Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
Why in the News?
March 26, 2025, marked the 50th anniversary of the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.
About the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
- The BWC also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty aimed at banning biological and toxin weapons.
- It prohibits activities related to the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons.
- Negotiation and Adoption:
- Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1969 to 1971.
- Draft versions were tabled by the USA and USSR in August 1971.
- The treaty was opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
- It entered into force on March 26, 1975, after the required ratifications.
- Key Provisions:
- Article I: Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
- Article II: Requires destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons to peaceful purposes before joining.
- Article III: Prohibits transfer or assistance in acquiring biological weapons.
- Article VI: Allows states to file complaints with the UN Security Council about treaty violations.
- Article X: Promotes the exchange of materials and information for peaceful purposes.
- Structure and Membership:
- Depositaries: United States, United Kingdom, and Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
- Membership: As of February 2025, 188 states are parties to the treaty, with 4 states having signed but not ratified, and 9 states have neither signed nor ratified.
- Review Conferences: Held every 5 years to assess the treaty’s implementation and strengthen confidence-building measures.
India and the BWC:
- India is a party to the BWC.
- India has implemented national measures and established legal frameworks to comply with the provisions of the BWC, preventing the development or use of biological weapons.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to the Biological Weapons Convention, consider the following statements:
1.It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling or use of biological and toxin weapons.
2. It has a verification mechanism to check compliance by member States.
3. It is an umbrella treaty under the aegis of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire
Why in the News?
A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
About the Sangama Dynasty
- The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
- They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
- The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
- The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.
Notable Rulers
- Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
- Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
- Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
- Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
- Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.
Downfall
- Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
- The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.
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Key Features of the Copper Plates
- These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
- The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
- They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
- The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Historical Significance:
- Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
- It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
[UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?
(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Credit Programme
Why in the News?
The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.
About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)
- The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
- It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
- Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
- These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
- It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
- The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.
Criticisms of the Program:
- Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
- Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
- Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
- Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
[UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy
Why in the News?
The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.
RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935
- On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
- The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.
Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy
- Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
- The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
- The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
- Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
- The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
- Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
- The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
- Exchange Rate Management
- In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
- This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
- Disputes Between Government and RBI
- The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
- This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
- The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.
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About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
- The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
- Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
- Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
- He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
- It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
- RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
- Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.
Functions and Initiatives:
- Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
- Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
- Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
- Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
- Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
- Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
- Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.
Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
- These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.
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[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:
1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.
2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-China relation;
Why in the News?
On April 1, China and India celebrated 75 years of diplomatic relations. Despite some challenges, their bond has kept growing, just like the Yangtze and Ganges rivers.
What are the key factors that have influenced China-India relations over the past 75 years?
- Strategic Leadership & Diplomatic Initiatives: Leaders have played a pivotal role in shaping ties at critical junctures. Example: In 1950, Nehru and Mao established diplomatic relations, and in 1988, Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China helped normalize relations after the 1962 war.
- Border Disputes & Security Concerns: The unresolved boundary issue has been a major friction point. Example: The 1962 India-China War and recent tensions in Ladakh (Galwan clash, 2020) highlight ongoing territorial disputes.
- Economic Engagement & Trade Relations: Bilateral trade has expanded significantly, despite political tensions. Example: Trade increased from under $3 billion in 2000 to $138.5 billion in 2024, making China India’s largest trading partner.
- Multilateral Cooperation & Global Governance: Both nations collaborate in international forums but also compete for regional influence. Example: India and China work together in BRICS, SCO, and G-20 but differ in strategies for regional dominance (e.g., Indo-Pacific and BRI).
- Cultural & People-to-People Ties: Historical and civilizational ties continue to foster mutual understanding. Example: The influence of scholars like Rabindranath Tagore and the contribution of Dr. Kotnis in China during WWII symbolize enduring cultural bonds.
How have the leaders of China and India guided their bilateral relations during critical historical junctures?
- Establishment of Diplomatic Ties (1950): Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chairman Mao Zedong formalized relations, making India the first non-socialist country to recognize the People’s Republic of China.
- Normalization Post-1962 War (1988): Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to China marked a turning point, leading to agreements on peace and cooperation, setting the stage for improved ties.
- Economic & Strategic Engagement (2003-2013): Under Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Hu Jintao, India recognized Tibet as part of China, and China acknowledged Sikkim as part of India, fostering trade and diplomatic ties.
- Informal Summits for Stability (2018-2019): Prime Minister Narendra Modi and President Xi Jinping held informal summits in Wuhan (2018) and Mamallapuram (2019) to ease tensions and enhance strategic trust.
- Crisis Management & Recent Diplomatic Talks (2023-2024): Amid border tensions, diplomatic channels, such as the Special Representatives’ talks and Foreign Minister-level dialogues helped maintain stability and explore solutions.
How can China and India promote a multipolar world and protect developing countries’ interests?
- Strengthening Multilateral Organizations: Both nations actively contribute to BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and the G-20 to ensure developing countries have a greater voice in global governance.
- Advocating for Fair Trade and Economic Policies: They push for reforms in the World Trade Organization (WTO) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) to make global trade and financial systems more inclusive and equitable.
- Enhancing South-South Cooperation: Initiatives like China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and India’s Development Partnership Administration (DPA) can support infrastructure, healthcare, and education in Africa, Latin America, and Asia.
- Promoting an Inclusive Global Order: China and India have called for United Nations (UN) Security Council reforms to give more representation to emerging economies, ensuring a balanced global power structure.
- Joint Climate and Sustainable Development InitiativesThey collaborate in forums like the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and advocate for climate justice, ensuring fair access to green technology and funding for developing nations.
What steps can China and India take to strengthen their bilateral economic and trade cooperation? (Way forward)
- Enhancing Trade Facilitation and Reducing Barriers: Both nations can work towards reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers to improve market access. Example: Streamlining customs procedures and regulatory harmonization can facilitate smoother trade in key sectors like pharmaceuticals, electronics, and textiles.
- Boosting Investments and Joint Ventures: Encouraging mutual investments in infrastructure, manufacturing, and technology sectors to foster economic interdependence. Example: China’s investment in India’s mobile phone sector (e.g., Xiaomi and Oppo factories in India) can be expanded to other industries like renewable energy and automobile manufacturing.
- Strengthening Supply Chain Resilience: Both countries can collaborate to create diversified supply chains and reduce overdependence on Western markets. Example: Joint production and R&D in semiconductor manufacturing to reduce dependency on third-party nations.
- Promoting Digital and Financial Cooperation: Expanding digital economy collaboration, including fintech, e-commerce, and AI-driven solutions. Example: Enabling regulated entry of Indian fintech firms into China’s market and vice versa, similar to how Chinese tech firms like Alibaba and Tencent have invested in Indian startups.
- Expanding Multilateral and Regional Cooperation: Strengthening collaboration in platforms like BRICS, SCO, and RCEP to enhance economic integration. Example: Coordinating policies on global trade issues like WTO reforms, climate finance, and digital trade governance to promote shared economic interests.
Mains question for practice:
Question: ‘Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad)’ is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times – Discuss. [UPSC 2020]
Linkage: Quad, a strategic dialogue involving India, the US, Japan, and Australia, which is widely seen as a counter to China’s growing influence in the Indo-Pacific. Understanding the Quad’s evolving nature is crucial for analyzing India’s strategic choices in relation to China.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Indian Education System;
Why in the News?
India’s education system was neglected for decades, with no major policy update since 1986. While the world evolved, India remained stuck in outdated methods, resisting technological and global advancements.
What were the key flaws in India’s education system before NEP 2020?
- Outdated and Rigid Curriculum: The last major policy revision was in 1986 (with minor changes in 1992), making the education system disconnected from modern technological and economic advancements. Example: While global education systems embraced digital learning and skill-based curricula.
- Lack of Access and Equity: The system failed to provide inclusive education, with marginalized communities, women, and rural students facing significant barriers. Example: Inadequate scholarships, lack of infrastructure in rural schools, and gender disparity led to lower enrollments among Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and women.
- Political Interference and Corruption: Governance bodies like UGC and AICTE became instruments of political control rather than enablers of academic excellence. Example: The 2009 Deemed University scandal, where 44 private institutions were granted university status without proper evaluation, exposing financial irregularities.
- Underfunded Public Education & Rise of Unregulated Private Institutions: Public universities were systematically starved of funds, leading to poor infrastructure and faculty shortages. Meanwhile, private institutions emerged as degree mills with little regulation. Example: Many engineering and medical colleges prioritized profit over education quality, leading to subpar graduates with minimal employable skills.
- Eurocentric and Ideologically Driven Curriculum: The education system failed to incorporate India’s rich intellectual and cultural heritage, with history often being selectively framed to suit political narratives. Example: Contributions of revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, and Veer Savarkar were downplayed.
How has the NEP 2020 contributed to improving access, equity, and quality in education in India?
- Increased Access to Education for Marginalized Groups: NEP 2020 introduced policies to improve enrollment among SCs, STs, OBCs, and minorities. Example: Enrollment in higher education increased by 50% for SCs, 75% for STs, and 54% for OBCs since 2014-15. Women’s enrollment also grew by 38.8% in 2022-23.
- Expansion of Early Childhood Education & Foundational Learning: NEP 2020 introduced the 5+3+3+4 system, focusing on foundational literacy and numeracy. Example: The NIPUN Bharat Mission aims to ensure that every child attains foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3.
- Multilingual Education & Inclusion of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS): Promotes regional languages in schools and integrates traditional knowledge into the curriculum. Example: The Bharatiya Bhasha Pustak Yojana aims to publish 15,000 textbooks in 22 Indian languages to make higher education accessible in local languages.
- Improved Infrastructure & Teacher-Student Ratio: NEP 2020 mandates modern infrastructure, teacher training, and support systems to improve learning outcomes. Example: Per-child government expenditure increased by 130% (from ₹10,780 in 2013-14 to ₹25,043 in 2021-22), leading to improved pupil-teacher ratios and reduced dropout rates.
- Quality Enhancement Through Skill-Based & Digital Learning: NEP 2020 emphasizes coding, AI, and multidisciplinary learning to prepare students for the future. Example: Over 10,000 Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) have been set up to promote STEM education, and plans are underway to establish 50,000 more with broadband access.
Why is the empowerment of women a key focus of the education reforms under NEP 2020?
- Bridging Gender Gaps in Education: NEP 2020 emphasizes increasing female enrollment across all levels of education. Example: Female enrollment in higher education grew by 38.8%, crossing 2.18 crore in 2022-23. Among Muslim minority students, female enrollment rose by 57.5%.
- Encouraging Women in STEMM Fields: The policy promotes gender inclusion in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medicine (STEMM). Example: Women now make up 43% of students in STEMM fields, breaking traditional gender barriers in male-dominated domains.
- Improving Female Representation in Academia: NEP 2020 ensures equal opportunities in teaching and research positions. Example: The proportion of female teachers increased from 38.6% in 2014 to 44.23%, transforming academic leadership landscapes.
- Financial and Social Support for Girls’ Education: NEP 2020 promotes scholarships, financial aid, and safety measures to encourage girls’ education. Example: The introduction of Gender Inclusion Fund supports school infrastructure, sanitary facilities, and incentives for female students.
- Skill Development & Economic Independence: NEP 2020 integrates vocational training, entrepreneurship, and digital literacy to empower women economically. Example: The policy supports multidisciplinary learning and skilling programs that prepare women for careers in emerging fields like AI and data science.
Which NEP 2020 initiatives promote innovation and research in education?
- Establishment of the National Research Foundation (NRF): The NRF aims to fund, mentor, and support research across disciplines by integrating industry and academia. Example: India’s research publications have increased by 88% since 2015, and India’s ranking in the Global Innovation Index improved from 76 (2014) to 39 (2023).
- Introduction of Atal Tinkering Labs (ATLs) for Grassroots Innovation: Over 10,000 ATLs have been set up in schools to nurture a culture of experimentation, problem-solving, and innovation among students. Example: The government plans to expand ATLs to 50,000 schools with broadband connectivity in the next five years.
- Multidisciplinary and Flexible Learning Approach: NEP 2020 promotes multidisciplinary research by breaking rigid subject barriers and introducing coding, artificial intelligence (AI), and data science at the school level. Example: Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) are being integrated into over 8,000 higher education institutions, encouraging innovation rooted in traditional knowledge.
Way forward:
- Enhanced Public-Private Collaboration in Research & Innovation: Strengthen industry-academia partnerships to bridge the skill gap, improve employability, and boost indigenous research in emerging technologies like AI, quantum computing, and biotechnology.
- Robust Monitoring & Implementation Framework: Establish independent regulatory bodies to track progress, ensure equitable access, and prevent commercialization of education, ensuring that NEP 2020 achieves its intended objectives effectively.
Mains PYQ:
Question: National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. [UPSC 2020]
Linkage: Critical examination of the policy’s intent to restructure and reorient the education system.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Tiger Triumph
Why in the News?
The 4th edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph, a bilateral tri-service Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise, will be held on the Eastern Seaboard of India, with activities taking place in Visakhapatnam and Kakinada.
About Exercise Tiger Triumph
- The exercise was first announced by then U.S. President Donald Trump during the Howdy Modi event in Houston on September 22, 2019.
- The inaugural exercise took place from November 13 to 21, 2019.
- It involved approximately 1,200 Indian personnel and 500 U.S. military members, with key participation from the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific.
- Harbour Phase: Held in Visakhapatnam, including training visits, expert exchanges, and social interactions.
- Sea Phase: Conducted in Kakinada, focusing on practical HADR operations like field hospital setups and evacuation drills.
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- 2022 Edition: Emphasized disaster relief coordination, with tabletop simulations to improve operational readiness.
- 2024 Edition: Focused on refining standard operating procedures (SOPs) and included a battalion group from the Indian Army.
Important Features:
- Interoperability Enhancement: The exercise aims to improve the coordination between Indian and U.S. forces during disaster response situations, ensuring rapid deployment and effective collaboration.
- Humanitarian Assistance Focus: The exercise simulates responses to natural disasters like super-cyclones, refining diplomatic, operational, and logistical efforts in such crises.
- Strengthening Bilateral Ties: Joint drills and exchanges during the exercise serve to fortify the strategic partnership between India and the U.S., focusing on shared best practices and operational capabilities.
[UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NITI NCAER States Economic Forum
Why in the News?
The Finance Minister is set to launch the “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal.
About the NITI NCAER States Economic Forum Portal
- The “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal is a comprehensive digital platform developed by NITI Aayog in collaboration with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
- It serves as a centralized repository of data, research reports, and expert commentary on state-level finances and social, economic, and fiscal parameters spanning from 1990-91 to 2022-23.
- The portal aims to facilitate evidence-based policymaking by providing users with easy access to key trends and insights on state performance.
- Its features include:
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- State Reports: Summarizes the macro and fiscal landscape of 28 Indian states. Structured around indicators on demography, economic structure, socio-economic, and fiscal parameters.
- Data Repository: Access to a comprehensive database categorized into 5 verticals: Demography; Economic Structure; Fiscal Data; Health; Education.
- State Fiscal and Economic Dashboard: Provides graphical representations of key economic variables over time; Includes summary tables and raw data for easy reference.
- Research and Commentary: Offers in-depth research reports and expert commentary on state finances, fiscal policy, and financial management; Supports long-term academic and policy research.
Significance:
- Benchmarking Capabilities: it enables comparison of state performance with national averages, fostering a competitive and cooperative approach to development.
- Data Accessibility: it bridges data accessibility gaps, ensuring that policymakers, researchers, and academics can make informed decisions based on reliable and comprehensive data.
- Promotes Transparency: By offering open access to detailed data, the portal enhances fiscal transparency and encourages cooperative federalism.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1.The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Review Committee Report has recommended a debt to GDP ratio of 60% for the general (combined) government by 2023, comprising 40% for the Central Government and 20% for the State Governments.
2.The Central Government has domestic liabilities of 21% of GDP as compared to that of 49% of GDP of the State Governments.
3.As per the Constitution of India, it is mandatory for a State to take the Central Government’s consent for raising any loan if the former owes any outstanding liabilities to the latter.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles
Why in the News?
In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.
About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind
- Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
- This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
- Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
- This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
- This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
- Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
- This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
- They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
- Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.
Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):
- Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
- Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
- Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
- What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
- If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
- This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.
AMoRE Experiment:
- The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
- The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
- While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.
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Scientific Significance:
- The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
- Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
Why in the News?
SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.
About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
- The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
- The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
- Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
- Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
- The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
- The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.
Features and Significance:
- Unique Orbital Path:
- Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
- This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
- Scientific Research:
- The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
- Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
- Climate Change Research:
- As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in
1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.
2. predicting the onset of monsoons.
3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bacterial Brick
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.
About the Bacterial Brick:
- The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
- It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
- How is it made?
- The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
- The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
- The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.
Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:
- The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
- A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
- When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
- This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
- It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
[UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?
1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years. [UPSC 2021]
Linkage: The broader context of competition for influence in the continent. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Arctic has been isolated for centuries, but climate change is melting ice, which leads to opening access to valuable resources like oil, gas, and rare earth metals. Melting ice is also creating new trade routes. Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic has no strong legal protections, leading to territorial claims and military activity, increasing global tensions.
Today’s editorial discusses the geopolitical impact of climate change in the Arctic. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and GS Paper 3 (Environment).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Global experts are concerned about increasing tensions in the Arctic, cautioning that if not controlled, they might cause conflict in the area.

What are the key factors driving increased geopolitical tensions in the Arctic?
- Climate Change & Melting Ice: The Arctic ice cap is shrinking, making previously inaccessible natural resources and trade routes viable. Example: The opening of the Northeast Passage along Russia’s coast could significantly reduce shipping times between Asia and Europe.
- Competition for Natural Resources: The region holds an estimated 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of untapped natural gas, along with rare earth minerals. Example: Greenland has significant deposits of rare earth elements, attracting interest from China and the U.S.
- Territorial Disputes & Overlapping Claims: Countries are extending their maritime boundaries under UNCLOS to claim more of the Arctic seabed. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge, a key Arctic seabed area.
- Military Posturing & Strategic Control: Nations are increasing their military presence to assert dominance and protect interests. Example: Russia has expanded its Arctic military bases and deployed nuclear-powered icebreakers, while NATO has increased Arctic exercises.
- New Maritime Trade Routes & Geopolitical Rivalry: The melting ice is opening faster, alternative shipping lanes, bypassing traditional routes like the Suez Canal. Example: China is promoting the Polar Silk Road via the Northeast Passage, while Russia maintains strict control over Arctic navigation.
Who are the primary stakeholders controlling different regions of the Arctic?
- Arctic Coastal Nations (Arctic Council Members): Eight countries control Arctic land and territorial waters: Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S. Example: Russia has the largest Arctic coastline and controls key ports, while Canada claims sovereignty over the Northwest Passage.
- International Governance & UNCLOS: The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates maritime claims, allowing nations to extend seabed claims if proven as a continental shelf extension. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have all submitted overlapping claims to the Arctic seabed under UNCLOS.
- Non-Arctic Global Powers & Observers: Non-Arctic nations like China, India, the UK, and the EU monitor Arctic developments due to strategic interests in trade routes and resources. Example: China declared itself a “Near-Arctic State” in 2018 and is investing in icebreaker ships to influence Arctic shipping lanes.
Where do territorial disputes and conflicting claims arise among Arctic nations?
- Competing Seabed Claims under UNCLOS: Arctic nations claim extended seabed areas beyond their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) by proving geological extensions of their continental shelves. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark (via Greenland) have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean.
- Northwest Passage Dispute (Canada vs. U.S.): Canada considers the Northwest Passage part of its internal waters, granting it control over navigation. The U.S. and other nations claim it is an international strait, allowing free passage. Example: The U.S. has conducted “freedom of navigation” operations in the passage, challenging Canada’s sovereignty.
- Svalbard Archipelago (Norway vs. Russia): Norway administers Svalbard under the Svalbard Treaty (1920), granting access to signatory nations for commercial activities. However, Russia argues for broader rights. Example: Russia continues to expand mining operations in Svalbard and has politically challenged Norway’s restrictions on military activity there.
- Greenland Sovereignty & U.S. Interest (Denmark vs. U.S.): The U.S. has questioned Denmark’s sovereignty over Greenland and previously attempted to purchase the island due to its strategic location and rare earth minerals. Example: In 2019, then-U.S. President Donald Trump expressed interest in buying Greenland, leading to diplomatic tensions with Denmark.
- Barents Sea & Arctic Borders (Norway vs. Russia): Russia and Norway have had disputes over their maritime boundary in the Barents Sea, an area rich in oil, gas, and fisheries. Example: A 2010 agreement settled much of the dispute, but tensions persist, especially with increasing Russian military activity near Norwegian waters.
Why is the Arctic considered strategically important for global powers?
- Rich Natural Resources: The Arctic is estimated to hold 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its untapped natural gas, along with rare earth elements, phosphates, and fisheries. Example: Russia has significantly invested in Yamal LNG projects, while Greenland has attracted interest from China and the U.S. for its rare earth deposits.
- New Trade Routes Due to Melting Ice: The Northeast Passage (along Russia’s coast) and the Northwest Passage (through Canada) could drastically reduce global shipping distances, saving billions in transportation costs. Example: China’s “Polar Silk Road” seeks to use the Northeast Passage for trade, reducing travel time between East Asia and Europe by 40% compared to the Suez Canal route.
- Military & Geopolitical Significance: The Arctic provides strategic military advantages, including submarine deployment zones, early warning radar systems, and missile defense capabilities. Example: Russia has established new Arctic military bases, the U.S. has expanded its Thule Air Base in Greenland, and NATO has increased military exercises in the region.
How are nations like Russia, China, and NATO asserting their influence in the Arctic region?
- Russia: Militarization and Territorial Claims: Russia has the largest Arctic military presence, including nuclear-powered icebreakers, air bases, and missile defense systems. It has also made territorial claims under UNCLOS to extend its control over the Arctic seabed.
- Example: In 2007, Russia planted its flag on the Arctic seabed at the North Pole and continues to expand its Arctic military bases, such as in Franz Josef Land and the Kola Peninsula.
- China: Economic Investments and Strategic Partnerships: China, though not an Arctic nation, calls itself a “Near-Arctic State” and is expanding its influence through investments in Arctic infrastructure, scientific research, and trade routes (Polar Silk Road).
- Example: China has invested in Arctic mining projects in Greenland and collaborated with Russia on LNG projects, like the Yamal LNG plant. It is also building nuclear-powered icebreakers.
- NATO: Strengthening Military Presence and Alliances: NATO has intensified military exercises and surveillance in the Arctic, especially after Finland and Sweden joined the alliance following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
- Example: In 2024, NATO conducted large-scale Arctic military drills near the Russian border in Finland and strengthened defense ties with Canada and Norway.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Arctic Governance & Diplomacy: Enhance international cooperation through the Arctic Council and UNCLOS to manage territorial disputes, resource exploration, and environmental challenges. Example: Establish legally binding agreements for sustainable Arctic resource extraction and conflict resolution mechanisms to prevent geopolitical tensions.
- Balancing Economic Development with Environmental Protection: Promote responsible Arctic development by enforcing strict environmental regulations while ensuring indigenous rights and sustainable economic activities. Example: Encourage renewable energy projects, scientific research, and eco-friendly shipping practices to mitigate the impact of Arctic exploitation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Assurances in Parliament;
Why in the News?
Since 2014, the Ministry of Home Affairs made 421 assurances in the Lok Sabha and 338 in the Rajya Sabha. However, it dropped about 15% of the assurances in the Lok Sabha and 12% in the Rajya Sabha, which is the highest among all the ministries in both houses.
What is an ‘Assurance’ in the parliamentary process, and how is it tracked?
- An assurance in the parliamentary process is a commitment made by a Ministry or the executive during a parliamentary session, where the government undertakes to take further action or report back on a matter raised by a Member of Parliament (MP).
- Example: If an MP asks about the status of a government project, and the Minister promises to provide an update or take further action, that promise becomes an assurance.
- Tracking of Assurances: Assurances are tracked by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs using the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS). The system keeps records of whether assurances are fulfilled, pending, or dropped. If an assurance is not fulfilled within three months, the Ministry must apply for an extension or request that it be dropped.
- Example: A query about the status of the Adani ports, raised by Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore in 2023, resulted in an assurance, but as of 2024, the assurance remains pending.
Why has the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the highest number of assurances in Parliament?
- Lack of Follow-up on Critical Issues: The Ministry often fails to follow through on assurances related to significant national security issues, leading to unfulfilled promises.
- For example, a question on the state-wise number of terrorist attacks and the number of terrorists arrested and killed, raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal in 2014, was left unanswered, and the assurance was dropped.
- Delayed Response to Investigative Matters: The Ministry often fails to follow up on assurances related to complex investigations. An example is the question raised by MP Asaduddin Owaisi in 2014 regarding ‘out of turn promotions’ and ‘gallantry awards’ given to policemen involved in fake encounters, which remained unanswered and was eventually dropped.
- Inability to Fulfill Commitments on Security Incidents: The Ministry has been slow in responding to assurances related to major security incidents. For instance, questions raised by MP Manish Tiwari in 2019 and 2020 regarding the Pulwama terror attack investigation were not fully addressed, resulting in these assurances being dropped.
Which ministries have the most pending and dropped assurances in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?
- Ministry of Home Affairs: The Ministry of Home Affairs has the highest number of dropped assurances across both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. For example, questions regarding terrorist attacks and the status of security-related investigations, like the one raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal about terrorist attacks, have not been answered, leading to the dropping of the assurance.
- Other Ministries with High Numbers: Besides the Home Ministry, other ministries like Finance, Law and Justice, Road Transport and Highways, and Railways also feature among the top ministries with the most dropped assurances. For example, the assurance related to the investigation of the Adani Group, raised by MP Mahua Moitra in 2021, was dropped by the Finance Ministry despite the promise of further details on foreign investments and SEBI’s inquiry.
How does the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) help in tracking government assurances?
- Tracking and Monitoring: The Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) allows for real-time tracking of assurances made by the government in Parliament. It records and publishes the status of each assurance, ensuring that the government is held accountable for its commitments.
- For example, the OAMS portal shows that nearly 65% of the assurances made in 2024 in the Lok Sabha were still pending as of March 24, 2024.
- Transparency and Accountability: OAMS provides transparency by making the status of all assurances accessible to the public. This helps track whether ministries are fulfilling their promises in a timely manner or whether they request extensions.
- For example, it highlighted the pending status of the assurance regarding the Adani Group’s ports, made in 2023, which has still not been addressed.
What are some notable examples of assurances that remain pending or were dropped between 2014 and 2024?
- Adani Group Ports Assurance: In 2023, Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore asked about the status of government-constructed ports and the volume of trade at Adani-owned ports compared to state-owned ventures. The assurance given in response to this question remains pending as of 2024.
- Investigation into the Adani Group: In 2021, MP Mahua Moitra raised the issue of investigating the Adani Group and foreign portfolio investors owning stakes in the company. The Finance Ministry provided some details but later dropped the assurance, leaving the matter unresolved.
- Pulwama Terror Attack Assurances: Congress MP Manish Tiwari raised questions about the Pulwama terror attack in 2019 and 2020, but the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the assurances related to those questions, leaving the issues without a formal follow-up.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Follow-Up Mechanisms: To improve accountability, there should be a more robust system for tracking and following up on assurances. Ministries should be mandated to provide periodic updates, and a dedicated parliamentary committee could be formed to ensure timely resolution.
- Enforcing Deadlines for Assurance Fulfillment: The government should consider setting stricter deadlines for fulfilling assurances, with consequences for non-fulfillment.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.” [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: Counter-terrorism efforts and the situation in Jammu and Kashmir, both significant areas of responsibility for the MHA. In response to such a question, the MHA might give assurances about specific measures being taken, data on their impact, or future plans.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related delimitation;
Why in the News?
The discussion on delimitation and financial distribution has caused worries in Parliament and State Assemblies, as it could affect India’s federal system, especially with the upcoming end of the freeze on parliamentary seats.
What are the key concerns in delimitation and financial devolution?
- Impact on Federalism: The redistribution of seats may reduce representation for some states, especially those with better demographic management, affecting their political influence. Example: Southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala may lose seats relative to northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
- Population vs. Representation Imbalance: States with high population growth could gain more seats, while those that controlled their population may be underrepresented. Example: The 2026 delimitation may increase seats in northern states, reducing the share of states like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
- Financial Allocation Disparity: The shift from the 1971 population base to the 2011 census for financial devolution may disadvantage states that effectively controlled population growth. Example: The 15th Finance Commission’s formula increased the weight of population (from 0.15 to 0.27), benefiting larger states like Uttar Pradesh.
- Challenges of Caste and Gender-Based Reservations: Any redistribution must ensure that marginalized communities continue to receive fair representation despite demographic changes. Example: The Women’s Reservation Bill and SC/ST reserved seats need careful adjustments post-delimitation to maintain proportional representation.
Why are peninsular States anxious about delimitation?
- Reduction in Lok Sabha Seats: States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka have controlled population growth, whereas states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have higher birth rates.Example, If seats are redistributed based on 2026 population projections, peninsular states may lose seats while northern states gain more representation.
- Unfair Distribution of Financial Resources: The 15th Finance Commission shifted to using the 2011 Census for fund allocation, benefiting high-population states. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, despite better governance, receive fewer funds compared to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, which have weaker social indicators.
- Penalty for Development Success: Southern states invested in education, healthcare, and family planning, successfully controlling their population. Example: Kerala’s high literacy rate and Tamil Nadu’s low fertility rate may lead to fewer seats, reducing their voice in national decision-making.
How did the 15th Finance Commission adjust population weightage?
- Shift from 1971 to 2011 Census Data: The 15th Finance Commission replaced the 1971 Census with the 2011 Census for financial devolution, increasing the weightage of states with larger populations. Example: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with high population growth, received a greater share of central funds.
- Incorporation of Demographic Performance: To balance the impact on states with controlled population growth, the commission introduced a demographic performance criterion. Example: Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which successfully reduced fertility rates, were given some weightage to offset their lower population share.
- Increased Weightage for Population Component: The weightage for population in financial devolution increased from 15% (in previous commissions) to 27% under the 15th Finance Commission. Example: Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, with high population growth, benefited more from this adjustment.
What is the role of demographic performance in allocation and representation?
- Balancing Population Growth with Development: Demographic performance considers not just population size, but how well a state has managed population growth, improving socio-economic indicators like fertility rates and life expectancy.
- Example: Kerala, which has a low birth rate due to effective family planning policies, might not see a drastic population increase but still deserves fair representation based on its demographic success.
- Addressing Disparities in Development: States with high population growth but poor demographic performance (e.g., high fertility rates, poor health outcomes) may receive less weight in allocation to balance out the disparity with better-performing states.
- Example: Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high population growth but relatively poor health and education indicators, may see their representation balanced with the inclusion of demographic performance factors.
- Promoting Equity in Resource Allocation: Demographic performance allows for a more equitable distribution of resources by considering how well states manage their population and its needs. This ensures that states with better demographic indicators, like lower infant mortality or higher literacy rates, are not unfairly penalized in devolution and allocation.
- Example: Tamil Nadu, which has effectively reduced its population growth while improving key development metrics, should be rewarded with adequate representation despite its smaller population size compared to more populous states like Madhya Pradesh.
Which alternatives to absolute population can guide representation? (Way forward)
- Population Density-Based Representation: Instead of using absolute population, population density (people per square kilometer) can be a guiding factor to ensure fair representation. Example: The Northeastern states (e.g., Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland) have smaller populations but are allocated seats based on geographical and density considerations.
- Demographic Performance as a Criterion: States that have successfully controlled population growth should not be penalized; demographic performance (such as fertility rates and health indicators) can be factored in. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which have lower fertility rates, could be granted additional weightage to compensate for their lower population growth.
Mains PYQ:
Question: What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribu- tion of benefits of development on regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? [UPSC 2016]
Linkage: Focusing solely on national population figures might mask significant regional disparities that need to be addressed through differentiated policies and resource allocation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya
Why in the News?
Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:
- The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
- Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
- The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
- However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
- This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
- The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.
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About the Mahabodhi Temple:
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Details |
About |
- Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
- The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
- Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
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Architectural Features |
- Early example of brick architecture.
- Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
- Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
- Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
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Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex |
- Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
- Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
- Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
- Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
- Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
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Historical Timeline |
- First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
- Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
- Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
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Key Features and Preservation |
- Built with brick and stucco.
- Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
- Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
- Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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[UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?
(a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

About Parker Solar Probe
- The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
- It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
- The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
- This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
- The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
- The primary goals are:
- Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
- Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
- Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
- Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
- The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
- FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
- ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
- SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
- WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
- Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.
Impact of the Mission on Solar Science
- Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
- Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
- New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
- Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
- Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sarhul Festival
Why in the News?
On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.
About Sarhul Festival
- Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
- It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
- It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
- It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
- The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
- The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
- The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
- It also marks the renewal of life.
- After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.
Cultural Significance of Sarhul
- Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
- Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
- Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
- Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fungi
Why in the News?
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.
Important Species under Threat:
- Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
- 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
- 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
- 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.
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About Fungi:
- Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
- Key Properties:
- Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
- They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
- They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
- Types of Fungi:
- Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
- Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
- Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
- Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
- Uses:
- Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
- Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
- Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
[UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?
1. Cnidarians
2. Fungi
3. Protozoa
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. [UPSC 2020]
Linkage: Critical analysis of a major education policy, where aspects of centralisation, commercialisation, and the underlying ideological orientation (potentially related to communalisation, although not directly stated) could be part of the critique. |
Mentor’s Comment: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 may seem important, but it hides the government’s lack of real effort to improve education for children and youth in India. Over the past ten years, the government has mainly focused on three things—taking more control over education, encouraging private schools and colleges while reducing public funding, and changing textbooks and courses to fit its own ideas.
Today’s editorial discusses education policy and its impact, providing useful insights for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government’s three-point agenda is causing serious harm to the education system, affecting accessibility, quality, and fairness in learning opportunities.
What is the three-point agenda of the government?

- Centralisation of Power: The Union Government has taken control over education policy and decision-making, sidelining State governments.
- Commercialisation & Outsourcing to the Private Sector: Government policies have led to the closure of public schools and increased dependence on expensive private education.
- Communalisation of Curriculum & Institutions: The government has altered textbooks and hired ideologically aligned individuals in academic institutions to push a selective narrative.
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What are the key concerns regarding the centralization of education under NEP 2020?
- Lack of State Consultation & Decision-Making: Despite education being in the Concurrent List, the Union Government has not consulted State governments on policy implementation. Example: The Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), which includes State Education Ministers, has not been convened since 2019.
- Financial Coercion to Implement Central Schemes: The Union Government uses financial control to push State governments into adopting centrally designed schemes. Example: Funds under Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), meant for RTE implementation, were withheld to pressure States into adopting PM-SHRI model schools.
- Undermining State Control Over Higher Education: The Union Government is reducing the role of State governments in governing their own universities. Example: The 2025 UGC guidelines remove State governments from the process of appointing Vice-Chancellors, giving power to Governors (as Chancellors) instead.
- Shift from Neighborhood Schools to Centralized School Complexes: NEP 2020 promotes school complexes, which leads to the closure of small public schools, reducing accessibility for marginalized students. Example: Since 2014, 89,441 government schools have been shut down, while 42,944 private schools have been opened.
- Increased Control Over Curriculum & Textbooks: The Union Government has made unilateral changes to the NCERT curriculum, promoting a selective historical and ideological narrative. Example: Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination details, Mughal history, and the Preamble to the Indian Constitution were removed from textbooks, later reinstated due to public backlash.
How has the commercialisation of education impacted public schools and higher education institutions in India?
- Closure of Public Schools & Growth of Private Schools: The shift towards school complexes under NEP 2020 has led to the closure of public schools, forcing students into expensive private education. Example: Since 2014, 89,441 public schools have been closed, while 42,944 private schools have opened, increasing educational inequality.
- Higher Education Funding Shift to Loans Instead of Grants: The introduction of the Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) forces universities to take loans at market interest rates, instead of receiving government grants. Example: Universities now recover loan repayments from student fees, leading to fee hikes, making higher education less affordable.
- Rise in Corruption & Lack of Accountability: Increased privatisation and outsourcing have led to corruption in regulatory bodies and lower academic standards. Example: The NAAC bribery scandal and failures of the National Testing Agency (NTA) have exposed financial misconduct and inefficiency in public education governance.
What is the criticism of the Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA)?
- Shift from Grants to Loans Increases Financial Burden: HEFA replaces UGC’s block grants with market-rate loans, forcing universities to generate their own funds. Example: Universities struggle to repay loans, leading to higher student fees, making education less accessible to the economically weaker sections.
- Universities Rely on Student Fees for Loan Repayments: Most universities lack revenue sources, so they increase student fees to repay loans. Example: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education found that between 78% to 100% of HEFA loans were repaid using student fees, worsening affordability.
- Neglect of Public Education & Research: HEFA discourages public investment in higher education, prioritizing financial viability over quality education and research. Example: Many state universities, lacking resources, avoid infrastructure development or research expansion due to loan repayment concerns.
Which specific changes in NCERT textbooks have been linked to the alleged communalisation of education?
- Removal of Mughal History & Selective Erasure of Historical Facts: Chapters on Mughal India and references to their contributions in architecture, administration, and culture have been removed or reduced.Example: Class 12 history textbooks no longer include sections on Mughal rule, diminishing a key period of Indian history.
- Omission of Mahatma Gandhi’s Assassination and Hindutva Ideology’s Role: References to Nathuram Godse and the RSS’s role in Gandhi’s assassination were removed, altering historical narratives. Example: Class 12 Political Science textbooks no longer mention how Hindu nationalist ideologies influenced Godse’s actions.
- Exclusion of Constitutional Principles & Secularism: The Preamble of the Indian Constitution was initially removed, and sections on secularism and democracy have been diluted. Example: Class 10 political science textbooks saw removal of content discussing secularism as a foundational principle, sparking public backlash.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Federalism in Education Governance: Restore State consultation mechanisms like the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) to ensure inclusive decision-making.
- Ensure Transparency & Academic Integrity in Curriculum Revisions: Establish an independent curriculum review committee with experts from diverse backgrounds to prevent ideological biases in textbooks.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the judiciary;
Why in the News?
Social media has been flooded with memes, and one of the most popular ones says, “For the first time, a fire brigade has started more fires than it put out.” The truth is, the fire is still burning. This perfectly reflects the ongoing controversy surrounding the Delhi High Court judge and the half-burnt currency notes case.
What key issues arise from the Delhi High Court Judge controversy over half-burnt currency notes?
- Allegations of Corruption in the Judiciary: The discovery of half-burnt currency notes at a judge’s residence raises suspicions of financial misconduct and corruption within the judiciary. Example: The Justice P.D. Dinakaran case, where allegations of land grabbing and corruption led to his resignation before impeachment proceedings.
- Lack of Immediate Legal Action and Accountability: Unlike other public officials who face direct investigations, the judge in question was merely repatriated to his parent High Court, reflecting a selective approach to judicial accountability. Example: Justice Soumitra Sen of Calcutta High Court was impeached for financial misconduct, but only after prolonged proceedings, highlighting delays in judicial accountability.
- Opacity in Internal Inquiry Mechanisms: The judiciary relies on internal probes rather than independent investigations, raising concerns about transparency and impartiality in handling misconduct. Example: The former CJI Ranjan Gogoi sexual harassment case, where an internal Supreme Court panel cleared him without an external review, leading to public outcry.
Why has the Collegium system of judicial appointments in India faced criticism over the years?
- Lack of Transparency and Accountability: The Collegium functions through closed-door deliberations without publicly disclosing selection criteria or reasons for appointments and rejections. Example: In 2019, Justice Akil Kureshi’s elevation was delayed without a clear explanation, raising concerns over executive influence and opaque decision-making.
- Nepotism and Judicial Dynasties: The system has been criticized for favoring judges’ relatives and individuals with strong connections rather than selecting candidates purely on merit. Example: The presence of multiple second-generation judges in the Supreme Court, such as Justice D.Y. Chandrachud (son of former CJI Y.V. Chandrachud), has fueled debates over judicial nepotism.
- Lack of Diversity and Inclusivity: The Collegium system has led to an underrepresentation of marginalized communities, women, and candidates from diverse backgrounds in the higher judiciary. Example: As of 2024, the percentage of women judges in the Supreme Court remains significantly low, with only three out of 34 judges being women.
How can the establishment of an Indian Judicial Service help address concerns regarding judicial accountability and transparency?
- Merit-Based and Transparent Selection Process: The IJS would ensure that judges are selected through a competitive examination, reducing nepotism and favoritism in judicial appointments. Example: Similar to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), where UPSC conducts open and merit-based recruitment, an IJS would create a level playing field for candidates from diverse backgrounds.
- Greater Diversity and Inclusivity in the Judiciary: A national-level selection system would bring in candidates from different social, economic, and regional backgrounds, making the judiciary more representative. Example: Currently, women and marginalized communities are underrepresented in the higher judiciary, but an IJS could help bridge this gap by ensuring equal opportunities.
- Stronger Oversight and Accountability Mechanisms: Judges recruited through IJS could be subjected to periodic performance reviews and disciplinary oversight, ensuring accountability and ethical conduct. Example: In Germany, judges are part of a structured civil service system with evaluation and accountability mechanisms, ensuring higher judicial standards.
Who would be responsible for conducting the recruitment process for the Indian Judicial Service?
- Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) as the Conducting Authority: The UPSC, which already handles merit-based recruitment for civil services like IAS and IPS, could be entrusted with conducting exams for IJS to ensure transparency and fairness. Example: The Judicial Services Examination at the state level is conducted by State Public Service Commissions; a national-level IJS could follow the same model under UPSC.
- Supreme Court and High Courts for Selection Criteria and Oversight: The Supreme Court, in consultation with High Courts and legal experts, could frame eligibility criteria, syllabus, and selection methods to maintain judicial independence. Example: The All India Judicial Service (AIJS) proposal, discussed since the 1960s, suggested a recruitment system similar to UPSC but with judicial oversight to ensure fairness.
- Independent Judicial Commission for Monitoring and Appointments: An autonomous body, comprising retired judges, legal scholars, and judicial officers, could be set up to oversee appointments and address grievances. Example: Judicial Appointments Commissions exist in the UK, where an independent body handles judicial recruitment, preventing executive or political interference.
Way forward:
- Balanced Judicial Appointments with Greater Transparency: Establish a Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) that includes representatives from the judiciary, executive, and civil society to ensure a more transparent and accountable selection process.
- Strengthening Judicial Accountability Mechanisms: Implement periodic performance reviews and ethical oversight for judges, with an independent body monitoring judicial conduct and financial integrity.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. [UPSC 2017]
Linkage: Existing mechanism for judicial appointments and the debates surrounding it. The discussion on an IJS often arises as an alternative or complementary approach to the current system, aiming for greater transparency and potentially reducing the scope for concerns raised in the NJAC debate.
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