari district, Tamil Nadu.
  • Part of the Kodhayar River Basin, covering 1,646.964 sq km.
  • Basin lies entirely within Tamil Nadu, with a small stretch in Radhapuram (Tirunelveli district).

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (2017)

(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood 

(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems 

(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems 

(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high altitude regions

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