Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Tiger Triumph
Why in the News?
The 4th edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph, a bilateral tri-service Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise, will be held on the Eastern Seaboard of India, with activities taking place in Visakhapatnam and Kakinada.
About Exercise Tiger Triumph
- The exercise was first announced by then U.S. President Donald Trump during the Howdy Modi event in Houston on September 22, 2019.
- The inaugural exercise took place from November 13 to 21, 2019.
- It involved approximately 1,200 Indian personnel and 500 U.S. military members, with key participation from the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific.
- Harbour Phase: Held in Visakhapatnam, including training visits, expert exchanges, and social interactions.
- Sea Phase: Conducted in Kakinada, focusing on practical HADR operations like field hospital setups and evacuation drills.
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- 2022 Edition: Emphasized disaster relief coordination, with tabletop simulations to improve operational readiness.
- 2024 Edition: Focused on refining standard operating procedures (SOPs) and included a battalion group from the Indian Army.
Important Features:
- Interoperability Enhancement: The exercise aims to improve the coordination between Indian and U.S. forces during disaster response situations, ensuring rapid deployment and effective collaboration.
- Humanitarian Assistance Focus: The exercise simulates responses to natural disasters like super-cyclones, refining diplomatic, operational, and logistical efforts in such crises.
- Strengthening Bilateral Ties: Joint drills and exchanges during the exercise serve to fortify the strategic partnership between India and the U.S., focusing on shared best practices and operational capabilities.
[UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NITI NCAER States Economic Forum
Why in the News?
The Finance Minister is set to launch the “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal.
About the NITI NCAER States Economic Forum Portal
- The “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal is a comprehensive digital platform developed by NITI Aayog in collaboration with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
- It serves as a centralized repository of data, research reports, and expert commentary on state-level finances and social, economic, and fiscal parameters spanning from 1990-91 to 2022-23.
- The portal aims to facilitate evidence-based policymaking by providing users with easy access to key trends and insights on state performance.
- Its features include:
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- State Reports: Summarizes the macro and fiscal landscape of 28 Indian states. Structured around indicators on demography, economic structure, socio-economic, and fiscal parameters.
- Data Repository: Access to a comprehensive database categorized into 5 verticals: Demography; Economic Structure; Fiscal Data; Health; Education.
- State Fiscal and Economic Dashboard: Provides graphical representations of key economic variables over time; Includes summary tables and raw data for easy reference.
- Research and Commentary: Offers in-depth research reports and expert commentary on state finances, fiscal policy, and financial management; Supports long-term academic and policy research.
Significance:
- Benchmarking Capabilities: it enables comparison of state performance with national averages, fostering a competitive and cooperative approach to development.
- Data Accessibility: it bridges data accessibility gaps, ensuring that policymakers, researchers, and academics can make informed decisions based on reliable and comprehensive data.
- Promotes Transparency: By offering open access to detailed data, the portal enhances fiscal transparency and encourages cooperative federalism.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:
1.The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Review Committee Report has recommended a debt to GDP ratio of 60% for the general (combined) government by 2023, comprising 40% for the Central Government and 20% for the State Governments.
2.The Central Government has domestic liabilities of 21% of GDP as compared to that of 49% of GDP of the State Governments.
3.As per the Constitution of India, it is mandatory for a State to take the Central Government’s consent for raising any loan if the former owes any outstanding liabilities to the latter.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles
Why in the News?
In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.
About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind
- Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
- This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
- Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
- This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
- This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
- Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
- This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
- They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
- Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.
Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):
- Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
- Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
- Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
- What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
- If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
- This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.
AMoRE Experiment:
- The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
- The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
- While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.
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Scientific Significance:
- The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
- Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
Why in the News?
SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.
About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission
- The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
- The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
- Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
- Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
- The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
- The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.
Features and Significance:
- Unique Orbital Path:
- Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
- This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
- Scientific Research:
- The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
- Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
- Climate Change Research:
- As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:
The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in
1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.
2. predicting the onset of monsoons.
3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bacterial Brick
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.
About the Bacterial Brick:
- The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
- It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
- How is it made?
- The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
- The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
- The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.
Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:
- The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
- A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
- When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
- This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
- It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
[UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?
1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.
2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years. [UPSC 2021]
Linkage: The broader context of competition for influence in the continent. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Arctic has been isolated for centuries, but climate change is melting ice, which leads to opening access to valuable resources like oil, gas, and rare earth metals. Melting ice is also creating new trade routes. Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic has no strong legal protections, leading to territorial claims and military activity, increasing global tensions.
Today’s editorial discusses the geopolitical impact of climate change in the Arctic. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and GS Paper 3 (Environment).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Global experts are concerned about increasing tensions in the Arctic, cautioning that if not controlled, they might cause conflict in the area.

What are the key factors driving increased geopolitical tensions in the Arctic?
- Climate Change & Melting Ice: The Arctic ice cap is shrinking, making previously inaccessible natural resources and trade routes viable. Example: The opening of the Northeast Passage along Russia’s coast could significantly reduce shipping times between Asia and Europe.
- Competition for Natural Resources: The region holds an estimated 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of untapped natural gas, along with rare earth minerals. Example: Greenland has significant deposits of rare earth elements, attracting interest from China and the U.S.
- Territorial Disputes & Overlapping Claims: Countries are extending their maritime boundaries under UNCLOS to claim more of the Arctic seabed. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge, a key Arctic seabed area.
- Military Posturing & Strategic Control: Nations are increasing their military presence to assert dominance and protect interests. Example: Russia has expanded its Arctic military bases and deployed nuclear-powered icebreakers, while NATO has increased Arctic exercises.
- New Maritime Trade Routes & Geopolitical Rivalry: The melting ice is opening faster, alternative shipping lanes, bypassing traditional routes like the Suez Canal. Example: China is promoting the Polar Silk Road via the Northeast Passage, while Russia maintains strict control over Arctic navigation.
Who are the primary stakeholders controlling different regions of the Arctic?
- Arctic Coastal Nations (Arctic Council Members): Eight countries control Arctic land and territorial waters: Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S. Example: Russia has the largest Arctic coastline and controls key ports, while Canada claims sovereignty over the Northwest Passage.
- International Governance & UNCLOS: The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates maritime claims, allowing nations to extend seabed claims if proven as a continental shelf extension. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have all submitted overlapping claims to the Arctic seabed under UNCLOS.
- Non-Arctic Global Powers & Observers: Non-Arctic nations like China, India, the UK, and the EU monitor Arctic developments due to strategic interests in trade routes and resources. Example: China declared itself a “Near-Arctic State” in 2018 and is investing in icebreaker ships to influence Arctic shipping lanes.
Where do territorial disputes and conflicting claims arise among Arctic nations?
- Competing Seabed Claims under UNCLOS: Arctic nations claim extended seabed areas beyond their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) by proving geological extensions of their continental shelves. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark (via Greenland) have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean.
- Northwest Passage Dispute (Canada vs. U.S.): Canada considers the Northwest Passage part of its internal waters, granting it control over navigation. The U.S. and other nations claim it is an international strait, allowing free passage. Example: The U.S. has conducted “freedom of navigation” operations in the passage, challenging Canada’s sovereignty.
- Svalbard Archipelago (Norway vs. Russia): Norway administers Svalbard under the Svalbard Treaty (1920), granting access to signatory nations for commercial activities. However, Russia argues for broader rights. Example: Russia continues to expand mining operations in Svalbard and has politically challenged Norway’s restrictions on military activity there.
- Greenland Sovereignty & U.S. Interest (Denmark vs. U.S.): The U.S. has questioned Denmark’s sovereignty over Greenland and previously attempted to purchase the island due to its strategic location and rare earth minerals. Example: In 2019, then-U.S. President Donald Trump expressed interest in buying Greenland, leading to diplomatic tensions with Denmark.
- Barents Sea & Arctic Borders (Norway vs. Russia): Russia and Norway have had disputes over their maritime boundary in the Barents Sea, an area rich in oil, gas, and fisheries. Example: A 2010 agreement settled much of the dispute, but tensions persist, especially with increasing Russian military activity near Norwegian waters.
Why is the Arctic considered strategically important for global powers?
- Rich Natural Resources: The Arctic is estimated to hold 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its untapped natural gas, along with rare earth elements, phosphates, and fisheries. Example: Russia has significantly invested in Yamal LNG projects, while Greenland has attracted interest from China and the U.S. for its rare earth deposits.
- New Trade Routes Due to Melting Ice: The Northeast Passage (along Russia’s coast) and the Northwest Passage (through Canada) could drastically reduce global shipping distances, saving billions in transportation costs. Example: China’s “Polar Silk Road” seeks to use the Northeast Passage for trade, reducing travel time between East Asia and Europe by 40% compared to the Suez Canal route.
- Military & Geopolitical Significance: The Arctic provides strategic military advantages, including submarine deployment zones, early warning radar systems, and missile defense capabilities. Example: Russia has established new Arctic military bases, the U.S. has expanded its Thule Air Base in Greenland, and NATO has increased military exercises in the region.
How are nations like Russia, China, and NATO asserting their influence in the Arctic region?
- Russia: Militarization and Territorial Claims: Russia has the largest Arctic military presence, including nuclear-powered icebreakers, air bases, and missile defense systems. It has also made territorial claims under UNCLOS to extend its control over the Arctic seabed.
- Example: In 2007, Russia planted its flag on the Arctic seabed at the North Pole and continues to expand its Arctic military bases, such as in Franz Josef Land and the Kola Peninsula.
- China: Economic Investments and Strategic Partnerships: China, though not an Arctic nation, calls itself a “Near-Arctic State” and is expanding its influence through investments in Arctic infrastructure, scientific research, and trade routes (Polar Silk Road).
- Example: China has invested in Arctic mining projects in Greenland and collaborated with Russia on LNG projects, like the Yamal LNG plant. It is also building nuclear-powered icebreakers.
- NATO: Strengthening Military Presence and Alliances: NATO has intensified military exercises and surveillance in the Arctic, especially after Finland and Sweden joined the alliance following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
- Example: In 2024, NATO conducted large-scale Arctic military drills near the Russian border in Finland and strengthened defense ties with Canada and Norway.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Arctic Governance & Diplomacy: Enhance international cooperation through the Arctic Council and UNCLOS to manage territorial disputes, resource exploration, and environmental challenges. Example: Establish legally binding agreements for sustainable Arctic resource extraction and conflict resolution mechanisms to prevent geopolitical tensions.
- Balancing Economic Development with Environmental Protection: Promote responsible Arctic development by enforcing strict environmental regulations while ensuring indigenous rights and sustainable economic activities. Example: Encourage renewable energy projects, scientific research, and eco-friendly shipping practices to mitigate the impact of Arctic exploitation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Assurances in Parliament;
Why in the News?
Since 2014, the Ministry of Home Affairs made 421 assurances in the Lok Sabha and 338 in the Rajya Sabha. However, it dropped about 15% of the assurances in the Lok Sabha and 12% in the Rajya Sabha, which is the highest among all the ministries in both houses.
What is an ‘Assurance’ in the parliamentary process, and how is it tracked?
- An assurance in the parliamentary process is a commitment made by a Ministry or the executive during a parliamentary session, where the government undertakes to take further action or report back on a matter raised by a Member of Parliament (MP).
- Example: If an MP asks about the status of a government project, and the Minister promises to provide an update or take further action, that promise becomes an assurance.
- Tracking of Assurances: Assurances are tracked by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs using the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS). The system keeps records of whether assurances are fulfilled, pending, or dropped. If an assurance is not fulfilled within three months, the Ministry must apply for an extension or request that it be dropped.
- Example: A query about the status of the Adani ports, raised by Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore in 2023, resulted in an assurance, but as of 2024, the assurance remains pending.
Why has the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the highest number of assurances in Parliament?
- Lack of Follow-up on Critical Issues: The Ministry often fails to follow through on assurances related to significant national security issues, leading to unfulfilled promises.
- For example, a question on the state-wise number of terrorist attacks and the number of terrorists arrested and killed, raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal in 2014, was left unanswered, and the assurance was dropped.
- Delayed Response to Investigative Matters: The Ministry often fails to follow up on assurances related to complex investigations. An example is the question raised by MP Asaduddin Owaisi in 2014 regarding ‘out of turn promotions’ and ‘gallantry awards’ given to policemen involved in fake encounters, which remained unanswered and was eventually dropped.
- Inability to Fulfill Commitments on Security Incidents: The Ministry has been slow in responding to assurances related to major security incidents. For instance, questions raised by MP Manish Tiwari in 2019 and 2020 regarding the Pulwama terror attack investigation were not fully addressed, resulting in these assurances being dropped.
Which ministries have the most pending and dropped assurances in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?
- Ministry of Home Affairs: The Ministry of Home Affairs has the highest number of dropped assurances across both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. For example, questions regarding terrorist attacks and the status of security-related investigations, like the one raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal about terrorist attacks, have not been answered, leading to the dropping of the assurance.
- Other Ministries with High Numbers: Besides the Home Ministry, other ministries like Finance, Law and Justice, Road Transport and Highways, and Railways also feature among the top ministries with the most dropped assurances. For example, the assurance related to the investigation of the Adani Group, raised by MP Mahua Moitra in 2021, was dropped by the Finance Ministry despite the promise of further details on foreign investments and SEBI’s inquiry.
How does the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) help in tracking government assurances?
- Tracking and Monitoring: The Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) allows for real-time tracking of assurances made by the government in Parliament. It records and publishes the status of each assurance, ensuring that the government is held accountable for its commitments.
- For example, the OAMS portal shows that nearly 65% of the assurances made in 2024 in the Lok Sabha were still pending as of March 24, 2024.
- Transparency and Accountability: OAMS provides transparency by making the status of all assurances accessible to the public. This helps track whether ministries are fulfilling their promises in a timely manner or whether they request extensions.
- For example, it highlighted the pending status of the assurance regarding the Adani Group’s ports, made in 2023, which has still not been addressed.
What are some notable examples of assurances that remain pending or were dropped between 2014 and 2024?
- Adani Group Ports Assurance: In 2023, Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore asked about the status of government-constructed ports and the volume of trade at Adani-owned ports compared to state-owned ventures. The assurance given in response to this question remains pending as of 2024.
- Investigation into the Adani Group: In 2021, MP Mahua Moitra raised the issue of investigating the Adani Group and foreign portfolio investors owning stakes in the company. The Finance Ministry provided some details but later dropped the assurance, leaving the matter unresolved.
- Pulwama Terror Attack Assurances: Congress MP Manish Tiwari raised questions about the Pulwama terror attack in 2019 and 2020, but the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the assurances related to those questions, leaving the issues without a formal follow-up.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Follow-Up Mechanisms: To improve accountability, there should be a more robust system for tracking and following up on assurances. Ministries should be mandated to provide periodic updates, and a dedicated parliamentary committee could be formed to ensure timely resolution.
- Enforcing Deadlines for Assurance Fulfillment: The government should consider setting stricter deadlines for fulfilling assurances, with consequences for non-fulfillment.
Mains PYQ:
Question: “Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.” [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: Counter-terrorism efforts and the situation in Jammu and Kashmir, both significant areas of responsibility for the MHA. In response to such a question, the MHA might give assurances about specific measures being taken, data on their impact, or future plans.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related delimitation;
Why in the News?
The discussion on delimitation and financial distribution has caused worries in Parliament and State Assemblies, as it could affect India’s federal system, especially with the upcoming end of the freeze on parliamentary seats.
What are the key concerns in delimitation and financial devolution?
- Impact on Federalism: The redistribution of seats may reduce representation for some states, especially those with better demographic management, affecting their political influence. Example: Southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala may lose seats relative to northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
- Population vs. Representation Imbalance: States with high population growth could gain more seats, while those that controlled their population may be underrepresented. Example: The 2026 delimitation may increase seats in northern states, reducing the share of states like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
- Financial Allocation Disparity: The shift from the 1971 population base to the 2011 census for financial devolution may disadvantage states that effectively controlled population growth. Example: The 15th Finance Commission’s formula increased the weight of population (from 0.15 to 0.27), benefiting larger states like Uttar Pradesh.
- Challenges of Caste and Gender-Based Reservations: Any redistribution must ensure that marginalized communities continue to receive fair representation despite demographic changes. Example: The Women’s Reservation Bill and SC/ST reserved seats need careful adjustments post-delimitation to maintain proportional representation.
Why are peninsular States anxious about delimitation?
- Reduction in Lok Sabha Seats: States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka have controlled population growth, whereas states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have higher birth rates.Example, If seats are redistributed based on 2026 population projections, peninsular states may lose seats while northern states gain more representation.
- Unfair Distribution of Financial Resources: The 15th Finance Commission shifted to using the 2011 Census for fund allocation, benefiting high-population states. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, despite better governance, receive fewer funds compared to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, which have weaker social indicators.
- Penalty for Development Success: Southern states invested in education, healthcare, and family planning, successfully controlling their population. Example: Kerala’s high literacy rate and Tamil Nadu’s low fertility rate may lead to fewer seats, reducing their voice in national decision-making.
How did the 15th Finance Commission adjust population weightage?
- Shift from 1971 to 2011 Census Data: The 15th Finance Commission replaced the 1971 Census with the 2011 Census for financial devolution, increasing the weightage of states with larger populations. Example: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with high population growth, received a greater share of central funds.
- Incorporation of Demographic Performance: To balance the impact on states with controlled population growth, the commission introduced a demographic performance criterion. Example: Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which successfully reduced fertility rates, were given some weightage to offset their lower population share.
- Increased Weightage for Population Component: The weightage for population in financial devolution increased from 15% (in previous commissions) to 27% under the 15th Finance Commission. Example: Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, with high population growth, benefited more from this adjustment.
What is the role of demographic performance in allocation and representation?
- Balancing Population Growth with Development: Demographic performance considers not just population size, but how well a state has managed population growth, improving socio-economic indicators like fertility rates and life expectancy.
- Example: Kerala, which has a low birth rate due to effective family planning policies, might not see a drastic population increase but still deserves fair representation based on its demographic success.
- Addressing Disparities in Development: States with high population growth but poor demographic performance (e.g., high fertility rates, poor health outcomes) may receive less weight in allocation to balance out the disparity with better-performing states.
- Example: Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high population growth but relatively poor health and education indicators, may see their representation balanced with the inclusion of demographic performance factors.
- Promoting Equity in Resource Allocation: Demographic performance allows for a more equitable distribution of resources by considering how well states manage their population and its needs. This ensures that states with better demographic indicators, like lower infant mortality or higher literacy rates, are not unfairly penalized in devolution and allocation.
- Example: Tamil Nadu, which has effectively reduced its population growth while improving key development metrics, should be rewarded with adequate representation despite its smaller population size compared to more populous states like Madhya Pradesh.
Which alternatives to absolute population can guide representation? (Way forward)
- Population Density-Based Representation: Instead of using absolute population, population density (people per square kilometer) can be a guiding factor to ensure fair representation. Example: The Northeastern states (e.g., Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland) have smaller populations but are allocated seats based on geographical and density considerations.
- Demographic Performance as a Criterion: States that have successfully controlled population growth should not be penalized; demographic performance (such as fertility rates and health indicators) can be factored in. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which have lower fertility rates, could be granted additional weightage to compensate for their lower population growth.
Mains PYQ:
Question: What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribu- tion of benefits of development on regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? [UPSC 2016]
Linkage: Focusing solely on national population figures might mask significant regional disparities that need to be addressed through differentiated policies and resource allocation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya
Why in the News?
Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:
- The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
- Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
- The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
- However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
- This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
- The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.
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About the Mahabodhi Temple:
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Details |
About |
- Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
- The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
- Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
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Architectural Features |
- Early example of brick architecture.
- Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
- Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
- Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
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Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex |
- Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
- Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
- Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
- Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
- Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
- Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
|
Historical Timeline |
- First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
- Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
- Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
|
Key Features and Preservation |
- Built with brick and stucco.
- Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
- Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
- Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
|
[UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?
(a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

About Parker Solar Probe
- The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
- It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
- The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
- This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
- The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
- The primary goals are:
- Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
- Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
- Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
- Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
- The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
- FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
- ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
- SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
- WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
- Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.
Impact of the Mission on Solar Science
- Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
- Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
- New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
- Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
- Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sarhul Festival
Why in the News?
On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.
About Sarhul Festival
- Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
- It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
- It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
- It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
- The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
- The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
- The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
- It also marks the renewal of life.
- After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.
Cultural Significance of Sarhul
- Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
- Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
- Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
- Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State
1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram
2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur
3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim
Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fungi
Why in the News?
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.
Important Species under Threat:
- Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
- 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
- 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
- 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.
|
About Fungi:
- Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
- Key Properties:
- Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
- They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
- They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
- Types of Fungi:
- Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
- Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
- Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
- Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
- Uses:
- Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
- Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
- Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
[UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?
1. Cnidarians
2. Fungi
3. Protozoa
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: National Education Policy 2020 is in conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement. [UPSC 2020]
Linkage: Critical analysis of a major education policy, where aspects of centralisation, commercialisation, and the underlying ideological orientation (potentially related to communalisation, although not directly stated) could be part of the critique. |
Mentor’s Comment: The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 may seem important, but it hides the government’s lack of real effort to improve education for children and youth in India. Over the past ten years, the government has mainly focused on three things—taking more control over education, encouraging private schools and colleges while reducing public funding, and changing textbooks and courses to fit its own ideas.
Today’s editorial discusses education policy and its impact, providing useful insights for GS Paper 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The government’s three-point agenda is causing serious harm to the education system, affecting accessibility, quality, and fairness in learning opportunities.
What is the three-point agenda of the government?

- Centralisation of Power: The Union Government has taken control over education policy and decision-making, sidelining State governments.
- Commercialisation & Outsourcing to the Private Sector: Government policies have led to the closure of public schools and increased dependence on expensive private education.
- Communalisation of Curriculum & Institutions: The government has altered textbooks and hired ideologically aligned individuals in academic institutions to push a selective narrative.
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What are the key concerns regarding the centralization of education under NEP 2020?
- Lack of State Consultation & Decision-Making: Despite education being in the Concurrent List, the Union Government has not consulted State governments on policy implementation. Example: The Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE), which includes State Education Ministers, has not been convened since 2019.
- Financial Coercion to Implement Central Schemes: The Union Government uses financial control to push State governments into adopting centrally designed schemes. Example: Funds under Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), meant for RTE implementation, were withheld to pressure States into adopting PM-SHRI model schools.
- Undermining State Control Over Higher Education: The Union Government is reducing the role of State governments in governing their own universities. Example: The 2025 UGC guidelines remove State governments from the process of appointing Vice-Chancellors, giving power to Governors (as Chancellors) instead.
- Shift from Neighborhood Schools to Centralized School Complexes: NEP 2020 promotes school complexes, which leads to the closure of small public schools, reducing accessibility for marginalized students. Example: Since 2014, 89,441 government schools have been shut down, while 42,944 private schools have been opened.
- Increased Control Over Curriculum & Textbooks: The Union Government has made unilateral changes to the NCERT curriculum, promoting a selective historical and ideological narrative. Example: Mahatma Gandhi’s assassination details, Mughal history, and the Preamble to the Indian Constitution were removed from textbooks, later reinstated due to public backlash.
How has the commercialisation of education impacted public schools and higher education institutions in India?
- Closure of Public Schools & Growth of Private Schools: The shift towards school complexes under NEP 2020 has led to the closure of public schools, forcing students into expensive private education. Example: Since 2014, 89,441 public schools have been closed, while 42,944 private schools have opened, increasing educational inequality.
- Higher Education Funding Shift to Loans Instead of Grants: The introduction of the Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) forces universities to take loans at market interest rates, instead of receiving government grants. Example: Universities now recover loan repayments from student fees, leading to fee hikes, making higher education less affordable.
- Rise in Corruption & Lack of Accountability: Increased privatisation and outsourcing have led to corruption in regulatory bodies and lower academic standards. Example: The NAAC bribery scandal and failures of the National Testing Agency (NTA) have exposed financial misconduct and inefficiency in public education governance.
Why has the introduction of the Higher Education Financing Agency (HEFA) been criticized in the context of higher education funding?
- Shift from Grants to Loans Increases Financial Burden: HEFA replaces UGC’s block grants with market-rate loans, forcing universities to generate their own funds. Example: Universities struggle to repay loans, leading to higher student fees, making education less accessible to the economically weaker sections.
- Universities Rely on Student Fees for Loan Repayments: Most universities lack revenue sources, so they increase student fees to repay loans. Example: The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Education found that between 78% to 100% of HEFA loans were repaid using student fees, worsening affordability.
- Neglect of Public Education & Research: HEFA discourages public investment in higher education, prioritizing financial viability over quality education and research. Example: Many state universities, lacking resources, avoid infrastructure development or research expansion due to loan repayment concerns.
Which specific changes in NCERT textbooks have been linked to the alleged communalisation of education?
- Removal of Mughal History & Selective Erasure of Historical Facts: Chapters on Mughal India and references to their contributions in architecture, administration, and culture have been removed or reduced.Example: Class 12 history textbooks no longer include sections on Mughal rule, diminishing a key period of Indian history.
- Omission of Mahatma Gandhi’s Assassination and Hindutva Ideology’s Role: References to Nathuram Godse and the RSS’s role in Gandhi’s assassination were removed, altering historical narratives. Example: Class 12 Political Science textbooks no longer mention how Hindu nationalist ideologies influenced Godse’s actions.
- Exclusion of Constitutional Principles & Secularism: The Preamble of the Indian Constitution was initially removed, and sections on secularism and democracy have been diluted. Example: Class 10 political science textbooks saw removal of content discussing secularism as a foundational principle, sparking public backlash.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Federalism in Education Governance: Restore State consultation mechanisms like the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) to ensure inclusive decision-making.
- Ensure Transparency & Academic Integrity in Curriculum Revisions: Establish an independent curriculum review committee with experts from diverse backgrounds to prevent ideological biases in textbooks.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the judiciary;
Why in the News?
Social media has been flooded with memes, and one of the most popular ones says, “For the first time, a fire brigade has started more fires than it put out.” The truth is, the fire is still burning. This perfectly reflects the ongoing controversy surrounding the Delhi High Court judge and the half-burnt currency notes case.
What key issues arise from the Delhi High Court Judge controversy over half-burnt currency notes?
- Allegations of Corruption in the Judiciary: The discovery of half-burnt currency notes at a judge’s residence raises suspicions of financial misconduct and corruption within the judiciary. Example: The Justice P.D. Dinakaran case, where allegations of land grabbing and corruption led to his resignation before impeachment proceedings.
- Lack of Immediate Legal Action and Accountability: Unlike other public officials who face direct investigations, the judge in question was merely repatriated to his parent High Court, reflecting a selective approach to judicial accountability. Example: Justice Soumitra Sen of Calcutta High Court was impeached for financial misconduct, but only after prolonged proceedings, highlighting delays in judicial accountability.
- Opacity in Internal Inquiry Mechanisms: The judiciary relies on internal probes rather than independent investigations, raising concerns about transparency and impartiality in handling misconduct. Example: The former CJI Ranjan Gogoi sexual harassment case, where an internal Supreme Court panel cleared him without an external review, leading to public outcry.
Why has the Collegium system of judicial appointments in India faced criticism over the years?
- Lack of Transparency and Accountability: The Collegium functions through closed-door deliberations without publicly disclosing selection criteria or reasons for appointments and rejections. Example: In 2019, Justice Akil Kureshi’s elevation was delayed without a clear explanation, raising concerns over executive influence and opaque decision-making.
- Nepotism and Judicial Dynasties: The system has been criticized for favoring judges’ relatives and individuals with strong connections rather than selecting candidates purely on merit. Example: The presence of multiple second-generation judges in the Supreme Court, such as Justice D.Y. Chandrachud (son of former CJI Y.V. Chandrachud), has fueled debates over judicial nepotism.
- Lack of Diversity and Inclusivity: The Collegium system has led to an underrepresentation of marginalized communities, women, and candidates from diverse backgrounds in the higher judiciary. Example: As of 2024, the percentage of women judges in the Supreme Court remains significantly low, with only three out of 34 judges being women.
How can the establishment of an Indian Judicial Service help address concerns regarding judicial accountability and transparency?
- Merit-Based and Transparent Selection Process: The IJS would ensure that judges are selected through a competitive examination, reducing nepotism and favoritism in judicial appointments. Example: Similar to the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), where UPSC conducts open and merit-based recruitment, an IJS would create a level playing field for candidates from diverse backgrounds.
- Greater Diversity and Inclusivity in the Judiciary: A national-level selection system would bring in candidates from different social, economic, and regional backgrounds, making the judiciary more representative. Example: Currently, women and marginalized communities are underrepresented in the higher judiciary, but an IJS could help bridge this gap by ensuring equal opportunities.
- Stronger Oversight and Accountability Mechanisms: Judges recruited through IJS could be subjected to periodic performance reviews and disciplinary oversight, ensuring accountability and ethical conduct. Example: In Germany, judges are part of a structured civil service system with evaluation and accountability mechanisms, ensuring higher judicial standards.
Who would be responsible for conducting the recruitment process for the Indian Judicial Service?
- Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) as the Conducting Authority: The UPSC, which already handles merit-based recruitment for civil services like IAS and IPS, could be entrusted with conducting exams for IJS to ensure transparency and fairness. Example: The Judicial Services Examination at the state level is conducted by State Public Service Commissions; a national-level IJS could follow the same model under UPSC.
- Supreme Court and High Courts for Selection Criteria and Oversight: The Supreme Court, in consultation with High Courts and legal experts, could frame eligibility criteria, syllabus, and selection methods to maintain judicial independence. Example: The All India Judicial Service (AIJS) proposal, discussed since the 1960s, suggested a recruitment system similar to UPSC but with judicial oversight to ensure fairness.
- Independent Judicial Commission for Monitoring and Appointments: An autonomous body, comprising retired judges, legal scholars, and judicial officers, could be set up to oversee appointments and address grievances. Example: Judicial Appointments Commissions exist in the UK, where an independent body handles judicial recruitment, preventing executive or political interference.
Way forward:
- Balanced Judicial Appointments with Greater Transparency: Establish a Judicial Appointments Commission (JAC) that includes representatives from the judiciary, executive, and civil society to ensure a more transparent and accountable selection process.
- Strengthening Judicial Accountability Mechanisms: Implement periodic performance reviews and ethical oversight for judges, with an independent body monitoring judicial conduct and financial integrity.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. [UPSC 2017]
Linkage: Existing mechanism for judicial appointments and the debates surrounding it. The discussion on an IJS often arises as an alternative or complementary approach to the current system, aiming for greater transparency and potentially reducing the scope for concerns raised in the NJAC debate.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to women;
Why in the News?
More urban women have paid jobs but still handle most household work. Though more men now help, the gender gap remains wide. Northeastern states see higher male participation in domestic works.
What are the trends in urban women’s participation in paid jobs and household work?
- Increase in Paid Employment but Still Low: The share of urban women engaged in paid work rose from 15.5% in 2019 to 18% in 2024. Example: In Tamil Nadu and Telangana, about 25% of urban women participate in paid work, significantly higher than Bihar (9%) and Uttar Pradesh (10%).
- Unpaid Household Work Burden Remains High: Despite employment growth, the share of women doing unpaid household work increased from 79.3% to 81%. Example: In Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh, over 80% of employed women also do unpaid domestic chores, highlighting the dual burden.
- More Men Helping, but Gender Gap Persists: The share of urban men doing unpaid domestic work rose from 23% to 28.5%, but women’s share remains disproportionately high. Example: In Kerala and Northeastern states (Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh), over 50% of urban men participate in household chores, while in most states, it remains between 20-40%.
Why does the gender gap in household chores persist despite more men helping?
- Deeply Rooted Social Norms and Gender Roles: Household work is still perceived as a woman’s responsibility, while men’s participation is seen as “helping” rather than sharing duties equally.
Example: Even in urban households where women work full-time, they are expected to manage cooking, cleaning, and childcare, while men engage in minimal domestic tasks.
- Unequal Time Distribution Between Paid and Unpaid Work: Women balance both employment and domestic responsibilities, whereas men often focus primarily on paid jobs. Example: In Karnataka and Himachal Pradesh, over 80% of employed women still do household chores, while men’s share remains significantly lower.
- Limited Structural Support for Household Work: Lack of affordable childcare, elderly care services, and domestic help forces women to take on more unpaid work. Example: Countries like Sweden offer state-funded childcare and paternity leave, reducing the burden on women, whereas India lacks similar support systems.
- Workplace Expectations and Rigid Work Hours: Men often work longer hours outside the home and face social stigma if they take time off for household chores. Example: In corporate India, men who seek flexible work hours for family responsibilities may face negative career perceptions, unlike in Nordic countries, where parental leave is encouraged for both genders.
- State-Wise Cultural Differences in Gender Roles: Some states, particularly in Northeast India (Sikkim, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh), have higher male participation in household chores due to more egalitarian traditions. Example: In Kerala, 44% of men contribute to domestic work, but in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, men’s participation remains under 30% due to traditional patriarchal norms.
Which Indian states have the most urban men doing unpaid household work?
- Northeastern States Lead in Male Participation: Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Nagaland have the highest share of urban men engaged in household chores, with over 50% participation. Example: In these states, matrilineal or more egalitarian traditions encourage men to take on domestic responsibilities, unlike in many other parts of India.
- Kerala Tops Among Major States: Kerala has 44% of urban men involved in household work, the highest among major Indian states. Example: Kerala’s higher literacy rates, progressive gender norms, and a strong service sector contribute to greater male involvement in domestic chores compared to states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, where men’s participation remains below 30%.
Why is female workforce participation higher in Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Karnataka?
- Strong Industrial and Service Sectors: These states have thriving industries like textiles, IT, and manufacturing, which offer more employment opportunities for women. Example: Tamil Nadu’s garment industry, Telangana’s pharmaceutical sector, and Karnataka’s IT and startup ecosystem employ a significant number of women.
- Progressive Socio-Cultural Norms and Policies: Higher literacy rates, better education access, and state-driven welfare policies encourage female employment. Example: Tamil Nadu’s Cradle Baby Scheme and Telangana’s WE-Hub for women entrepreneurs promote women’s workforce participation.
- Higher Urbanization and Better Infrastructure: Cities like Chennai, Hyderabad, and Bengaluru provide better public transport, safety measures, and childcare facilities, making it easier for women to work. Example: Karnataka’s free bus travel for women initiative improves women’s mobility, indirectly supporting their workforce participation.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Gender-Inclusive Policies: Implement affordable childcare, flexible work hours, and workplace safety measures to support women’s workforce participation.
- Encouraging Equal Domestic Responsibility: Promote shared household duties through awareness campaigns, parental leave policies, and incentives for men to engage in unpaid domestic work.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation? [UPSC 2024]
Linkage: The gap between men and women in household work shows that equality at home is still missing, making it harder for women to be truly empowered.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Share of Coal in India's Energy Basket
Why in the News?
According to MoSPI’s Energy Statistics in India 2025, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.

Share of Coal in India’s Energy Basket:
- Dominance: As of 2023-24, coal contributed 79% to India’s total energy generation, amounting to 16,906 petajoules (PJ), marking a 2% increase from the previous year.
- Production Growth: In 2023-24, India saw a 12% increase in coal production, continuing a strong growth trajectory from the 15% growth in 2022-23, marking one of the fastest growth rates in the past decade.
- Dependence on Imports: Despite a surge in domestic production, India remains 26% dependent on coal imports, although this has decreased from 31% in 2019-20.
India’s Total Energy Basket:
- Coal: Discussed above.
- Nuclear Energy: Nuclear power contributes approximately 1.7% to the total electricity generation capacity, with an installed capacity of about 8,180 MW as of late 2024.
- Crude Oil: The share of crude oil has decreased from 11% in 2014-15 to 6% in 2023-24, indicating a long-term decline in its contribution to India’s energy mix.
- Natural Gas: Similarly, natural gas’s share has decreased from 9% in 2014-15 to 7% in 2023-24, reflecting a shift away from natural gas in the energy mix.
- Renewable Energy: Despite significant investments and efforts by the government, renewable energy sources (solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear) contribute only 7% to the total energy mix in 2023-24, showing slow but steady growth over the past decade.
Shift Towards Renewable Energy:
- Total Contribution: Renewable sources contributed 7% of India’s total energy production in 2023-24, a modest increase from 6% in 2014-15. While this share remains small, the absolute production from renewables has grown at a 6.76% CAGR over the past 10 years.
- Growth in Solar and Wind Energy:
- The generation from solar, wind, and other renewable sources (excluding large hydro) has surged by 210% over the last decade, increasing from 6,555 KToE in FY15 to 20,279 KToE in FY24.
- Key Renewable Energy Potential:
- Wind energy holds the largest share of India’s renewable potential at 55.17%, with an estimated potential of 11,63,856 MW.
- Solar energy is the second-largest contributor at 35.50%, with a potential of 7,48,990 MW.
- Large hydro contributes 6.32% of the renewable energy potential with 1,33,410 MW.
- Future Targets:
- India added 3.4 GW of new wind capacity in 2024, with Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), and Tamil Nadu (980 MW) leading the way.
- India is aiming for 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based energy capacity by 2030, which would significantly boost the share of renewables in the energy mix, reducing the reliance on coal and crude oil over the coming years.
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.
3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Judges' Asset Disclosure
Why in the News?
The discovery of large sums of cash at Delhi High Court judges’ residence has raised concerns about corruption in India’s judiciary and reignited the debate over the public disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities.
Current Stance on Judges’ Asset Disclosure
- Supreme Court’s Historical Approach:
- 1997 Resolution: The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice J.S. Verma, resolved that judges should disclose their assets to the Chief Justice of India (CJI), but this did not involve public disclosure.
- 2009 Resolution: The full Bench of the Supreme Court agreed to publish judges’ asset declarations on the court’s website, though this was done voluntarily. However, the website has not been updated since 2018, and the assets of current judges are not publicly available.
- 2019 Ruling: The Supreme Court ruled that judges’ personal assets and liabilities are not private information, making them subject to the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
- High Court’s Position:
- As of March 2024, only 13% of High Court judges have publicly disclosed their assets and liabilities. Many High Courts, including Uttarakhand and Allahabad, have opposed public disclosure and argued that such information is outside the scope of the RTI Act.
- Resistance to Full Disclosure:
- The Uttarakhand High Court (2012) passed a resolution opposing the disclosure of judges’ assets under the RTI Act. Similarly, many High Courts have rejected RTI applications seeking information about judges’ assets.
Parliament’s Role – Proposed Reforms
- Committee Recommendation (2023):
- The Parliamentary Committee on Personnel, Public Grievances, and Law and Justice recommended that legislation be introduced to make the disclosure of judges’ assets and liabilities mandatory for Supreme Court and High Court judges.
- However, there has been no progress on implementing this recommendation as of now.
- Need for Legislation:
- Despite the RTI Act requiring public servants to disclose their assets, judges have largely remained exempt from such transparency.
- Legislative action is seen as essential to ensure accountability and transparency within the judiciary, with several advocating for mandatory public disclosure similar to other public officials.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to the appointment of the High Court Judges, consider the following statements:
1. Chief Justice of India is consulted by the President in the appointment.
2. Governor of the State is consulted by the Chief Justice of India in the appointment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2021] An independent and empowered social audit mechanism is an absolute must in every sphere of public service, including judiciary, to ensure performance, accountability and ethical conduct. Elaborate. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tribhuvandas Patel
Why in the News?
The Lok Sabha recently passed a Bill to establish Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, in honour of Tribhuvandas Kishibhai Patel, a visionary leader known as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly in dairy farming.

Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?
- Patel was born in 1903 to Kishibhai Patel and Lakhiba in Anand, Gujarat. He was an alumnus of Gujarat Vidyapith and was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
- A dedicated freedom fighter, Patel participated in the civil disobedience movement, campaigns against untouchability, and the salt satyagraha.
- He was jailed in 1930 for his participation in the Salt Movement.
- He is widely recognized as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly for his transformative work in the dairy industry.
Patel’s Contribution to the Cooperative Movement
- In 1946, Patel founded the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Limited (KDCMPUL), known later as Amul, to empower farmers and challenge the monopoly of the Polson Dairy in Anand, Gujarat.
- Patel collaborated with Verghese Kurien, a mechanical engineer, to modernize the dairy plant and increase milk production. This collaboration eventually led to the White Revolution in India.
- Patel was also instrumental in setting up the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), and the Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), which played a pivotal role in cooperative dairy farming and rural development.
- After his retirement, Patel used funds from the cooperative community to establish the Tribhuvandas Foundation, focused on community health and welfare.
Cooperative Movement in India:
- Pre-Independence Era:
- The cooperative movement originated from informal local initiatives like Chit Funds and Mutual-Loan Associations in places like Madras Presidency and Punjab.
- The 1904 Cooperative Credit Societies Act formally recognized cooperatives.
- The Government of India Act, 1919 empowered provinces to legislate on cooperatives, leading to the Bombay Cooperative Society Act of 1925.
- Post-Independence Developments:
- Cooperatives became central to India’s economic strategies, particularly for rural development and social justice.
- The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) (1963) and NABARD (1982) supported rural cooperatives and provided credit to farmers.
- The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) granted the right to form cooperatives under Article 19.
- The Ministry of Cooperation was formed in 2021 to strengthen the cooperative framework.
- The MSCS Amendment Act 2023 aims to improve governance and operational efficiency of cooperatives.
Key Types of Cooperatives in India:
- Consumers’ Cooperatives: Provide affordable goods by removing intermediaries (e.g., Kendriya Bhandar).
- Producers’ Cooperatives: Support small producers by supplying essential materials.
- Cooperative Marketing Societies: Help producers market products collectively (e.g., Amul).
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[UPSC 2011] In India, which of the following have the highest share in the disbursement of credit to agriculture and allied activities?
(a) Commercial Banks (b) Cooperative Banks (c) Regional Rural Banks (d) Microfinance Institutions |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise INIOCHOS 25
Why in the News?
The Indian Air Force will participate in Exercise INIOCHOS-25 hosted by the Hellenic Air Force at Andravida Air Base, Greece.
About Exercise INIOCHOS
- INIOCHOS is a biennial multinational air exercise that provides air forces with a platform to enhance their operational readiness.
- It is hosted by the Hellenic (Greek) Air Force and brings together military aviation units from various countries, promoting international cooperation.
- It was first conducted in the late 1980s, as a small-scale tactical level exercise.
- Objective: To allow air forces to practice Combined Air Operations and share tactical knowledge through realistic combat scenarios.
- Key Features:
- It integrates air and surface assets from fifteen countries, promoting multinational cooperation in air warfare.
- It will simulate modern-day air warfare challenges, providing a real-world training environment for participating air forces.
- It will be placed on planning and executing Combined Air operations, refining tactics in complex air warfare scenarios.
Strategic Importance for India:
- India’s participation in INIOCHOS-25 underlines its commitment to global defence cooperation and showcases its ability to work seamlessly in joint operations.
- The exercise will reinforce India’s strategic partnerships with other nations and further enhance its readiness for joint operations in complex and dynamic air warfare environments.
[UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:
1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment.
3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
Question: “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years. [UPSC 2021]
Linkage: The broader context of competition for influence in the continent. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Russia-Ukraine war highlighted the need for energy security, affecting even Africa. As African leaders rethink their energy sources, nuclear power is becoming a key solution. Currently, South Africa has Africa’s only nuclear plant, but countries like Ghana, Nigeria, and Kenya plan to adopt nuclear energy. By 2035, Africa could generate 15,000 MW, attracting $105 billion in investments.
Today’s editorial talks about how African countries are changing their energy sources and how China is becoming a major player in Africa. This content would help in GS Paper 2 International relation.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
With several African nations reshaping their energy sources. China is likely to become their top choice for partnership, offering financial support, technology, and infrastructure to expand their nuclear energy sector.
What are the key factors driving Africa’s shift toward nuclear energy?
- Energy Security & Reduced Dependence on Imports: The Russia-Ukraine war exposed energy vulnerabilities, forcing African nations to diversify energy sources. Example: South Africa relies on coal but is now exploring nuclear expansion to ensure stable energy supply.
- Expanding Electricity Access: Many African countries face severe power shortages, affecting economic growth and quality of life. Example: Nigeria has frequent blackouts and signed an MoU with China to develop nuclear power plants.
- Clean Energy Transition & Climate Goals: African nations aim to reduce carbon emissions and shift from fossil fuels to meet global climate commitments. Example: Uganda plans a 2 GW nuclear plant to support its clean energy goals by 2031.
- Economic & Industrial Growth: Nuclear energy can power industries, create jobs, and attract foreign investments. Example: Ghana is developing Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) with U.S.-based NuScale Power to boost industrialization.
- Foreign Investment & Technological Advancements: Countries like China, Russia, and the U.S. are investing in Africa’s nuclear sector, providing funding and expertise. Example: Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger signed nuclear agreements with Russia’s Rosatom to develop their energy sector.
Which countries are leading the race to invest in Africa’s nuclear market, and why?
- China – The Dominant Player: Offers easy financing and infrastructure development under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: Nigeria & Uganda signed MoUs with China to build nuclear power plants, with Uganda planning a 2 GW nuclear plant by 2031.
- Russia – Strategic Engagement: Through Rosatom, Russia has signed agreements with multiple African nations, leveraging its nuclear expertise. Example: Egypt’s El Dabaa nuclear plant is being built by Rosatom, though progress is slow due to economic challenges.
- United States – Seeking a Foothold: Organizing the US-Africa Nuclear Energy Summit (USANES) to strengthen ties and push for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs). Example: Ghana partnered with NuScale Power and Regnum Technology Group to develop SMRs.
- France – Losing Influence: Historically dominated Africa’s nuclear sector but is now struggling to maintain relevance, especially in Francophone Africa. Example: South Africa’s Koeberg nuclear plant was built by a French consortium, but new projects are going to other players.
- South Korea – Emerging Contender: Korea Hydro and Nuclear Power (KHNP) is actively exploring opportunities in Africa’s nuclear energy sector. Example: South Korea is negotiating to supply nuclear reactors to various African countries, competing with China and Russia.
How is China strengthening its dominance in Africa’s nuclear energy sector?
- Financial Support & Infrastructure Investment: China provides easy financing and builds transmission networks through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: Uganda signed an MoU with China in 2024 for a 2 GW nuclear plant, with the first 1 GW unit expected by 2031.
- Training & Scholarships for African Engineers: The China Atomic Energy Authority, in cooperation with the IAEA, offers nuclear training programs for African students. Example: Since 2012, African students have been trained in Chinese nuclear procedures and technology, making China a preferred partner.
- State-Owned Companies Leading Expansion: China General Nuclear Power Group (CGN) and China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) spearhead projects across Africa. Example: Nigeria signed a deal with CNNC in 2024 to develop nuclear power plants, covering design, construction, and maintenance.
- Comprehensive Agreements Beyond Just Nuclear Plants: China integrates nuclear power development with broader energy and infrastructure investments, making deals attractive. Example: Kenya is considering China for both a research reactor and potential future nuclear plants as part of wider infrastructure projects.
- Exploiting Gaps Left by Other Players: With France losing influence and Russia struggling financially, China steps in with better financing and execution capacity. Example: Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, despite approaching Russia’s Rosatom, may turn to China for funding and technology due to Russia’s economic constraints.
Where are African countries planning to build new nuclear plants, and what are their projected timelines?
- Egypt – El Dabaa Nuclear Plant: Egypt is building a large nuclear plant with help from Russia’s Rosatom.The first reactor is expected to start working by 2028.
- Uganda – 2 GW Nuclear Power Plant: Uganda signed an agreement with China in 2024 to build a big nuclear plant. The first part (1 GW) should be ready by 2031.
- Nigeria – Future Nuclear Plants: Nigeria signed an agreement with China in 2024 to develop nuclear energy. The timeline is not confirmed yet.
- Kenya – Research Reactor: Kenya plans to build a small research reactor by 2030 to learn more about nuclear energy. It has not yet chosen a partner for a full power plant.
- Ghana – SMRs & Large Reactor: Ghana is working with U.S. company NuScale for small reactors and China for a big reactor. The exact timeline is still unclear.
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Why is India’s access to African uranium becoming more challenging?
- Growing Chinese Influence: China is investing heavily in Africa’s nuclear sector, securing long-term uranium supply deals. Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) funds energy projects, strengthening its ties with uranium-rich nations like Namibia and Niger.
- Geopolitical Realignments: Many African nations are aligning with China and Russia, reducing India’s negotiating power. Example: Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger have strengthened ties with Russia, which may affect India’s access to uranium deals.
- Competition from Other Global Players: France, Russia, and the U.S. are also competing for uranium resources, making it harder for India to secure long-term agreements. Example: France has historical control over Niger’s uranium exports, limiting India’s access.
- Economic & Infrastructure Constraints: India lacks direct investment in African uranium mining compared to China, which provides infrastructure and financial support. Example: China’s CNNC (China National Nuclear Corporation) has mining rights in Namibia, while India only has agreements without major investments.
- Security & Political Instability: Many uranium-rich African countries face political instability and security risks, making long-term agreements uncertain. Example: Niger’s 2023 military coup created uncertainty in uranium exports, impacting India’s potential deals.
What should India do to secure a uranium supply from Africa? (Way forward)
- Increase Direct Investment in Mining & Infrastructure: India should partner with African nations to develop uranium mines, processing facilities, and infrastructure instead of just relying on purchase agreements. Example: India can invest in Namibia’s uranium mining sector, similar to how China’s CNNC has secured long-term rights.
- Strengthen Bilateral & Multilateral Agreements: India must negotiate long-term uranium supply deals with African nations through trade pacts and diplomatic engagement. Example: India can expand its agreements under India-Africa Forum Summit (IAFS) to secure uranium from Niger, Malawi, and South Africa.
- Leverage India’s Civil Nuclear Agreements & Technology: India should offer nuclear technology collaboration to African nations as an incentive to secure uranium supply. Example: Partnering with Ghana and Kenya on Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) could help India gain better access to uranium sources.
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