Bills/Act/Laws DOMR Ethics Explained Historical Sites India Mapping IOCR op-ed snap PIB Prelims Only SC Judgements Schemes Species States World Mapping

Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Centre notifies four new Labour Codes

Bills/Act/Laws | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

Why In The News?

The Centre notified all four Labour Codes, introducing major reforms and replacing 29 outdated labour laws dating back to the 1930s.

1)Introduction to the Labour Codes Notification:

Major Reform Announcement: The Centre notified all four Labour Codes, introducing wide-ranging changes in India’s labour framework.
Key Focus Areas: The reforms expand social security to gig workers, ensure gender pay parity, enhance women’s workplace rights, and introduce fixed-term employment.
Replacement of Old Laws: The Codes replace 29 fragmented labour laws dating back to the 1930s–1950s.

2)Government’s Stance:

Prime Minister’s View: PM Modi described the reforms as one of the most comprehensive labour transformations since Independence.
Worker Empowerment: The government highlights that the Codes aim to ensure universal social security, timely wage payments, and safer workplaces.
Simplified Compliance: The reforms are expected to promote ease of doing business through simplified compliance mechanisms.
Minister’s Statement: Labour Minister Mansukh Mandaviya said the Codes will formalise employment and make the labour ecosystem globally aligned.
State-Level Readiness: Most States have already issued draft rules; the Centre is supporting those still finalising rules.

3)Key Provisions:

Women’s Safety and Rights: Expanded rights, including permission for night shifts and enhanced workplace safety.
Health and Social Security: Free annual health check-ups for workers above 40 and nationwide ESIC coverage, including hazardous units.
Simplified Procedures: A single registration, licensing, and return system for employers.
Wage and Safety Standards: Introduction of a national floor wage and creation of a National OSH Board for uniform safety standards.
Fixed-Term Employment: Allows fixed-term workers to receive all benefits equivalent to permanent workers.
New Work Categories: Gig workers, platform workers, and aggregators are legally defined for the first time.
Universal Account Number: Aadhaar-linked UAN ensures portability and easy access to welfare benefits.
Inclusion of Plantation Workers: Plantation workers brought under OSHWC and Social Security Codes.

4)Responses from Stakeholders:

Trade Union Concerns:

Opposition to Codes: Several central trade unions reject the Labour Codes, labelling them anti-worker and pro-employer.
Issues with Timing: CTUs argue implementing the Codes amid rising unemployment and inflation will worsen workers’ hardships.
Protest Plans: Unions have announced nationwide protests on November 26 and cite earlier strikes against the Codes.
Fear of Exploitation: Trade unions warn the reforms could revive a “master-servant” relationship, reducing worker protections.

BMS Standpoint: The Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh supports implementation but seeks amendments to remove perceived anti-worker provisions in OSH and Industrial Relations Codes.

Industry View: CII praises the reforms as a transformative step towards a modern and simplified labour ecosystem.

[UPSC 2021] With reference to casual workers employed in India, consider the following statements: 1.All casual workers are entitled to Employees Provident Fund coverage.

2.All casual workers are entitled to regular working hours and overtime payment.

3.The government can, by notification, specify that an establishment or industry shall pay wages only through its bank account. Which of the above statements are correct? Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana: Rajasthan farmers’ protests on insurance claims

Bills/Act/Laws | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Why In The News?

Farmers in Rajasthan’s Churu district held a ‘Kisan Ekta Tractor March’ demanding pending crop insurance claims, fertiliser availability, transparency in the insurance portal, and inclusion of certain crops in PM Dhan Dhanya Yojana. The protest was postponed after government assurances during late-night negotiations.

About Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY):

Launch & Purpose:
- Launched on 18 February 2016 by the Ministry of Agriculture to provide affordable crop insurance and financial protection against losses from natural calamities, pests, and diseases.
- Implemented through insurance companies and banks.
Objectives:
- Provide financial assistance for crop loss due to unforeseen events.
- Stabilise farmer income and ensure continuity in farming.
- Promote modern agricultural practices.
- Encourage crop diversification, enhance creditworthiness, and improve agriculture sector competitiveness.
Eligibility:
- All farmers including sharecroppers and tenant farmers growing notified crops in notified areas.
- Compulsory: Loanee farmers with Seasonal Agricultural Operations (SAO) loans.
- Voluntary: Non-loanee farmers.
- Must have insurable interest and valid land ownership/tenure documents.
- Must not receive duplicate compensation from other sources.
- Special focus on SC/ST/Women farmers with proportional budget allocation.
Benefits:
- Affordable Premiums:
  - Farmers pay 2% for Kharif, 1.5% for Rabi, and 5% for commercial/horticultural crops.
  - Government provides premium subsidy; pays full premium in NE states, J&K, and Himachal Pradesh.
- Comprehensive Coverage:
  - Covers natural disasters, pests, diseases, and post-harvest losses (hailstorm, landslide).
  - Excludes losses due to war, nuclear risks, malicious damage, or preventable risks.
- Timely Compensation:
  - Claims processed within two months of harvest.
- Technology-Driven Implementation:
  - Uses satellite imaging, drones, and mobile apps for precise loss estimation.
  - NCIP for digital processing; YES-TECH for remote-sensing yield estimation; CROPIC for geotagged crop verification.

[UPSC 2020] In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture?
1. Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops
2. Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies
3. Social Capital development
4. Free electricity supply to farmers
5. Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system
6. Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments
Select the correct answer using the code given below: Options: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 3 and 6 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

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Government plans unification of port security regulations- sovereign entity to oversee private ports while CISF will regulate 80 ports

DOMR | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Border Area Security Challenges

Why In The News?

The government has designated CISF as the security regulator for 250+ seaports to strengthen coastal security.

1) New Security Framework:

Sovereign Entity at Seaports: Government to deploy CISF as a sovereign security force at private cargo-handling ports for a uniform security system.
Initial Coverage: CISF to regulate 80 major export-import seaports for access control, cargo screening, and seafront patrolling.
Phase-wise Expansion: Remaining 170 seaports will be brought under CISF in stages.
ISPS Code Role: CISF designated as the Recognised Security Organisation under the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code.

2)Framework for Seaport Security in India:

International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code:
India’s port security system aligns with the mandatory global ISPS Code, introduced after 9/11 to protect ships and port facilities from terrorism and other maritime threats.
Central Industrial Security Force (CISF) as Security Regulator:
The Government of India has recently designated the CISF as the Recognised Security Organisation (RSO) for ports, marking a major reform to strengthen and standardise port security across the country.

3)Challenges to Port Security:

Non-Standardised Security Framework:
- Security at many non-major ports historically lacked uniformity and expert oversight.
- Heavy dependence on private security agencies or local police resulted in inconsistent standards.
Transnational & Non-Traditional Threats:
- Maritime terrorism remains a persistent risk.
- Smuggling and drug trafficking, with ports often used for large narcotics consignments.
- Cyberattacks targeting port IT systems and critical infrastructure.
Infrastructure & Manpower Gaps:
- Difficulty in ensuring uniform, high-quality security infrastructure across 250+ ports.
- Significant manpower shortages: CISF requires 800-1,000 personnel per major seaport and has requested 10,000 additional personnel for initial deployment.
Coastal Vulnerabilities:
- Large stretches of coastline remain open, poorly monitored, or unguarded.
- Absence of a sovereign security force at private ports has created long-standing security gaps.
Identified Gaps in Official Reviews:
- Coastal security flagged as a priority for discussion at the Director Generals of Police (DGP) Conference, attended by the Prime Minister.
- The 2023 MHA guidelines highlighted major deficiencies and recommended comprehensive improvements.

4) Committee Recommendations:

Committee Findings: A 2024 Joint Committee (CISF + Director General Shipping) conducted gap analysis and proposed corrective measures.
Hybrid Security Model: Core security functions to be handled by CISF, while State Police/private agencies manage non-core duties.

5)About CISF:

Overview: CISF is a Central Armed Police Force under the Ministry of Home Affairs, headquartered in New Delhi; motto: “Protection and Security.”
Establishment:
- Formed in 1969 through the CISF Act, 1968 with three battalions.
- Declared an Armed Force of the Union after the 1983 amendment.
- Expanded into a multi-skilled force with 188,000+ personnel.
- Provides security to 359 establishments nationwide.
Organisation Structure:
- Headed by a Director-General (IPS), assisted by an Additional DG.
- Divided into seven sectors: Airport, North, North-East, East, West, South, Training.
- Has a dedicated Fire Service Wing.
Functions:
- Secures critical infrastructure: nuclear and space facilities, airports, seaports, power plants.
- Protects Delhi Metro, Parliament Complex, heritage monuments, and major government buildings.
- Responsible for airport security since 2000 (post IC-814 hijacking).
- Provides VIP security to designated protectees.
- Trained in disaster management (floods, earthquakes, cyclones).
- Operates India’s largest Fire Protection Service among CAPFs.
- Post-2008 Mumbai attacks, expanded to private sector security.
- Functions as a compensatory cost force, billing clients for services.

[UPSC 2023] With reference to Home Guards, consider the following statements:

1. Home Guards are raised under the Home Guards Act and Rules of the Central Government.

2. The role of the Home Guards is to serve as an auxiliary force to the police in maintenance of internal security.

3. To prevent infiltration on the international border/coastal areas, the Border Wing Home Guards Battalions have been raised in some States.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

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Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

IAF’s Tejas jet crashes during demo flight at Dubai Air Show, pilot killed

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Why In The News?

An Indian Air Force Tejas fighter jet crashed during the Dubai Air Show, killing Wing Commander Namansh Syal, after spiralling out of control and igniting on impact at Al Maktoum International Airport.

1)Tejas Mk1A:

About: The Tejas Mk1A is an upgraded variant of India’s Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas, developed by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Purpose: This version is aimed to enhance operational and combat capabilities, survivability and maintainability over the baseline Mk1.
Capabilities:
- Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar integration.
- Electronic Warfare Suite (EWS) – radar‑warning and self‑protection jamming.
- Upgraded Flight Control Computer (DFCC Mk1A) for better maneuverability and stability.
- Missile compatibility- Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles, Air-to-Air and Air-to-Ground missiles and Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air Missiles (ASRAAM).
- Planned integration of Combined Interrogator and Transponder (CIT), Software Defined Radio (SDR) and Operating Data Link (ODL) with existing onboard avionics.

2) LCA Tejas:

About: The LCA Tejas programme, initiated by the Government of India in 1984, aimed to replace the ageing MiG-21 fighter jets. The programme is managed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA).
Features:
- Lightest, smallest, and tailless multi-role supersonic fighter in its class.
- Capable of carrying a variety of air-to-air, air-to-surface, and precision-guided weapons.
- Maximum payload capacity of 4000 kg.
- Maximum speed: Mach 1.8.
- Range: 3,000 km.
Variants of Tejas:
- Tejas Trainer: 2-seater operational conversion trainer for training air force pilots.
- LCA Navy: Twin- and single-seat carrier-capable for the Indian Navy.
- LCA Tejas Navy MK2: This is phase 2 of the LCA Navy variant.
- LCA Tejas Mk-1A: This is an improvement over the LCA Tejas Mk1 with a higher thrust engine.

3)Fifth Generation Fighter Jets:

About:
- Combat Role: Designed for highly contested combat zones with advanced air and ground threats.
- Stealth & Speed: Feature stealth technology and supercruise capability.
- Key Advantages:
  - Multi-spectral low-observable design
  - Enhanced self-protection
  - Radar jamming capabilities
  - Fully integrated avionics systems
- Global Operators:
  - Russia: Sukhoi Su-57
  - China: Chengdu J-20
  - United States: F-35 series
Need for India:
- Squadron Strength: IAF has ~30 squadrons, below the sanctioned 42.
- Ageing Fleet:
  - MiG-21
  - MiG-29
  - Jaguar
  - Mirage 2000
  - All to be phased out by mid-next decade.
- Airpower Gap:
  - China: 3,304 aircraft
  - India: 2,296 aircraft
  - Pakistan: 1,434 aircraft
- Strategic Need: Strengthen air defences against China and Pakistan and increase defence self-reliance.
- Indigenous Development:
  - Developing AMCA
  - Five prototypes planned
  - Joint effort by ADA, HAL, and private industry
- Strategic Positioning: 5G fighters would place India alongside the US, Russia, and China.

[UPSC 2024] Question: Consider the following aircraft:

1. Rafael

2. MiG-29

3. Tejas MK-1

How many of the above are considered fifth generation fighter aircraft?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Protesters clash with police for a second day as Sangai Festival kicks off in Manipur

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why In The News?

The Sangai Festival in Manipur opened amid protests by IDPs and NGOs, lowering attendance. Critics say the government should prioritise resolving the Kuki-Zo–Meitei ethnic conflict and resettling displaced people before holding tourism events after the May 2023 violence.

1) About Sangai Festival:

Celebration Period: Manipur Sangai Festival is held every year from 21-30 November.
Objective: The festival aims to showcase Manipur as a world-class tourism destination.
Name Origin: It is named after the State animal – the Sangai, the brow-antlered deer found only in Manipur.
Beginning: The festival started in 2010.
Theme: The theme for this year is “Festival of Oneness.”
Focus Areas: It highlights Manipur’s tourism potential in Arts & Culture, Handloom, Handicrafts, Indigenous Sports, Cuisine, and Music.

2) About Sangai Deer:

General Information:

Scientific Name: Rucervus eldii
Common Names: Sangai, Brow-antlered Deer, Dancing Deer
Population: About 260 (Forest Department census, 2016).
Habitat: Exclusively in Keibul Lamjao National Park, located on phumdi in Loktak Lake, Bishnupur district.

Characteristics:

Medium-sized deer with distinctive long brow antlers forming the main beam.
Antlers appear to grow from the eyebrow, giving the name brow-antlered deer.
Possesses a dark reddish-brown winter coat that becomes paler in summer.
Walks with mincing hops on floating phumdi, hence called the Dancing Deer.

Status:

State Animal of Manipur.
Listed in Schedule-I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.

Conservation Issues:

Threatened by degenerating phumdi habitat due to continuous inundation from the artificial reservoir.
Invasion of non-native plants like Paragrass.
Risks from diseases, inbreeding depression, and poaching.

3) Manipur Crisis:

About the Violence:

Violence occurred between Kuki tribe and Meitei community across multiple regions of Manipur.
The Imphal Valley (10% of land) is dominated by Meiteis (64% of population) and elects 40 of 60 MLAs.
The hills (90% of land) are inhabited by 35%+ recognised tribes, electing 20 MLAs.
Unrest began in February 2023 after an eviction drive seen as targeting a tribal group.

Meitei Demand for ST Status:

Supported by the Scheduled Tribes Demand Committee of Manipur (STDCM) since 2012.
Claim that Meiteis were recognised as a tribe before the 1949 merger with India.
Demand ST status to preserve land, culture, language, and ancestral identity.
Argue they face marginalisation and cite population decline from 59% (1951) to 44% (2011).

Why Tribal Groups Oppose ST Status for Meiteis:

Tribals argue Meiteis already hold demographic, political, and economic advantages.
Fear ST status will allow Meiteis to acquire land in the hills, reducing tribal land rights.
Meitei dominance includes:
- Manipuri language in the Eighth Schedule
- Sections already under SC/OBC categories
Tribes believe Meitei claims of cultural vulnerability are self-defeating.

[UPSC 2017] Consider the following pairs : Traditions Communities

1. Chaliha Sahib Festival — Sindhis

2. Nanda Raj Jaat Yatra — Gonds

3. Wari-Warkari — Santhals Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c)1 and 3 only (d) None of the above

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-ASEAN

[22nd November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: The new direction for India should be toward Asia

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance. Explain this statement with examples.

Linkage: This question is relevant as the article highlights India’s discomfort with Western strategic pressure and the U.S. attempt to position India as a counter-weight to China. It directly links to the theme that India must prioritise Asian partnerships based on autonomy rather than being shaped by Western geopolitical expectations.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s foreign policy stands at its most decisive turning point in decades. Recent global summits have marked a visible discomfort in Western partnerships and a stronger inclination toward Asian platforms such as SCO, BRICS, and ASEAN. If sustained, this pivot could influence not only India’s security and economy but also the balance of power across the 21st century.

Introduction

India is emerging as a global economic heavyweight. At a time when geopolitical polarization between the West and China is intensifying, India is being pushed to define where its long-term interests lie. The article argues that India’s most strategic future lies within the Asian ecosystem, economically, technologically and militarily, rather than within Western-led institutional frameworks.

Why in the News

Diplomatic signals at recent top summits have shown a clear turning point: India expressed discomfort with the U.S. stance on Russia-China while showing greater comfort engaging Asian multilateral platforms. This reverses decades of Western strategic centrality and marks the first open debate about whether India should integrate with a U.S.-dominated global order or anchor its future with Asia’s rapidly rising power architecture.

Is India undergoing a decisive Asian pivot?

Growing tilt toward Asian blocs: India’s policy space is increasingly shaped by negotiations with China and Russia rather than the U.S. and Europe.
Limits of multialignment exposed: External pressure from the U.S. forces India to re-evaluate whether neutrality remains viable.

Why is Western strategic centrality fading for India?

Summit unease and leadership signalling: Interactions at the G-7 and Busan Summit highlighted visible discomfort between Indian and U.S. leadership.
U.S. pressure on trade and Russia policy: Washington expects India to align its tariff playbook and Russian relations to Western priorities.
Security divergence: U.S.-driven defence expectations conflict with India’s commitment to independent threat assessment.

Why does Asia offer a stronger pathway for India’s growth?

Demographic and economic centre of gravity: Two-thirds of global population and global wealth lie in Asia, creating large consumer and innovation markets.
Rise of continental and maritime platforms: BRICS, SCO and ASEAN integrate security with economic restructuring outside WTO constraints.
Technological and industrial complementarities: Asian RCEP supply chains, semiconductor hubs, manufacturing and defence technologies align with India’s development goals.

What hard decisions are demanded from India now?

Strategic autonomy based on Indian capacity: Policy alignment must reflect national strengths rather than expectations of great powers.
Growth-labour dynamic within Asia: Asia offers the highest growth rate and workforce depth but demands competitiveness and industrial performance from India.
Reducing dependency on imported defence systems: Innovation in AI, cyber capability, missiles and marine strength becomes essential.

How does the global AI and military innovation race shape India’s choices?

Shift from land-based warfare to technology-centric warfare: Cyber, naval and AI superiority determine 21st-century power projection.
Asian innovation ecosystem more open than Western models: Western blocs impose regulatory constraints while Asia prioritises co-development and technology transfer.
Defence industrialisation as a growth multiplier: AI-driven defence manufacturing advances both national security and economic output.

Conclusion

India is not compelled to choose between the West and Asia, but strategic realities suggest that Asia provides the most fertile ground for technological development, economic partnerships and military advancement. A calibrated pivot anchored in strategic autonomy and innovation may be the key to India becoming a rule-shaping, rather than rule-following, global power by mid-century.

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Overcoming resistance: On the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (2025–29)

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

The Government has introduced the second iteration of the National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR) in response to escalating resistance to antibiotics across sectors. While version 1 generated marginal gains and placed AMR on India’s health agenda, its sluggish implementation led to persistent misuse of antibiotics, weak state collaboration, and rising resistance. New evidence, including the 2023 WHO Global Antibiotic Resistance Surveillance report, confirms the urgency for renewed stewardship and a strengthened One Health strategy.

Why in the News?

India has launched Version 2 of the National Action Plan on AMR amid alarming data that in 2023, one in three bacterial infections in India showed resistance to commonly used antibiotics, against one in six globally. The spike comes despite NAP-AMR (2017–21), revealing that implementation, not intent, is the major roadblock. The new plan is a crucial attempt to arrest a humongous health, veterinary and environmental crisis before last-line antibiotics become fully ineffective.

Why did Version 1 of NAP-AMR fall short?

Sluggish implementation: Raised the profile of AMR nationally but failed to translate into coordinated ground-level action.
Weak state participation: Only a few states formulated policies; Kerala alone implemented effectively, registering a slight drop in AMR levels.
Narrow ecosystem focus: Neglect of veterinary, environment, agriculture and aquaculture vectors.
Enforcement gaps: Despite a ban on Colistin as a growth promoter in the husbandry sector, misuse continued in varying degrees.

How serious is AMR in India today?

High disease burden: High infectious disease load increases antibiotic exposure and accelerates resistance.
Overuse and misuse: Indiscriminate use in healthcare and self-medication remain widespread.
Critical pathogens advancing: E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae show high resistance to critical antibiotics, rendering last-line drugs ineffective.

Why has AMR become a multi-sectoral challenge?

Agriculture & husbandry: Growth promoters and preventive antibiotic usage fuel microbial resistance.
Veterinary medicine: Improper prescription and uncontrolled access to antibiotics.
Soil & water contamination: Antibiotic residues affect ecosystems and re-enter human food chains.
Aquaculture & food processing: Residues facilitate community-level resistance.

Why is One Health no longer optional?

Integrates human, animal and environmental health to handle widespread resistance emerging across the food chain and biosphere.
Breaks inter-sectoral silos to ensure synchronised surveillance and regulation.
Guides community-level resistance mitigation, not just tertiary hospitals.

What must Version 2 achieve to succeed?

Strong antibiotics stewardship programmes across community and hospital settings.
Reliable nationwide surveillance network beyond pandemic-led laboratory expansion.
State partnership and compliance mechanisms rather than voluntary policy uptake.
Accountability measures for misuse in human healthcare, veterinary practice and agriculture.

Conclusion

India stands at a critical point where policy intent must translate into enforceable implementation. The success of NAP-AMR (Version 2) depends on strong stewardship, inter-state coordination, and an uncompromising One Health approach. Without systemic commitment, antibiotic resistance risks becoming the defining public health disaster of the decade.

Value Addition

What is AMR?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) refers to a biological phenomenon in which microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to resist the action of antimicrobial drugs. As a result, standard treatments become ineffective, infections persist, and the risk of spread, severe illness, and mortality increases.

India AMR data cue:

WHO Global Antibiotic Resistance Surveillance Report (2023): 1 in 3 bacterial infections in India resistant to commonly used antibiotics, compared to 1 in 6 globally.

Kerala as a Model State

Kerala is often cited as the only state that implemented its state-level action plan on AMR effectively enough to show measurable impact.
Key success factors:
- Strong state-led antibiotic stewardship programme
- Mandatory prescription audits and regulation of over-the-counter sales
- Hospital-level AMR surveillance linked to community-level action
- Training of medical and veterinary practitioners
- Public awareness + behavioural campaigns

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

Linkage: This question is directly relevant as India faces one of the world’s highest AMR burdens driven by misuse and over-the-counter sale of antibiotics. It links to National Action Plan on AMR (Version 2), antibiotic stewardship, surveillance gaps, and public health governance.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

How India’s agri exports posted impressive growth

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

Introduction

Agriculture continues to be a critical pillar of India’s external trade. Despite restrictions on cereals in recent years, India is witnessing robust export performance driven by meat, rice, spices, fruits-vegetables, tobacco, and marine products. Import trends indicate rising edible oil dependence and inflation moderation.

Why in the News?

India’s agricultural exports have surged faster than overall merchandise exports, reaching $25.9 billion in April-September 2024, a 25.8% jump over the previous year, compared to a marginal 0.1% rise in total exports. This turnaround comes after a period of contraction due to export curbs (2022-23) on key items like wheat and non-basmati rice. The renewed momentum signals policy success, global demand recovery, and diversification beyond the US market.

What is driving the recent surge in agri exports?

Policy relaxation: Lifting of post-Ukraine export curbs on wheat, rice, sugar, etc., improved outbound shipments.
Market diversification: Growth in demand from Latin America, Africa, Middle-East reduced dependency on the US.
Production rebound: Normal monsoon boosted availability of sugar, spices, seafood, fruit-veg.
High-value product focus: Marine goods ($4.8 bn), non-basmati rice ($2.85 bn), and cotton ($1.6 bn) led performance.

Which products are leading the export spike?

Marine products: Largest export category at $4.8 bn Apr-Sep 2024.
Rice (Non-basmati): Strong recovery despite earlier restrictions ( $2.85 bn ).
Buffalo meat & poultry: $2.25 bn & $0.414 bn exports supported by West Asia.
Fresh fruits & vegetables: Jump to $1.49 bn due to tomato, onion shipments.
Sugar & tobacco: Robust global prices drove exports above $0.9 bn and $0.82 bn respectively.

How have imports behaved during the same period?

Edible oils dominate: $7.3 bn, showing structural import dependence.
Cashew, pulses, fresh fruits: Rising imports due to domestic shortfalls.
Wheat trade flip: Exports rose post-2022 restrictions but imports revived due to domestic price pressures.
India remains a net agri-exporter, but oil imports remain a vulnerability.

What are the key factors shaping fluctuations in exports?

Geopolitics & tariffs:
1. US-China trade tensions: Opened new windows for India.
2. Trump-era duties impacted Indian produce.
3. Russia war disrupted sunflower oil & grain flows.
Commodity price volatility: FAO Index declined and this led to lower export values for wheat, sugar.
Logistics: Container shortages & high freight (2022-23) stabilised by 2024.

What are the major challenges ahead?

Export restrictions continue on items like wheat, some rice variants.
Quality & traceability issues: Growing scrutiny by EU/Australia.
Climate shocks impacting horticulture and cash crops.
Overdependence on 2-3 markets for meat, marine products.

Conclusion

India’s recent agricultural export growth reflects policy easing, supply recovery, and expanding market access. However, sustaining competitiveness demands edible oil self-reliance, quality upgrades, logistics reforms, and stable export policies. Balanced agri-trade will support farmer income and strengthen India’s role in global food value chains.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] What are the main bottlenecks in the upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India?

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

The story behind Himachal Pradesh’s traditional Raulane Festival

States | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why In The News?

Bright, colourful, and captivating photos of the Raulane festival from Himachal Pradesh have recently gone viral on social media, sparking widespread discussion about the festival’s unique rituals and the rich cultural heritage of this centuries-old tradition.

About Raulane Festival:

Location & Timing: The Raulane festival is celebrated in Kalpa, located in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, during winter or early spring.
Ancient Origins: The festival is believed to be around 5,000 years old, making it one of the region’s oldest surviving traditions.
Celestial Beings (Saunis): This ancient festival honours celestial fairies called Saunis, described as radiant and gentle beings.
Belief & Protection: Locals believe that the Saunis protect villagers during harsh winters by offering warmth, guidance, and spiritual support.
Symbolic Marriage Ritual: During the festival, two men symbolically “marry” and act as vessels for the Saunis, representing the divine couple – the Raula (groom) and the Raulane (bride).
Traditional Attire: The chosen men are dressed in heavy woollen robes, adorned with ornaments and distinctive face masks.
Ritual Dance: They perform a slow, meditative dance at the Nagin Narayan Temple, where the entire community participates and celebrates.
Cultural Significance: The Raulane festival helps preserve ancient Himalayan culture and traditions, bringing villagers together to honour their divine protectors.

[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs:

	Tradition	State
1.	Chapchar Kut festival	— Mizoram
2.	Khongjom Parba ballad	— Manipur
3.	Thong-To dance	— Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

Options:

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

CPCB to monitor Yamuna with Delhi and Haryana

DOMR | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

Drain water overflow is contaminating the Yamuna, prompting the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) to inform the National Green Tribunal (NGT) that the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Delhi Pollution Control Committee (DPCC), and Haryana State Pollution Control Board (HSPCB) will jointly conduct quarterly monitoring to track pollution and coordinate corrective action.

1) About National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG):

Legal Status: The NMCG is a registered society under the Ministry of Jal Shakti to prevent, control, and abate pollution in the Ganga River and ensure adequate ecological flow.
Origin: It functioned as the implementation arm of the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 until the NGRBA was replaced by the National Ganga Council in 2016.
Objectives:
- Ensure pollution abatement and rejuvenation of the Ganga through a river basin approach.
- Maintain minimum ecological flows for water quality and sustainable development.
Structure:
- Has a two-tier structure: a Governing Council and an Executive Committee, both headed by the Director General (DG).
- The Executive Committee can approve projects up to ₹1000 crores.
- State Programme Management Groups (SPMGs) act as implementing arms at the state level.
- The DG is an Additional Secretary in the Government of India.

2) About National Green Tribunal (NGT):

Purpose: The NGT ensures efficient and expert resolution of environmental disputes and aims to resolve cases within six months.
Independence: Operates based on principles of natural justice, not the Civil Procedure Code, 1908, enabling faster decisions.
Jurisdiction: Began functioning in 2011 with its principal bench in New Delhi and regional benches in Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, and Chennai. It follows a circuit procedure for accessibility.
Composition:
- Chairperson: Retired Supreme Court Judge or Chief Justice of a High Court, appointed by the Central Government.
- Judicial Members: 10-20 judges from the Supreme Court or High Courts.
- Expert Members: 10-20 experts with advanced degrees in Science/Engineering/Technology and environmental experience.
Powers & Jurisdiction:
- Handles civil cases under major environmental laws such as the Water Act 1974, Air Act 1981, Environment Protection Act 1986, Forest Conservation Act 1980, Biological Diversity Act 2002, and Public Liability Insurance Act 1991.
- Can impose penalties, act as a Civil Court, and follow the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) for certain procedures.
- Has suo motu powers to take up environmental issues on its own.
- Can award compensation, order remediation, and ensure time-bound disposal of cases.

3) About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

Establishment: The CPCB is a statutory organisation created under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and later empowered under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Role: Acts as a technical arm of the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) for enforcing the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Functions:
- Promote cleanliness of streams and wells and control water pollution.
- Improve air quality and abate air pollution nationwide.
- Advise the Central Government on pollution control and coordinate with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs).
- Offer guidance, technical support, and help resolve conflicts among SPCBs.
Delegated Powers: CPCB delegates its authority under the Water Act, Water Cess Act (1977), and Air Act to regional administrations in Union Territories.
Standards & Guidelines:
- Develops standards for ambient air quality, water quality, and industrial emissions.
- Prepares manuals, codes, and guidelines for sewage treatment, effluent disposal, and pollution-control devices.
- Issues Minimal National Standards (MINAS) for various industries regarding effluents, emissions, noise, and waste.

[UPSC 2016] Which of the following are the key features of ‘National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)?,

1. River basin is the unit of planning and management.,

2. It spearheads the river conservation efforts at the national level.,

3. One of the Chief Ministers of the States through which the Ganga flows becomes the Chairman of NGRBA on rotation basis.,

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 and 3 only, (c) 1 and 3 only, (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Pharmacogenomics: reading genes to tailor prescriptions for individuals

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why In The News?

Pharmacogenomics is transforming healthcare by showing how genetic differences affect individual drug responses. This breakthrough emerging technology is replacing traditional “start low, go slow” trial-and-error prescribing with personalised, precision-based treatment that improves effectiveness and reduces harmful reactions.

1) What is Pharmacogenomics?

Definition & Purpose: Studies how genetic variations affect drug response, determining whether a drug will be effective, ineffective, or harmful.
Role of Enzymes: Differences in drug-metabolising enzymes, especially the CYP450 family, impact the metabolism of ~75% of common drugs.
Metaboliser Phenotypes:
- Poor Metaboliser: Low enzyme activity → toxic drug buildup at standard doses.
- Ultrarapid Metaboliser: High enzyme activity → reduced therapeutic benefit.
Widespread Variants: About 90% of people carry at least one actionable pharmacogenetic variant.
Clinical Impact: Genetic factors significantly contribute to adverse drug reactions (ADRs), a major cause of hospitalisation and death in developed nations.

2) Understanding the Problem in Traditional Prescribing:

Traditional Approach – “Start Low, Go Slow”: Reflects the challenge that the same drug and dose can heal one patient but harm another.
Population-Based Prescribing: For decades, medications were prescribed based on population averages, leading to trial-and-error treatment.
Shift Toward Precision: Pharmacogenomics is transforming this approach by showing how genes influence drug response, moving from guesswork to precision.

3) Real-World Applications:

Warfarin Dosing:
- Variants in CYP2C9 and VKORC1 explain ~50% of dose variation.
- Genetic-guided dosing reduces bleeding risk and allows faster achievement of therapeutic levels.
Clopidogrel Activation:
- Requires CYP2C19 for activation.
- CYP2C19*2 variants (25–30%) → poor activation → higher risk of stent thrombosis.
- CPIC 2022 guidelines recommend alternatives for poor metabolisers.
Psychiatry:
- Many antidepressants/antipsychotics rely on CYP2D6 and CYP2C19.
- Testing reduces side effects, improves symptom control, and lowers costs.
Oncology: Rapid progress in using genetic markers to personalise cancer treatment.

4) Economic Considerations:

Cost Reduction: Genetic test prices have dropped from thousands to $200-500 for large panels.
Cost–Effectiveness:
- Testing prevents adverse events and improves outcomes, proving cost-effective, especially in chronic diseases.
Evaluation Framework: Value depends on factors such as severity of side-effects, frequency of variants, availability of alternative drugs, and variability in clinical settings.
Preventive Value: Avoiding even one serious ADR can offset the cost of testing many patients.

5) Implementation Challenges:

Provider Knowledge Gaps: Most clinicians lack training in pharmacogenomics, making interpretation difficult.
Infrastructure Limitations: Electronic health records often lack tools to integrate genetic data into prescribing workflows.
Reimbursement Issues: Insurance coverage remains inconsistent, creating hesitation.
Regulatory Complexity:
- Over 100 FDA drug labels include pharmacogenomic information.
- Some provide actionable guidance; others are only informative.
Cultural & Institutional Barriers: Requires changes in clinical culture, administrative support, and trained champions to lead adoption.

6) The Path Forward:

Pre-emptive Testing: Future lies in obtaining genetic profiles before medications are needed, enabling lifelong personalised prescribing.
Fundamental Shift: Moves healthcare from population-based to individualised, from reactive to proactive, and from trial-and-error to precision medication.
Genomic Insight: Our genes guide our prescriptions-pharmacogenomics teaches us how to read this biological roadmap.

[UPSC 2023] ‘Aerial metagenomics’ best refers to which one of the following situations?

Options: (a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at one go*

(b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian species of a habitat

(d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect plant and animal samples from land surfaces and water bodies

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NSA hosts 7th meeting of Colombo Security Conclave in Delhi

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why In The News?

At the 7th NSA-level Colombo Security Conclave meeting, member states prioritised cooperation on five pillars: maritime security, counterterrorism and radicalisation, trafficking and transnational crime, cybersecurity and critical infrastructure protection, and humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, aiming to strengthen regional security coordination.

About Colombo Security Conclave (CSC):

Regional Grouping: A security platform comprising India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Mauritius; Seychelles is an observer.
Objective: To enhance regional security and address transnational threats of common concern.
Origin: Began in 2011 as the Trilateral Maritime Security Cooperation between India, Maldives, Sri Lanka.
Hiatus: Became inactive after 2014 due to India-Maldives tensions.
Revival: Rebranded as CSC in 2020; Mauritius and later Bangladesh joined.
Participation: Involves NSAs and Deputy NSAs of member states.
Key Areas of Cooperation:
- Maritime safety and security
- Counterterrorism and radicalisation
- Combating trafficking and transnational organised crime
- Cybersecurity and protection of critical infrastructure
- Humanitarian assistance and disaster relief

[UPSC 2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS)

1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.

2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.

Which of the above statements is/are correct ? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

[21st November 2025] The Hindu Op-ED: India’s fisheries and aquaculture, its promising course

op-ed snap | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Economics Of Animal-Rearing

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Livestock rearing has a big potential for providing non-farm employment and income in rural areas. Discuss suggesting suitable measures to promote this sector in India.

Linkage: Same as livestock rearing, fisheries are a key allied sector driving rural non-farm jobs, and are in news due to FAO support and Blue Economy reforms. Hence the topic is highly important for both GS I and GS III.

Mentor’s Comment

India’s fisheries and aquaculture sector is undergoing structural transformation under the Blue Revolution, backed by FAO support and national reforms. This article decodes the sector’s growth drivers, emerging challenges, policy transitions, and global relevance. It is formatted to suit UPSC Mains expectations with subheadings, value additions, PYQs, and micro-themes for GS papers.

Introduction

India’s fisheries and aquaculture sector has become one of the fastest-growing food-producing systems, contributing significantly to livelihoods, nutrition, exports, and rural economic diversification. Despite record production levels, challenges such as resource overuse, environmental degradation, weak traceability, and constrained market access continue to limit its full potential. FAO’s renewed commitment during World Fisheries Day 2025 highlights the sector’s strategic importance in India’s transition toward sustainable and climate-resilient aquatic food systems.

Why in the News?

The FAO issued a renewed commitment to India’s Blue Revolution on World Fisheries Day (21 November 2025), highlighting India’s rapid rise as a global fisheries powerhouse. India recorded 93.2 million tonnes of capture fisheries and a historic 130.9 million tonnes in aquaculture output, making it the world’s second-largest aquaculture producer. This comes at a time when the sector faces overfishing, habitat degradation, climate stress, and traceability gaps, creating a striking contrast between high growth and mounting ecological pressures. New initiatives, Kisan Credit Card inclusion, Matsya Sampada, Climate-Resilient Coastal Fishermen Villages, and private-sector-led compliance, mark a major shift toward science-based, sustainability-linked governance in fisheries.

India’s Rapid Growth Trajectory

Record production: India produced 93.2 million tonnes (capture) and 130.9 million tonnes (aquaculture), valued at $313 billion.
Rising sectoral significance: Livestock and aquaculture contribute 23 million tonnes of aquatic animals, creating major employment.
Expansion of inland aquaculture: Inland fish farming rose from 12.4 million tonnes (2008) to 17.54 million tonnes (2022).
Private sector innovation: Investments in hatcheries, exports, feed, digital compliance, and environmental standards have strengthened value chains.

What Drives Current Reforms?

Blue Revolution initiatives: Schemes like PM Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) expand climate-resilient freshwater and brackish aquaculture.
Governance improvements: New norms integrate digital licensing, KCC inclusion, and seafood traceability.
Market efficiencies: The government introduced measures for safety, credit, and supply chain upgrades.
Coastal resilience: Projects on Climate-Resilient Coastal Fishermen Villages strengthen vulnerable fishing communities.

How is FAO Supporting India’s Transition?

Decades-long collaboration: FAO supports small-scale fisheries, sustainability frameworks, and policy strengthening.
BOBP support: FAO’s Bay of Bengal Programme (BOBP) supports governance in small-scale fisheries.
BOBLME and ecosystem-based management: Helps India adopt science-backed conservation, monitoring, and climate adaptation.
Harbour modernisation: Technical Cooperation Programme improves fishing harbours like Vanakbara and Nawabandar.

What Are the Emerging Challenges?

Overfishing and resource stress: Unsustainable catch levels strain marine ecosystems.
Environmental degradation: Water pollution, habitat decline, and climate-induced variability weaken output.
Traceability deficits: Weak monitoring affects export markets and compliance.
Small-scale fishers’ constraints: Limited technologies, market reach, and safety nets restrict livelihoods.

How Does Sustainability Shape India’s Future Path?

Science-based stock assessment: Enables evidence-driven management.
Co-managed monitoring: Joint monitoring through MCS tools improves compliance.
Digital and climate-ready practices: Enhance safety, transparency, and resilience.
Ecosystem-based aquaculture: Embedded in guidelines for Sustainable Aquaculture.

Conclusion

India’s fisheries and aquaculture stand at a decisive inflexion point, high growth backed by technology and institutional reforms but constrained by ecological and market vulnerabilities. The combined push from FAO, national missions like PMMSY, climate-resilient strategies, and private-sector compliance systems can position India as a global leader in sustainable aquatic food systems.

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Alternative Dispute Resolution Mechanism – NCA, Lok Adalats, etc.

Search on for five declared foreigners by Assam tribunal

Bills/Act/Laws | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Statutory, Regulatory & Various Quasi-Judicial Bodies

Why In The News?

Police in Assam’s Sonitpur district are searching for five people declared non-citizens by a Foreigners’ Tribunal after they repeatedly failed to appear for hearings, prompting the tribunal to issue an ex-parte order.

1) About Foreigners Tribunal (FT):

Legal Basis: Quasi-judicial bodies established under the Foreigners (Tribunals) Order, 1964, issued under Section 3 of the Foreigners Act, 1946.
Purpose: Allows State authorities to refer cases of individuals suspected to be foreigners for determination.
Composition: Headed by members drawn from judges, advocates, or civil servants with judicial experience.
Powers: Possesses civil court powers-summoning individuals, examining on oath, and requiring document production.

2) Are Foreigners Tribunals Only for Assam?

Nationwide Applicability: The 1964 Order applies across all of India, but FTs currently operate only in Assam.
Other States: Suspected illegal immigrants are dealt with by local courts under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
2019 Amendment: Earlier only the Centre could set up FTs; after the amendment, states also have the power to establish them.

3) Foreigners Tribunal – Functioning:

Notice Period: Tribunal must issue a notice to the suspected foreigner within 10 days of receiving a reference.
Response Time: The individual gets 10 days to reply, and another 10 days to submit supporting evidence.
Time for Disposal: Tribunal must dispose of cases within 60 days.
Outcome: If unable to prove citizenship, the person may be sent to a detention centre (transit camp) for future deportation.

4) Immigration and Foreigners Order, 2025:

Replaces: Supersedes the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964 under the new Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
New Powers:
- FTs can now issue arrest warrants and detain individuals unable to prove citizenship-previously done through executive orders.
- Warrants may be issued if a suspect fails to appear.
Expanded Judicial Authority: FTs now possess powers of:
- A civil court under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908.
- A judicial magistrate (First Class) under Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023.
Key Powers Include:
- Summoning and enforcing attendance.
- Examining persons on oath.
- Requiring discovery and production of documents.
- Issuing commissions for witness examination.
- Directing personal appearance.
- Issuing arrest warrants for non-appearance.

Ex-Parte Order:

An ex parte decree is issued when a defendant fails to appear despite receiving summons, allowing the court to hear only the plaintiff’s case and pass a decision in the defendant’s absence.

[UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements :

1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was set up during the Prime Ministership of Lal Bahadur Shastri.

2. The Members for CAT are drawn from both judicial and administrative streams.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Governor vs. State

SC clarifies Governor’s powers: How SC answered 14 questions President posed

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

The Supreme Court’s opinion on the President’s 14 queries recalibrates the balance between Raj Bhavan and elected state governments. It ends the uncertainty around “pocket veto”, clarifies that gubernatorial discretion is narrow, and rejects any judicial power to impose timelines on constitutional authorities. The ruling is significant because it formalises procedural discipline without enabling judicial overreach, and reveals continued ambiguity that may trigger future litigation.

Why in the news?

The Supreme Court delivered a rare and highly consequential opinion under Article 143, addressing 14 constitutional doubts raised by the President regarding the Governor’s powers on Bills, aid and advice, delay, and discretion. It is a big development because the Court categorically ruled out the Governor’s “pocket veto”, reaffirmed that discretion is exceptional, not routine, and clarified that the judiciary cannot impose procedural timelines on constitutional posts. This marks a striking departure from previous ambiguities in Centre-State relations and reopens debate on federal accountability.

What constitutional options are available to a Governor when a Bill is presented?

Four Constitutional Options: Return the Bill, reserve it for the President, assent, or withhold assent; these options arise strictly from Article 200.
Bar on Pocket Veto: The ruling prohibits an indefinite delay, emphasising that constitutional silence cannot be exploited to stall legislation.
Return of Bill Allowed Only Once: The Governor cannot repeatedly send the same Bill back once the House re-passes it.
No Withhold After Re-passage: Once the legislature re-adopts a Bill, the Governor must assent, ensuring legislative primacy.

Is the Governor bound by aid and advice of the Council of Ministers?

Binding Advice Rule: Aid and advice are mandatory except in constitutionally specified discretionary functions.
No Unfettered Discretion: The Governor’s disagreement with political outcomes does not justify refusing advice.
Improper Refusal: The Court held that a Governor cannot withhold assent simply because a new government would not prefer the Bill.

Are the Governor’s discretionary powers unlimited?

Narrow Discretion: Discretion is “exceptional”, not a general supervisory authority over the legislature.
Subjective Satisfaction Allowed Only for President’s Reservation: Under Article 200, the Governor may reserve a Bill if doubts on constitutionality exist.
Judicial Review Retained: Reserving a Bill on irrelevant grounds is open to legal challenge.
Discretion Must Meet Constitutional Purpose: Decisions must align with constitutional morality, not political preference.

Can timelines be imposed on Governors or the President?

No Judicially Enforceable Deadlines: The Court cannot prescribe rigid timelines because the Constitution does not contain them.
Institutional Respect Principle: Judiciary recognises the separation of powers and avoids issuing operational directives to constitutional authorities.
Practical Concern Highlighted: While Governors should act “reasonably expeditiously”, this remains non-justiciable.

Are actions under Article 200 justiciable?

Yes, on Limited Grounds: Courts may intervene if the Governor acts on irrelevant considerations or violates constitutional limits.
Reasonableness Standard Applies: Judicial review ensures the Governor does not misuse constitutional silence to stall governance.
Invalid Withholding Possible: A Governor withholding assent after re-passage would be unconstitutional and challengeable.

Can a Governor substitute his decision with the President’s under Article 201?

Permissible Only for Constitutionality Doubts: The Governor may reserve Bills only when genuine constitutional issues arise.
No Arbitrary Referral: Relying on the President for policy disagreements is unconstitutional.

Can courts adjudicate contents of Bills?

Judicial Review Limited: Courts cannot examine legislative content before enactment except for exceptional situations.
No Pre-Enactment Censorship: Validity can be tested only after the Bill becomes law.
Reiterates Separation of Powers: Judiciary cannot intrude into legislative functioning.

Can the President exercise constitutional powers in place of the Governor under Article 142?

Court Rejects the Assumption: No constitutional fiction allows the President to step into the Governor’s role.
Limits to Article 142: It cannot rewrite constitutional architecture.

Conclusion

The opinion reaffirms constitutional restraint, narrows gubernatorial discretion, disallows “pocket vetoes”, strengthens legislative sovereignty, and emphasises judicial non-interference in executive timelines. Yet the Court’s hesitation to set procedural limits leaves space for future litigation, signalling continuing tensions in Indian federalism.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.

Linkage: This PYQ is directly relevant as the latest SC Article 143 opinion clarifies the Governor’s narrow legislative powers and rejects misuse like delay or withholding assent. It links to the issue of constitutional propriety, making re-promulgation without placing ordinances before the legislature clearly unconstitutional.

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Is federalism in retreat under single party hegemony?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

INTRODUCTION

The rationalisation of GST ushered in a new era of indirect taxation but triggered concerns among several States regarding declining revenue autonomy. Disputes around compensation, centrally-sponsored schemes, disaster relief funding, and Finance Commission recommendations have reached the Supreme Court, raising a fundamental question: Is Indian federalism being structurally reshaped under a single-party political hegemony?

The conversation in the article traces how fiscal and political federalism has shifted from cooperative frameworks in the 1990s to competitive and increasingly centralised dynamics post-2014.

WHY IN THE NEWS

The article is significant because it captures the unprecedented stress on fiscal federalism under GST, the decline of traditional accommodation politics, and the growing disconnect between richer southern States and the Union’s redistributive design. For the first time since liberalisation, States across the political spectrum are questioning the vertical imbalance and the shrinking autonomy embedded in taxation, grants, and centrally sponsored schemes. The issue is compelling because these structural tensions coincide with the rise of a dominant national party, altering how bargaining, negotiation, and regional representation historically shaped Indian federalism.

Shifts in Federalism: From Accommodation to Assertion

Federal Coalition Politics: Provided space for regional parties to influence national policy in the 1990s; reforms had federal character, and Centre-State interaction increased.
Decline of Accommodation: Rise of single-party majority reduced negotiation; regional anxieties and political identities feel less represented.
BJP’s Unitary Political Vision: Emphasises uniformity over accommodation, reducing incentives for coalition-based bargaining.

How Has GST Altered the Fiscal Architecture?

Loss of Tax Autonomy: States surrendered sovereign taxation power; they now depend on shared revenues and compensation.
Compensation Tensions: Delays triggered mistrust; design issues, particularly Finance Commission-linked vertical imbalance, create sustained stress.
Redistributive Principle: Southern States argue that redistributive transfers have become structurally rigid without acknowledging their economic efficiency.

What Is Driving Regional Inequality and Fiscal Stress?

Unequal Growth Patterns: Southern States showed high economic growth but lack employment-intensive outcomes; inequality persists.
Structural Vertical Imbalance: Centre retains key taxation powers while States bear expenditure responsibilities; this misalignment fuels fiscal dissatisfaction.
Urbanisation and Labour Migration: Remittances from poorer northern States sustain the growth of southern economies, deepening interdependence yet also friction.

How Has Single-Party Dominance Reshaped Political Federalism?

Reduced Federal Bargains: With weaker regional representation at the Centre, the cooperative ethos has weakened.
Rise of Central Schemes: States perceive centralisation in scheme design, financing patterns, and conditionalities.
Executive Federalism: More meetings, consultations, and vertical controls replacing political negotiation platforms like the Planning Commission.

Why Are Delimitation and Census Triggering Concerns?

Southern States’ Anxiety: Fear losing political weight due to lower population growth relative to northern States.
Economic Contribution vs Representation: High-growth States feel the political architecture does not reward efficient governance.
One Nation, One Election Debate: Seen as another centralising push, weakening federal political competition.

CONCLUSION

The article concludes that the crisis in Indian federalism is not merely episodic but structural, rooted in post-GST fiscal architecture, weakened accommodation politics, regional disparities, and the rise of a dominant national party. The challenge is to redesign mechanisms of trust, negotiation, and fiscal balance so that India’s federal compact remains resilient to political shocks and centred on cooperative problem-solving.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: This PYQ directly aligns with the article’s core themes of growing centralisation, GST-driven fiscal stress, and weakening accommodation politics between the Centre and States. It links perfectly with the discussion on fiscal imbalance, GST Council tensions, Finance Commission changes, and the impact of single-party dominance on federal bargaining.

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Air Pollution

Crop-residue burning turning India into global methane hotspot, UN report warns

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

India has been identified as a major methane-emission hotspot from crop-residue burning, according to a UN report released on November 17, 2025 at COP30 in Belem, Brazil. Stubble burning, already a key air-pollution source, is now flagged as a major climate threat, and reducing it would benefit both public health and the climate.

1) Key Findings of the Report:

Global Ranking: India is the world’s third-largest methane emitter after China and the United States, releasing 31 million tonnes annually.
G20 Contribution: The G20 countries, including India, account for 65% of global methane emissions, while total global emissions are 360 million tonnes per year.
Future Outlook: The report notes that although methane levels are rising, emissions could decline by 2030 with strong mitigation efforts.
Climate & Food Benefits: Reducing methane is one of the fastest and most effective climate actions, also lowering crop losses and improving food security, as highlighted by UNEP Executive Director Inger Andersen.

2) India’s Methane Profile:

Major Sources: India’s key methane sources include livestock (enteric fermentation, manure) and rice cultivation, with crop-residue burning becoming a major emerging hotspot.
Waste-Management Impact: Waste-burning methane emissions increased from 4.5 million tonnes (1995) to 7.4 million tonnes (2020) – a 64% rise, compared to a 43% global increase.
Sector-wise Emissions (2020): India generated 20 million tonnes of methane from agriculture and 4.5 million tonnes from the energy sector in 2020.

3) About Methane:

Basic Definition: Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon, made of one carbon and four hydrogen atoms (CH₄).
Key Properties: It is odourless, colourless, tasteless, lighter than air, and burns with a blue flame during complete combustion, producing CO₂ and H₂O.
Role as Natural Gas: Methane is the primary component of natural gas, widely used as a fuel.
Greenhouse Gas Importance: Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide (CO₂).
Global Warming Potential: It has a 20-year GWP of 84, meaning it traps 84 times more heat than CO₂ over the same period.
Atmospheric Lifetime: Although highly potent, methane is short-lived in the atmosphere compared to CO₂.
Contribution to Warming: It is responsible for about 30% of global temperature rise since the pre-industrial era.
Ozone Formation: Methane also helps form ground-level ozone, a harmful pollutant.

4) Global Methane Pledge(GMP):

About the Pledge: Launched at COP26 (2021) by the United States and the European Union to catalyse action on methane reduction.
Membership: Nearly 130 countries have joined; collectively responsible for 45% of global human-caused methane emissions.
Targets: Countries commit to reduce methane emissions by at least 30% below 2020 levels by 2030.
Climate Impact: A 30% reduction could avoid 0.2°C warming by 2050, supporting the 1.5°C target.
India’s Status: India is not a participant, despite being among the top five global methane emitters, mainly from agriculture.

5) Global Methane Initiative (GMI):

Nature of Initiative: An international public-private partnership promoting methane recovery and use as a clean energy source.
Technical Support: Provides technical assistance to implement methane-to-energy projects worldwide.
Country Participation: Helps partner nations deploy methane utilisation projects; India is a partner country.

6) Methane Alert and Response System (MARS):

Purpose: A data-to-action system delivering reliable and actionable methane-emission data for mitigation.
Launch: Announced at COP27 (2022); pilot phase began in January 2023.
Technology: Uses satellite-based detection to identify major methane sources globally.
Action Mechanism: Provides notifications to countries and companies, enabling rapid response and emission reduction.
Partnerships: Operates with the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) and the International Energy Agency (IEA).
Core Components: Detection, notification, response, and progress tracking for emission control.

7) International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO):

Establishment: Launched at the G20 Leaders’ Summit (2021).
Initial Focus: Concentrated on methane emissions from the fossil fuel sector.
Data Integration: Combines information from scientific studies, satellites (via MARS), OGMP 2.0 reporting, and national inventories.
OGMP 2.0 Role: UNEP’s flagship programme to enhance accuracy and transparency of methane reporting in the oil and gas industry.

[UPSC 2019] Consider the following:

1. Carbon monoxide

2. Methane

3. Ozone

4. Sulphur dioxide

Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4*

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Antibiotics Resistance

NCDC flags study on rising antibiotic resistance in India

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

The NCDC has rejected a Lancet study claiming that over 50% of Indian patients undergoing a specific gastrointestinal procedure are colonised with multidrug-resistant organisms (MDROs), calling the findings inaccurate.

1) What is Antibiotic Resistance:

Definition: Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites) become resistant to antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and anthelmintics.
Impact on Treatment: Standard treatments become ineffective, leading to persistent infections that can spread to others.
Natural Phenomenon: Resistance develops naturally as bacteria evolve, reducing the effectiveness of drugs.
Superbugs: Microorganisms that develop AMR are often called “superbugs.”
Global Threat: The WHO identifies AMR as one of the top ten global health threats.

2) Causes of Antibiotic Resistance:

High Disease Burden: A high prevalence of communicable diseases (tuberculosis, diarrhoea, respiratory infections) increases antimicrobial use.
Weak Public Health System: An overburdened health system limits diagnostic capacity, leading to improper treatment.
Poor Infection Control: Hygiene lapses in hospitals and clinics promote the spread of resistant bacteria.
Misuse of Antibiotics: Overprescription, self-medication, incomplete antibiotic courses, and unnecessary use of broad-spectrum antibiotics accelerate resistance.
Easy Access: Unregulated over-the-counter antibiotic availability increases inappropriate use.
Lack of Awareness: Low public awareness about AMR contributes to misuse of antibiotics.
Inadequate Surveillance: Limited monitoring systems hinder tracking and understanding of AMR spread.

3) Implications of AMR:

Healthcare Impact: AMR makes previously effective antibiotics ineffective, causing prolonged illnesses, severe symptoms, and higher mortality from common infections such as pneumonia, UTIs, and skin infections.
Increased Healthcare Costs: Resistant infections require costlier drugs, longer hospital stays, and sometimes invasive procedures, raising expenses for patients, health systems, and governments.
Challenges in Medical Procedures: AMR increases risks in surgeries, chemotherapy, and organ transplants because infections may not respond to standard antibiotics.
Limitations in Treatment Options: Growing resistance reduces the availability of effective antibiotics, potentially creating a post-antibiotic era where common infections become untreatable and potentially fatal.

4) About National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC):

Organizational Affiliation: NCDC functions under the Indian Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Purpose: Established as a national centre of excellence for the control of communicable diseases.
Leadership: The Director, an officer of the Public Health sub-cadre of Central Health Service, serves as the administrative and technical head of the institute.
Headquarters: Located in New Delhi.
Branches: NCDC has 8 regional branches at Alwar (Rajasthan), Bengaluru (Karnataka), Kozhikode (Kerala), Coonoor (Tamil Nadu), Jagdalpur (Chhattisgarh), Patna (Bihar), Rajahmundry (Andhra Pradesh), and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh).

[UPSC 2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

1. Genetic predisposition of some people

2. Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases

3. Using antibiotics in livestock farming

4. Multiple chronic diseases in some people

Select the correct answer using the code given below. Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

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Air Pollution

SC allows CAQM to take ‘proactive’ measures to curb Delhi air pollution

Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why In The News?

The Supreme Court allowed CAQM full freedom to take proactive anti-pollution measures in Delhi-NCR, including applying GRAP-IV options like work-from-home and 50% office attendance during the ongoing GRAP-III stage.

About the Judgement:

Supreme Court’s Direction: SC empowered CAQM to take proactive pollution-control measures in Delhi-NCR.
Bench Observation: CJI Gavai urged stakeholder consultation.
Key Proposals: Early use of GRAP-IV measures, vehicle exemptions, staggered timings, and congestion control.
Additional Proposals: CAQM proposed advancing GRAP measures, enforcing congestion control, notifying vehicle aggregator policies, reviewing school sports during pollution months, and adopting long-term steps like EV policy review and higher charges on luxury diesel SUVs

2) What is CAQM (Commission for Air Quality Management)?

About: A statutory body managing air quality in Delhi-NCR and adjoining areas, created under the CAQM Act, 2021, replacing the earlier EPCA (1998) and initially introduced via a 2020 ordinance.
Structure: Chairperson is a senior government official (Secretary/Chief Secretary); includes 5 ex-officio members from Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh; 3 full-time technical members; 3 NGO members; supported technically by CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog.
Functions: Responsible for monitoring, coordinating, and implementing air quality policies, researching pollution sources, proposing mitigation strategies, and raising public awareness.
Powers: Holds jurisdiction over Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan; can issue binding directions, restrict polluting activities, enforce environmental rules, act against non-compliance, and initiate complaints under the CAQM Act, 2021.

3) What is GRAP (Graded Response Action Plan)?

About: A pre-emptive and emergency framework to control Delhi-NCR air pollution; created under Supreme Court directions in C. Mehta vs Union of India (2016); notified in 2017 and implemented by CAQM, MoEFCC, and State authorities; operates through four graded stages linked to AQI levels.
Stages of GRAP:
Stage I – Poor (AQI 201–300): Road dust control and enforcement of PUC norms.
Stage II – Very Poor (AQI 301–400): Limits on diesel generators and actions in pollution hotspots.
Stage III – Severe (AQI 401–450): Vehicle restrictions, construction curbs, and remote schooling
Stage IV – Severe+ (AQI > 450): Ban on heavy vehicles, school closures, and shutdown of non-essential industries.
Purpose: To ensure a graded, coordinated, time-bound response that prevents air quality from escalating to hazardous levels.

4)Air Quality Monitoring Measures:

1) AQI (Air Quality Index)

Launched in 2014 with the concept “One Number – One Color – One Description” for easy public understanding.
Developed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
Based on 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, Pb.
Contains six air quality categories ranging from Good to Severe.

2) SAFAR (System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and Research)

Provides location-specific, real-time air quality information for major Indian metropolitan cities.
Introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences, developed by IITM Pune.
Measures pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, O3, CO, NOx, SO2, Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, Mercury.
Uses Continuous Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Systems (CAAQMS); an example includes the one commissioned by the Indian Army in Kolkata.

3) NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards)

Set by CPCB in 2009 under the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Covers 12 pollutants, including SO2, NO2, PM10, PM2.5, O3, Pb, CO, NH3, Benzene, Benzopyrene, As, Ni.
Specifies annual and 24-hour standards for industrial, residential, rural, and ecologically sensitive areas.

4) NAMP (National Air Quality Monitoring Programme)

Executed by CPCB to monitor ambient air quality across India.
Network includes 800+ stations in 344 cities/towns, covering 28 states and 6 UTs.
Objectives: track air quality trends, assess compliance with NAAQS, identify non-attainment cities.
Monitors SO2, NO2, PM10, and PM2.5 along with meteorological factors like wind speed, humidity, and temperature.

5) WHO Ambient Air Quality Database

A global database compiling annual mean concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, and NO2.
First released in 2011; updated periodically—2023 is the sixth update.
Linked to WHO’s 2021 Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs), which tightened acceptable pollution limits.

[UPSC 2022] In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements:

1. The 24-hour mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM 2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.

2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

3. PM 10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.

4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

Options: (a) 1, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 4 only* (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2 only

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

[20th November 2025] The Hindu OpED: Hidden cost of polluted groundwater

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.

Linkage: This PYQ is important for UPSC as freshwater scarcity and contamination are core GS-III themes. The article links directly by highlighting toxic groundwater, failing treatment systems, and the urgent need for affordable purification technologies.

Mentor’s Comment

Groundwater contamination in India is no longer a silent environmental issue, it has become an economic, social, and public-health emergency. This topic is highly relevant PYQ for UPSC, as water scarcity and groundwater contamination are recurring GS-III themes. The article directly aligns by showing how polluted aquifers and weak treatment systems make alternative purification technologies essential for India’s water security.

Introduction

Groundwater, the backbone of India’s drinking water and irrigation systems, is now increasingly polluted with heavy metals, industrial residues, and excess fertilizers. Reports from multiple states reveal a rise in fluoride, arsenic, uranium, and nitrate contamination, creating a public-health disaster and long-term economic losses. The issue has moved from isolated pockets to a nationwide development challenge demanding regulatory urgency, technological solutions, and sustainable water governance.

Why in the News

Recent rounds of India’s Groundwater Quality Report (2022) and field evidence from Punjab, Gujarat, Telangana, and Haryana indicate a sharp rise in toxic contamination, including fluoride-linked deformities, arsenic poisoning, and uranium beyond safe limits. The scale is unprecedented: nearly 600 million Indians rely on groundwater, and contamination is now accelerating due to over-extraction, fertilizer misuse, and industrial discharge. The crisis is no longer environmental, it is weakening agricultural incomes, burdening households with high medical costs, and threatening India’s export competitiveness.

What Is Causing Groundwater to Become Toxic?

Heavy Reliance on Groundwater
- Over-extraction: Agriculture absorbs over 60% of India’s groundwater, exceeding sustainable limits in several districts.
- Irrigation intensity: Canal systems have stagnated, forcing farmers to depend on tube wells.
- Result: Declining water tables concentrate pollutants and accelerate toxicity.
Chemical Contamination from Agriculture
- Excess fertilizer and pesticide use: Leads to nitrate accumulation and leaching into aquifers.
- Heavy metals: Arsenic, fluoride, uranium exceed permissible limits in many districts.
- Impact: Childhood skeletal deformities, fluorosis, long-term organ damage.
Industrial and Sewage Discharge
- Untreated effluents: Lack of sewage treatment expands contamination beyond village boundaries.
- Industrial residues: Agro-processing and manufacturing hubs increase heavy metal presence.
- Outcome: Polluted aquifers affecting both rural and peri-urban areas.

How Groundwater Pollution Impacts Health and Society

Rising Health Burden
- Skeletal deformities, fluorosis, kidney damage: Result of toxic metals in drinking water.
- Children disproportionately affected: Early-life exposure lowers future productivity.
Debt and Medical Expenditure
- High out-of-pocket expense: Families spend heavily on hospital visits and bottled water.
- Wealthier households cope better: Poorer families cannot afford alternative water sources.
Intergenerational Impacts
- Impaired cognitive development: Arsenic and fluoride exposure affects education outcomes.
- Lower economic mobility: Chronic illness depresses earning capacity.

How Groundwater Pollution Hurts Agriculture and the Economy

Loss of Farm Productivity
- Poor water quality reduces crop yields: Long-term exposure to contaminated irrigation water.
- Heavy metals affect soil health: Reducing crop diversity and nutritional value.
Threat to India’s Export Market
- Buyers demand stringent quality checks: Contamination threatens rice, spices, fruits, vegetables.
- The $50-60 billion agri-export sector risks losses due to toxicity and traceability issues.
Vicious Cycle of Over-Extraction
- Declining tables led to more drilling which leads to more contaminants: Increases farmer indebtedness.
- High fertilizer use worsens soil chemistry: Further reduces sustainability.

Why Policy Failure Allowed This Crisis to Escalate

Weak Enforcement of Pollution Norms
1. Inadequate regulation of industrial discharge: Leads to untreated sewage entering aquifers.
2. Poor monitoring: Rural areas lack regular water quality surveillance.
Lack of Decentralised Treatment Systems
1. Dependence on centralized schemes: Community-level solutions not prioritized.
2. Delayed response: Slow implementation of purification units.
Limited Agricultural Diversification
1. Punjab’s water-intensive cropping pattern: Maintains heavy groundwater stress.
2. Minimal shift to millets/pulses despite policy incentives.

Way Forward

Nationwide Real-Time Groundwater Monitoring
- Open access digital platform: Communities should know what they are drinking/using to irrigate.
- Data-driven planning: Better targeting of polluted zones.
Strengthen Industrial and Sewage Regulations
- Strict enforcement of effluent norms: Prevent industrial leakages.
- Expand sewage treatment infrastructure: Particularly in peri-urban zones.
Agricultural Policy Reform
- Shift away from water-intensive crops: Encourage pulses, maize, oilseeds.
- Promote micro-irrigation: Reduce water table stress.
Localised Water Purification
- Community-level treatment plants: Immediate relief in severely contaminated areas.
- Affordable household filtration for poor families.
Long-Term Water Security Planning
- Integrating health, agriculture, and environment: Holistic approach to water governance.
- Prevent groundwater from becoming India’s next major economic crisis.

Conclusion

Groundwater contamination has transformed into a multidimensional crisis affecting public health, agriculture, exports, and intergenerational equity. Without strict regulation, real-time monitoring, and agricultural diversification, the economic and health losses will escalate. India must act decisively before the groundwater crisis becomes irreversible.

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