Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Start-up ecosystem in India
Context
Three acts of entrepreneurship from five years ago — Jio, UPI, and GST — have converged to accelerate our startup ecosystem.
Let’s look at each in more detail
- Impact of JIO: India’s per GB internet data costs are just 3 per cent of those in the US.
- A bold and risky $35 billion bet made by a private company transformed Indians from being data deprived to data-rich; consumption has jumped 15 times because costs fell by over 90 per cent.
- The addition of millions of consumers and smartphones since Jio’s delightful five-year disruption of the market has exploded the most important universal metric in startup valuation — addressable market.
- Affordable digital connectivity is transforming 75 crore of them into consumers, entrepreneurs, employees, and suppliers.
- Role of UPI: Google’s letter to the US Federal Reserve suggesting America learn from India’s Universal Payments Interface (UPI) acknowledged that our real-time, low-cost, open-architecture payment plumbing is a public good.
- UPI’s mobile-first architecture is a key pillar of the paperless, presenceless, and cashless framework of the Aadhaar-seeded India Stack.
- Impact of GST: GST attacked complexity and incentivised law-abiding supply and distribution chains.
- It was long in the making but going live needed the risk-taking of starting with a second-best architecture, accepting some unjustifiable rates, and state revenue guarantees.
- The doubling of indirect tax registered enterprises since GST creates a virtuous economic cycle of higher total factor productivity for enterprises and employees.
Flourishing startup ecosystem
- India now has the highest ratio of unlisted to listed companies with a $1 billion valuation.
- Initial public offering documents filed by early startups like Nykaa, Paytm, Zomato and PolicyBazaar roughly average a 10x valuation rise since the triad did IPO.
- Estimates suggest India’s startup ecosystem valuation will explode from $315 billion today to $1 trillion by 2025.
Conclusion
Gandhiji’s notion of democracy — where the weakest have the same opportunity as the strongest — needs an economic meritocracy only possible when entrepreneurs have all the ingredients in the right proportions.
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- National Water Policy
Context
Over a period of one year, the committee set up to draft the new National Water Policy (NWP) received 124 submissions by state and central governments, academics and practitioners. The NWP is based on the striking consensus that emerged through these wide-ranging deliberations.
Major suggestion in NWP
Demand-side: Diversification of public procurement operations
- Irrigation consumes 80-90 per cent of India’s water, most of which is used by rice, wheat and sugarcane.
- Thus, crop diversification is the single most important step in resolving India’s water crisis.
- The policy suggests diversifying public procurement operations to include nutri-cereals, pulses and oilseeds.
- This would incentivise farmers to diversify their cropping patterns, resulting in huge savings of water.
2) Reduce-Recycle-Reuse
- Reduce-Recycle-Reuse has been proposed as the basic mantra of integrated urban water supply and wastewater management, with treatment of sewage and eco-restoration of urban river stretches, as far as possible through decentralised wastewater management.
- All non-potable use, such as flushing, fire protection, vehicle washing must mandatorily shift to treated wastewater.
3) Supply-side measure: Using technology to utilised stored water in dams
- Within supply-side options, the NWP points to trillions of litres stored in big dams, which are still not reaching farmers.
- NWP suggests how the irrigated areas could be greatly expanded at very low cost by deploying pressurised closed conveyance pipelines, combined with Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems and pressurised micro-irrigation.
4) Supply of water through “nature-based solutions”
- The NWP places major emphasis on supply of water through “nature-based solutions” such as the rejuvenation of catchment areas, to be incentivised through compensation for ecosystem services.
- Specially curated “blue-green infrastructure” such as rain gardens and bio-swales, restored rivers with wet meadows, wetlands constructed for bio-remediation, urban parks, permeable pavements, green roofs etc are proposed for urban areas.
5) Sustainable and equitable management of groundwater
- Information on aquifer boundaries, water storage capacities and flows provided in a user-friendly manner to stakeholders, designated as custodians of their aquifers, would enable them to develop protocols for effective management of groundwater.
6) Rights of Rivers
- The NWP accords river protection and revitalisation prior and primary importance.
- Steps to restore river flows include: Re-vegetation of catchments, regulation of groundwater extraction, river-bed pumping and mining of sand and boulders.
- The NWP outlines a process to draft a Rights of Rivers Act, including their right to flow, to meander and to meet the sea.
7) Emphasis on water quality
- The new NWP considers water quality as the most serious un-addressed issue in India today.
- It proposes that every water ministry, at the Centre and states, include a water quality department.
- The policy advocates adoption of state-of-the-art, low-cost, low-energy, eco-sensitive technologies for sewage treatment.
- Widespread use of reverse osmosis has led to huge water wastage and adverse impact on water quality.
- The policy wants RO units to be discouraged if the total dissolved solids count in water is less than 500mg/L.
- It suggests a task force on emerging water contaminants to better understand and tackle the threats they are likely to pose.
8) Reforming governance of water
- The policy makes radical suggestions for reforming governance of water, which suffers from three kinds issues: That between irrigation and drinking water, surface and groundwater, as also water and wastewater.
- Government departments, working in silos, have generally dealt with just one side of these binaries.
- Dealing with drinking water and irrigation in silos has meant that aquifers providing assured sources of drinking water dry up because the same aquifers are used for irrigation, which consumes much more water.
- And when water and wastewater are separated in planning, the result is a fall in water quality.
9) Creation of National Water Commission
- The NWP also suggests the creation of a unified multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder National Water Commission (NWC), which would become an exemplar for states to follow.
- Governments should build enduring partnerships with primary stakeholders of water, who must become an integral part of the NWC and its counterparts in the states.
Conclusion
The new National Water Policy calls for multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder approach to water management.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NDPS Act
Mains level: Substance abuse in India
- The Union Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has proposed certain changes to some provisions of the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act of 1985.
- The recommendations have assumed importance in the backdrop of some high-profile drug cases including the recent arrest of Bollywood actor’s son.
What is NDPS Act?
- The NDPS Act, 1985 is the principal legislation through which the state regulates the operations of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.
- It provides a stringent framework for punishing offenses related to illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances through imprisonments and forfeiture of property.
- This is a stringent law where the death penalty can be prescribed for repeat offenders.
Key amendments suggested
- To decriminalise the possession of narcotic drugs in smaller quantities for personal purposes.
- Persons using drugs in smaller quantities be treated as victims.
Issues with the NDPS Act
Ans. First arrest and then investigate
- First arrest and then investigate seems to be the principle for investigations under the NDPS Act.
- Section 50 of the Act (conditions under which search of persons shall be conducted) needs to be followed scrupulously.
- When officials stumble upon a person carrying drugs during raids or a routine check, the drugs must be seized in front of a Gazetted Officer or a Magistrate.
Why such provision?
- In cases of sudden development, the suspect is taken to the nearby Magistrate or the latter is brought to the spot and then only drugs are seized.
- If this is not adhered to, the court acquits the accused persons. Only then the next stage of investigation commences.
- While tracking drugs cases, investigators go from consumers to drug suppliers.
Is there any scope of mi-use?
- It is not possible at all. Once cannot manage all the people all the time.
- Since the seizure procedure is to be followed, there could be one Magistrate at the time of seizing drugs, another during further investigation and a different Magistrate at the time of trial.
- Moreover, governments can change.
Challenges in enforcing the NDPS Act
(a) Peddling
- Since drug peddling is an organised crime, it is challenging for the police to catch the persons involved from the point of source to the point of destination.
- Identifying drugs that are being transported is a challenge since we cannot stop each and every vehicle that plies on Indian roads.
(b) Transportation
- Most drug bust cases are made possible with specific information leads.
- Unless we check every vehicle with specially trained sniffer dogs, it is difficult to check narcotic drugs transportation.
(c) Production
- The main challenge is to catch those producing these substances. Secret cultivation are mostly carried on in LWE affected areas.
- Going beyond State jurisdiction, finding the source of narcotic substances and destroying them is another big challenge.
(d) Delay in trials
- Securing conviction for the accused in drugs cases is yet another arduous task. There are frequent delays in court procedures.
- Sometimes, cases do not come up for trial even after two years of having registered them.
- By then, the accused are out on bail and do not turn up for trial.
- Bringing them back from their States to trial is quite difficult let alone getting them convicted.
Other Challenges
(a) Growing hopelessness in society
- The COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, has aggravated anxieties among the youth.
- Joblessness and livelihood losses are the major push factors.
(b) Issues in rehabilitation
- The proposal to send persons to rehabilitation centres is good on paper but we do not have the infrastructure to ensure that it is properly implemented.
- We don’t have adequate de-addiction centre counsellors. We face an acute shortage of psychiatrists and counsellors.
Issues in legalization of drugs
- Legalisation of drugs usage will only compound the problem.
- It could lead to the proliferation of drugs.
- It is dangerous. More and more people may start using them.
Way forward
- We need to thoroughly examine why and how people are getting addicted to narcotic drugs.
- No doubt the NDPS Act is stringent, but we need to make a distinction between the drug peddler and the end user.
- The person using it in smaller quantities for personal use cannot be bracketed with the person producing narcotic drugs.
- We need to make a clear distinction between a drug supplier and an end user.
- A drug user needs to be seen as a patient. The Act as of now prescribes jail for everyone — the end user and the drug supplier.
- Instead of suggesting proposals to change sections of the law for the entire country, it would be advisable to introduce this on a pilot basis in one State that faces an acute drugs-related problem.
Conclusion
- We should examine the root cause of the problem.
- Relying only on law-enforcing agencies, however hard they are at work to address the problem, is not going to solve it.
- Civil society and governments will have to work together to create an enabling environment to address the issue.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hypersonic Glide Vehicle, ICBM
Mains level: Hypersonic Glide Missiles
Though inducted over three years ago, India’s foremost Agni 5 ballistic missile was tested for the first time after reports that China had tested a new hypersonic missile.
What is the Agni 5 missile?
- Agni 5 is India’s long-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile, which can hit a target with a precision that is 5,000 km
- The nuclear-capable missile is India’s contender for the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
- Its range puts almost the entire China within the missile’s target range.
- Though the government has claimed that it has a maximum range of around 5,000 km, several reports suggest that it can hit targets as distant as 8,000 km.
- The nuclear capable missile can carry a warhead of around 1,500 kg and has a launch weight of 50,000 kg, making it one of the most potent missiles in the country.
Note: Officially an ICBM needs a missile to have a range of at least 5,500 km.
History of Agni Missiles
- India began testing the Agni series of missiles in 1989 with the first test for Agni 1, an Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile, with a range of around 1,000 km.
- At that time only the US, the erstwhile Soviet Union, China, France and Israel, had IRBM technology.
- Since then, DRDO labs have continued to work on it, bringing the latest available Agni 5 to its present capability.
- In addition to the IRBM-capable nations, only North Korea and the UK have ICBM technology at the moment.
Why is it important for India?
- The success of AGNI missiles is in line with India’s stated policy to have ‘credible minimum deterrence’ that underpins the commitment to ‘No First Use’.
- What makes Agni 5 agile is that it is a “canisterised” missile. It means that the missile can be launched from road and rail platforms, making it easier for it to be deployed and launched at a quicker pace.
- The canisterisation also gives the missile a longer shelf life, protecting it from the harsher climatic conditions.
- While India is among the handful of nations with ICBM capability.
- The next generation of the missile, Agni VI, under development, is expected to have a range of around 8,000 km.
What is a Hypersonic Glide Vehicle that China tested?
- HGV is nuclear capable missile, which circled the earth before moving towards its target, missing it by two dozen miles.
- It is launched by a rocket which moves in the Earth’s lower orbit, at more than five times to 25 times the speed of sound.
- The vehicle is capable of carrying nuclear payloads, which gives the launching country the strategic capacity to attack almost any target across the world.
How is HGV different from an ICBM?
- A hypersonic glide vehicle orbits the earth at a lower height, and is manoeuvrable as compared to ICBM.
- The ability to change track or target, mid-trajectory, along with the speed, makes them tougher to track and defend against.
- The manoeuvrability provides them in-flight updates to attack a different target than originally planned.
- They possess ability to fly at unpredictable trajectories, these missiles will hold extremely large areas at risk throughout much of their flights.
Which countries have hypersonic technology?
- Apart from China, the US and Russia are working on the technology.
- France and India are working together for gaining the capability.
Concerns about China developing such technology
- China might have left the US behind in hypersonic capability.
- It is being perceived as a Sputnik moment (first Russian space mission widely envied by the US).
- A hypersonic attack could occur with very little warning time. The unpredictable trajectory would give them an advantage.
Another concern: Increasing Proliferation
- Globally the main concern is that once the technology is successfully established by even one country, it would lead to a larger race for the capability and its eventual proliferation.
- The more that hypersonic missiles proliferate into the hands of additional nations, the more paths develop for crises.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Registering a Political Party
Mains level: Political Party registration benefits
Former Punjab CM has announced that he will be forming his own political party in Punjab ahead of the state assembly elections.
Registering a Political Party
- The registration of all political parties is governed by the provisions of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
- According to the Election Commission (EC), any party seeking registration has to submit an application to the Commission within a period of 30 days.
- This is done as per guidelines prescribed by the EC in exercise of the powers conferred by Article 324 of the Constitution and Section 29A of the RP Act, 1951.
Note: There is no procedure available for de-registration of dormant political parties.
Process of registration
- The applicant is asked to publish a proposed party name in two national daily newspapers and two local daily newspapers, and provide two days for submitting objections, if any.
- The notice for publication is also displayed on the website of the Election Commission.
Why registering with the EC is important?
- It is not mandatory to register with the Election Commission.
- However, registering as a political party with the EC has its advantage in terms of intending to avail itself of the provisions of the RP Act, 1951.
- The candidates set up by a political party registered with the EC will get preference in the matter of allotment of free symbols vis-à-vis purely independent candidates.
- More importantly, these registered political parties, over course of time, can get recognition as a ‘state party’ or a ‘national party’.
How EC recognises a political party as a state or national party?
For recognition as a NATIONAL PARTY, the conditions specified are:
- a 6% vote share in the last Assembly polls in each of any four states, as well as four seats in the last Lok Sabha polls; or
- 2% of all Lok Sabha seats in the last such election, with MPs elected from at least three states; or
- recognition as a state party in at least four states.
For recognition as a STATE PARTY, any one of five conditions needs to be satisfied:
- two seats plus a 6% vote share in the last Assembly election in that state; or
- one seat plus a 6% vote share in the last Lok Sabha election from that state; or
- 3% of the total Assembly seats or 3 seats, whichever is more; or
- one of every 25 Lok Sabha seats (or an equivalent fraction) from a state; or
- an 8% state-wide vote share in either the last Lok Sabha or the last Assembly polls.
Benefits for recognized parties
- This is subject to the fulfilment of the conditions prescribed by the Commission in the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.
(a) Reserved Sybol
- If a party is recognised as a ‘state party’, it is entitled for exclusive allotment of its reserved symbol to the candidates set up by it in the state in which it is so recognised. If a party is recognised as a ‘national party’ it is entitled for exclusive allotment of its reserved symbol to the candidates set up by it throughout India.
(b) Proposer for nomination
- Recognised ‘state’ and ‘national’ parties need only one proposer for filing the nomination.
(c) Campaigning benefits
- They are also entitled for two sets of electoral rolls free of cost and broadcast/telecast facilities over state-owned Akashvani/Doordarshan during the general elections.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Quota and Religious conversions
In a retaliatory move, a state minister has alleged about a decorated officer serving in the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB), has benefitted from the reservation for Scheduled Castes (SCs) despite being Muslim.
Do you know?
If the quota/caste certificate is found to be false, the government servant is be removed or dismissed from the service. There are many who are arranging EWS quota certificates based on forged evidences. Beware.
Quota and religion
- The Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order, 1950, lays down that no person professing a religion different from the Hindu or Sikh or Buddhist religion can be deemed to be a member of an SC.
- However, this provision has been amended several times.
- The original order under which only Hindus were classified as SCs, was amended to include Sikhs in 1956, and Buddhists in 1990.
Rules of Religion in eligibility for the SC Quota
- There is a 15 per cent quota for SCs in government jobs.
- But Hindu SCs who convert to Islam lose their SC status, and are no longer eligible for the quota.
A brochure on the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT), site lays down the position on SC status and conversions:
- A person shall be held to be a member of a SC or ST if he belongs to a caste, or a tribe which has been declared as such.
- No person who professes a religion different from the Hindu or the Sikh religion shall be deemed to be a member of the SCs.
- Further a person belonging to a SC or ST will continue to be deemed as such irrespective of his/her marriage to a non-Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe.
- However, a convert or re-convert to Hinduism and Sikhism shall be accepted as a member of SC if he has been received back and accepted as a member of the concerned SC.
- No such religion-based bar, however, operates for STs and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
What about STs?
- The rights of a person belonging to a Scheduled Tribe are independent of his/her religious faith.
Is the exclusion of Muslims and Christians discriminatory?
- Petitions have been filed in the Supreme Court seeking the inclusion of Muslims and Christians in the SC category.
- In 2008, the National Commission on Minorities concluded that there was a case for inclusion Dalit Christians and Dalit Muslims in the SC category.
- In January 2020, the SC agreed to examine a plea by the National Council of Dalit Christians to make the government’s affirmative action programmes religion-neutral.
- The plea is pending before the court.
In inter-caste marriages, can mother’s caste be the caste of the couple’s child?
- The child carries the caste of the father, and caste certificates are issued on this basis.
- However, courts have taken note of the surroundings in which the child was brought up.
- In Rameshbhai Dabhai Naika vs State of Gujarat & Ors (2012), the Supreme Court has set a precedence.
- In an inter-caste marriage or a marriage between a tribal and a non-tribal there may be a presumption that the child has the caste of the father.
- This presumption may be stronger in the case where husband belongs to a forward caste.
- In 2006, then Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment has proposed that children born of inter-caste marriages should get SC status if either parent belongs to a SC.
Govt. stance on this
- In 2006, then Minister for Social Justice and Empowerment has proposed that children born of inter-caste marriages should get SC status if either parent belongs to a SC.
- A proposal was to be placed before the Cabinet in April 2008, but was withdrawn at the last minute.
- There was resistance to the suggestion from many quarters, including the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC).
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Vulnerability Index
Mains level: Mapping India's climate change vulnerability
Environmental think tank Council on Energy, Environment and Water has carried a first-of-its-kind district-level climate vulnerability assessment, or Climate Vulnerability Index (CVI).
Climate Vulnerability Index
- The Index takes into account certain indicators when assessing the preparedness of a state or district.
- It considers:
- Exposure (that is whether the district is prone to extreme weather events)
- Sensitivity (the likelihood of an impact on the district by the weather event)
- Adaptive capacity (what the response or coping mechanism of the district is)
Significance of CVI
- CVI helps map critical vulnerabilities and plan strategies to enhance resilience and adapt by climate-proofing communities, economies and infrastructure.
- Instead of looking at climate extremes in isolation, the study looks at the combined risk of hydro-met disasters, which is floods, cyclones and droughts, and their impact.
- The study does not take into consideration other natural disasters such as earthquakes.
Why does India need a climate vulnerability index?
- According to Germanwatch’s 2020 findings, India is the seventh-most vulnerable country with respect to climate extremes.
- Extreme weather events have been increasing in the country such as supercyclone Amphan in the Bay of Bengal, which is now the strongest cyclone to be recorded in the country.
- Recent events such as the landslides and floods in Uttarakhand and Kerala, have also increased in the past decade.
- Further, the IPCC states that every degree rise in temperature will lead to a three per cent increase in precipitation, causing increased intensification of cyclones and floods.
Key findings of the CVI
According to CVI, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Bihar are most vulnerable to extreme climate events such as floods, droughts and cyclones in India.
- 183 hotspot districts are highly vulnerable to more than one extreme climate events
- 60% of Indian districts have medium to low adaptive capacity in handing extreme weather events – these districts don’t have robust plans in place to mitigate impact
- North-eastern states are more vulnerable to floods
- South and central are most vulnerable to extreme droughts
- 59 and 41 per cent of the total districts in the eastern and western states, respectively, are highly vulnerable to extreme cyclones.
Best performing states
- Kerala and West Bengal have performed well comparatively, despite both being coastal states and dealing with the threat of cyclones and floods annually.
- The reason why these states have performed better is that they have stepped up their climate action plans as well as preparedness to handle an extreme weather event.
Key recommendations
- Develop a high-resolution Climate Risk Atlas (CRA) to map critical vulnerabilities
- Establish a centralised climate-risk commission to coordinate the environmental de-risking mission.
- Undertake climate-sensitivity-led landscape restoration focused on rehabilitating, restoring, and reintegrating natural ecosystems as part of the developmental process.
- Integrate climate risk profiling with infrastructure planning to increase adaptive capacity.
- Provide for climate risk-interlinked adaptation financing by creating innovative CVI-based financing instruments that integrate climate risks for an effective risk transfer mechanism.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Blue carbon, Sunderbans
Mains level: Carbon sequestration
India’s Sundarbans National Park is among five sites that have the highest blue carbon stocks globally, according to a new assessment.
Highlights of the study
- ‘World Heritage forests’ are now releasing more carbon than they are absorbing, primarily due to human activity and climate change, according to the assessment.
- UNESCO lists 50 sites across the globe for their unique marine values. These represent just one per cent of the global ocean area.
- But they comprise at least 15 per cent of global blue carbon assests.
Try this question from CSP 2021:
Q. What is blue carbon?
(a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems
(b) Carbon sequestered in forest biomass and agricultural soils
(c) Carbon contained in petroleum and natural gas
(d) Carbon present in atmosphere
Post your answers here.
Carbon capacity of Sundarbans
- The Sundarbans National Park has stores of 60 million tonnes of carbon (Mt C).
- The other four sites besides the Sundarbans National Park in India are:
- Bangladeshi portion of the Sundarbans (110 Mt C)
- Great Barrier Reef in Australia (502 Mt C)
- Everglades National Park in the US (400 Mt C) and
- Banc d’Arguin National Park in Mauritania (110 Mt C)
About Sundarbans
- Sundarbans is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
- The Indian Sunderbans, which covers 4,200 sq km, comprises of the Sunderban Tiger Reserve of 2,585 sq km is home to about 96 Royal Bengal Tigers (2020) is also a world heritage site and a Ramsar Site.
- The Indian Sunderbans is bound on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and Raimangal.
- Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Goasaba.
Worrying scenario
- The researchers found that 10 of 257 forests emitted more carbon than they captured between 2001 and 2020.
- The reasons for included clearance of land for agriculture, the increasing scale and severity of wildfires due to drought as well as extreme weather phenomena.
- The 10 sites are:
- Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra (Indonesia)
- Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve (Honduras)
- Yosemite National Park (US)
- Waterton Glacier International Peace Park (Canada, US)
- Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains (South Africa)
- Kinabalu Park (Malaysia)
- Uvs Nuur Basin (Russian Federation, Mongolia)
- Grand Canyon National Park (US)
- Greater Blue Mountains Area (Australia)
- Morne Trois Pitons National Park (Dominica)
(Try mapping these sites)
Back2Basics: Types of Carbon
- Brown Carbon: It is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter.
- Black Carbon: It is also a greenhouse gas and causes more pollution than Brown Carbon. The particles leftover from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (soot and dust). It has a greater effect on radiation transmission.
- Green Carbon: Carbon incorporated into plant biomass and the soils below. Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
- Blue Carbon: Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine organism and sediments.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Get an IAS/IPS ranker as your 1: 1 personal mentor for UPSC 2024
Attend Now