Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ken-Betwa Interlinking Project
Mains level: River interlinking and associated issues
The Union Cabinet has approved the funding and implementation of the Ken-Betwa river interlinking project at the 2020-21 price level.
Ken-Betwa Interlinking Project
- The Ken-Betwa Link Project is the first project under the National Perspective Plan for the interlinking of rivers.
- Under this project, water from the Ken River will be transferred to the Betwa River. Both these rivers are tributaries of the river Yamuna.
- The project is being managed by India’s National Water Development Agency (NWDA), under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
- Implementation of the project
- Phase-I: Daudhan dam complex and its appurtenances like Low Level Tunnel, High Level Tunnel, Ken-Betwa link canal and Power houses
- Phase-II: Lower Orr dam, Bina complex project and Kotha Barrage
Utility of the Project
- Irrigation: The project is slated to irrigate 10.62 lakh hectares annually, provide drinking water supply to 62 lakh people and generate 103 MW of hydropower and 27 MW of solar power.
- Water supply: The project will be of immense benefit to the water-starved Bundelkhand region, spread across Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
- Agricultural boost: The project is expected to boost socio-economic prosperity in the backward Bundelkhand region on account of increased agricultural activities and employment generation.
- Addressing Rural Distress: It would also help in arresting distress migration from this region.
Many hurdles
- Submergence of critical wildlife habitat: The project will partly submerge the Panna Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh and affect the habitat of vultures and jackals.
- Clearance: After years of protests, it was finally cleared by the apex wildlife regulator, the National Board for Wildlife, in 2016.
- Water sharing disputes: Then UP and MP could not agree on how water would be shared, particularly in the non-monsoonal months.
Back2Basics: River Interlinking in India
History
- The idea of interlinking of rivers in the Indian subcontinent is atleast 150 years old.
- During the British Raj in India, Sir Arthur Cotton, a British general and irrigation engineer, first suggested linking the Ganga and the Cauvery for navigational purposes.
- K.L. Rao’s Proposal (1972), which had 2640 km long Ganga – Cauvery link as its main component involved large scale pumping over a head of 550 m.
- The Central Water Commission, which examined the proposal, found it to be grossly under estimated and economically prohibitive.
Capt. Dastur Proposal (1977)
It envisaged the construction of two canals:
- 4200 km Himalayan Canal at the foot of Himalayan slopes running from the Ravi in the West to the Brahmaputra and beyond in the east
- 9300 km Garland Canal covering the central and southern parts
Beginning of implementation
- The Indian Rivers Inter-link aims to link India’s rivers by a network of reservoirs and canals and so reduce persistent floods in some parts and water shortages in other parts of India.
- The idea to link rivers got a shot in the arm with the establishment of the National Water Development Agency in 1982 by then PM Indira Gandhi.
- The Inter-link project was split into three parts:
- Northern Himalayan rivers inter-link component
- Southern Peninsular component
- Intrastate rivers linking component
Objectives of inter-linking
- Connect the Himalayan and peninsular rivers via a network of canals so that
- Excess water from one channel can be diverted to another which has an inadequate flow
- Flood moderation in the Ganga-Brahmaputra system
- Hydropower generation through excess water
Prospects of River inter-linking
- Engineering challenges: This is one of the most daring feats of engineering attempted in the history of mankind.
- Ecosystem challenges: It is a reimagining of the entire aquatic ecosystem of a country as large and diverse as India.
Advantages offered by river inter-linking
- Flood control and mitigation: Problems related to flood control, irrigation, limiting droughts and boosting farm output—can be sorted out by linking the country’s rivers.
- Economic boost: Potential benefits to transport infrastructure through navigation, as well as to broadening income sources in rural areas through fish farming.
Issues with such projects
- Migration: It will lead to massive displacement of people
- Topography change: Since the Ganga basin topography is flat, building dams would not substantially add to river flows.
- Inundation: The transfer of such enormous amounts of water will inundate forests and land for reservoirs.
- Seismic hazards: The weight of billions of liters of water can have seismic implications in the Himalayan region.
- Financial expense: River inter-linking is an expensive business from building the link canals to the monitoring and maintenance infrastructure.
- Political will: Implementation of the project not only needs a huge financial capital but also political support both is scarce commodities as of now.
- Consensus building for land acquisition: Another important issue is building consensus among states and Land acquisition.
- Ecological feasibility: Once the project is implemented it would lead to large-scale displacement of people and animals.
Criticisms of such projects
- Bad Science: Such projects are built on bad science and an outdated understanding of water systems and water management.
- Human determinism: Such projects go in contravention with natural process thereby generating more scope for threat than any opportunity.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Law Commission of India
Mains level: Role of Law Commission in Legal Reforms
The Government has informed the Supreme Court that the appointment of Chairperson and Members of the 22nd Law Commission of India is under consideration.
Why in news?
- The setting up of the 22nd Law Commission was constituted by the Government on February 21, 2020.
- However, no progress has been made in the appointments till date.
- The Government invoked the ‘doctrine of separation of power’, which says that one arm of governance should not encroach into that of another.
Issues over appointment
- The last chairman of the law commission was retired Supreme Court judge, Justice B.S. Chauhan, who completed his tenure on 31 August 2018.
- Subsequently, the Commission has not been reconstituted.
- In February 2020, the Government of India announced its intention to reconstitute the Commission with no visible progress.
About Law Commission
- Law Commission of India is a currently-defunct executive body established by an order of the Government of India.
- The Commission’s function is to research and advise the GoI on legal reform, and is composed of legal experts, and headed by a retired judge.
- The commission is established for a fixed tenure and works as an advisory body to the Ministry of Law and Justice.
- The last chairman of the Commission retired in August 2018, and since then, it has not been reconstituted.
Colonial Background
- The first Law Commission was established during colonial rule in India, by the East India Company under the Charter Act of 1833.
- It was then presided by Lord Macaulay.
- After that, three more Commissions were established in pre-independent India.
Post-Independence functioning
- The first Law Commission of independent India was established in 1955 for a three-year term.
- Since then, twenty-one more Commissions have been established.
Major reforms undertaken
- The First Law Commission under Macaulay Itsuggested various enactments to the British Government, most of which were passed and enacted and are still in force in India.
- These include the Indian Penal Code (first submitted in 1837 but enacted in 1860 and still in force), Criminal Procedure Code (enacted in 1898, repealed and succeeded by the Criminal Procedure Code of 1973), etc.
- Thereafter three more Law Commissions were established which made a number of other recommendations the Indian Evidence Act (1872) and Indian Contract Act (1872), etc. being some of the significant ones.
Role in legal reforms
The Law Commission has been a key to law reform in India.
- Its role has been both advisory and critical of the government’s policies
- In a number of decisions, the Supreme Court has referred to the work done by the commission and followed its recommendations.
- The Commission seeks to simplify procedures to curb delays and improve standards of justice.
- It also strives to promote an accountable and citizen-friendly government that is transparent and ensures the people’s right to information.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Theory of Justice
Mains level: Principle of Justice
This newscard is an excerpt of the original article published in TH.
Note: This article is of extreme theoretical nature. But it leaves scope for many vague questions for prelims as well as mains where most of us go clueless.
Two principles of Justice
- The concept, so-called, of “two principles of justice”, is synonymous with the name of John Rawls, a highly influential American liberal political philosopher of the last century.
- The concept of two principles forms an encapsulation of the core principles of:
- Freedom and equality embodied in the constitutions of any contemporary liberal democratic society
- As such, they have acquired pre-eminence in a wide range of academic disciplines and in the arena of public policymaking.
What are the two principles?
- The first of Rawls’ two principles says that every citizen has the same claim to a scheme of equal basic liberties, which must also be compatible with those of every other citizen.
- It enumerates an extensive list of basic civil and political rights, including a person’s freedom of conscience, expression and association; the right to a basic income; and the right to exercise the franchise.
- Their resonance with the practical world of politics needs no emphasis; consider the chapter on fundamental rights in any constitution.
- The second of Rawls’ two principles grapples with the underlying inequalities of social and economic institutions.
How can these be reasonably justified to free and equal citizens?
- In order to be morally defensible, the institutions must satisfy two conditions.
- First, they must guarantee fair equality of opportunities for competition to positions of public office and employment.
- Second, social and economic inequalities must be arranged in a manner that they work to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged members of society.
- This latter postulate is Rawls’ famous “difference principle”.
Significance of this principle
- The political significance of Rawls’ two principles of justice obtains equally in the relative weight and primacy he assigns to their different components.
- Between them, the first principle is accorded absolute priority over the second.
- That is to say, the primacy of the equal basic liberties of citizens is non-negotiable in a democratic society.
- The entitlement of each to the various liberties is as critical as they are universal and non-discriminatory.
- Within the second principle, the first part takes precedence over the second.
- In other words, public institutions could not appear legitimate in the eyes of citizens unless everybody could reasonably expect to enjoy the fruits of fair equality of opportunities.
Try this question from CSP 2020:
Q. One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is
(a) The final goal of a stateless society
(b) Class struggle
(c) Abolition of private property
(d) Economic determinism
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ambergris
Mains level: Not Much
The Crime Branch in Pune and seized 550 grams of ambergris, also known as ‘floating gold’.
What is Ambergris?
- Ambergris, which means gray amber in French, is a waxy substance that originates from the digestive system of the protected sperm whales.
- It is incorrectly referred to as ‘whale vomit’.
- It is produced in the gastrointestinal tract of some of the sperm whales for the passage of hard, sharp objects that are ingested when the whale eats large quantities of marine animals.
Why is it so expensive?
- Investigating agencies from across India who have seized ambergris in the recent past estimate its value to be somewhere between Rs 1 to 2 crores per kilogram, depending on the purity and quality.
- Being extremely rare contributes to its high demand and high price in the international market.
Its uses
- Traditionally, ambergris is used to produce perfumes that have notes of musk.
- While there are records of it being used to flavor food, alcoholic beverages and tobacco in some cultures in the past, it is rarely used for these purposes presently.
Legalities and recent cases of seizure in India
- While there is a ban on possession and trade of ambergris in countries like the USA, Australia and India, in several other countries it is a tradable commodity.
- In the Indian context, the sperm whales are a protected species under Schedule 2 of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and possession or trade of any of its by-products, including Ambergris is illegal.
- It has been observed that the gangs smuggling the ambergris procure it from coastal areas and ship it to destination countries via some other countries with whom India has comparatively less stringent sea trade.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- Scrutinising reduced out-of-pocket expenditure on health
Context
The National Health Accounts (NHA) report for 2017-18 is being celebrated widely as it shows that total public spending on health as a percentage of GDP has increased to a historic high of 1.35% of GDP.
India’s total public spending on health
- One of the lowest in the world: India’s total public spending on health as a percentage of GDP or in per capita terms has been one of the lowest in the world.
- Majority spent by the States: The Union government traditionally spends around a third of the total government spending whereas the majority is borne by the States.
- There has been a policy consensus for more than a decade now that public spending has to increase to at least 2.5% of GDP.
- However, there has not been any significant increase so far.
- Despite several pronouncements, it has continued to hover around 1%-1.2% of GDP.
Why NHA report is being celebrated?
- The National Health Accounts (NHA) report capture spending on health by various sources, and track the schemes through which these funds are channelised to various providers in a given time period for a given geography.
- The National Health Accounts (NHA) report for 2017-18 is being celebrated widely as it shows that total public spending on health as a percentage of GDP has increased to a historic high of 1.35% of GDP.
- The increase shown in NHA 2017-18 is largely due to increase in Union government expenditure.
- Increase in Centre’s share: For 2017-18, the Centre’s share in total public spending on health has jumped to 40.8%.
- However, if we study the spending pattern of the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and the Ministry of AYUSH, we see that expenditure increased to 0.32% of GDP from 0.27% in 2016-17 — insufficient to explain the overall jump.
Issues with NHA report
- Expenditure of DMS included: Much of this increase has actually happened on account of a tripling of expenditure of the Defence Medical Services (DMS).
- Compared to an expenditure of ₹10,485 in 2016-17, it increased to ₹32,118 crore.
- Though the increasing spending for the health of defence personnel is a good thing, such spending does not benefit the general population.
- Within government expenditure, the share of current health expenditure has come down to 71.9% compared to 77.9% a year ago.
- Capital expenditure included: This essentially means, capital expenditure has increased, and specifically in defence.
- There is a problem in accounting capital expenditure within the NHA framework.
- Why capital expenditure needs to be left out: Equipment brought or a hospital that is built serves people for many years, so the expenditure incurred is used for the lifetime of the capital created and use does not get limited to that particular year in which expenditure is incurred.
- The World Health Organization proposes to leave out capital expenditure from health accounts estimates, instead focus on current health expenditure.
- Incomparable to other countries: In NHA estimates in India, in order to show higher public investment, capital expenditure is included; thus, Indian estimates become incomparable to other countries.
- The NHA estimate also shows that out-of-pocket expenditure as a share of GDP has reduced to less than half of the total health expenditure.
- NSSO 2017-18 data suggest that during this time period, utilisation of hospitalisation care has declined compared to 2014 NSSO estimates for almost all States and for various sections of society.
- Sign of distress: The decline in out-of-pocket expenditure is essentially due to a decline in utilisation of care rather than greater financial protection.
- Actually, the NSSO survey happened just after six months of demonetisation and almost at the same time when the Goods and Services Tax was introduced.
- The disastrous consequences of the dual blow of demonetisation and GST on the purchasing power of people are quite well documented.
- Another plausible explanation is linked to limitations in NSSO estimates. The NSSO fails to capture the spending pattern of the richest 5% of the population (who incur a large part of the health expenditure).
- Thus, out-of-pocket expenditure measured from the NSSO could be an under-estimate as it fails to take into account the expenditure of the richest sections.
Conclusion
The reduction of out-of-pocket expenditure is a sign of distress and a result of methodological limitations of the NSSO, rather than a sign of increased financial protection.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Impact of stubble burning
Mains level: Paper 3- Measures to stop stubble burning
Context
Every October and November, parts of north India are engulfed by a dense fog. Farmers resort to the practice due to the limited time they have between the harvesting of kharif paddy and sowing of the rabi wheat.
Government initiatives to stop the stubble burning
- Policy measures: In 2014, the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare developed a National Policy for the Management of Crop Residue.
- Ban by NGT: In 2015, the National Green Tribunal banned stubble burning in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana and Punjab.
- Weak enforcement: The enforcement of the ban has, however, been weak, largely due to inadequate political will.
- Legal measures: Stubble burning was considered an offence under Section 188 of the Indian Penal Code and in the Air and Pollution Control Act, 1981.
- However, it has now been decriminalised as per a recent government announcement.
- The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue was introduced in 2018-19.
- Over 1.5 lakh crop residue management machineries have been supplied to farmers and custom hiring centres between 2018-19 to 2020-21.
How successful were the measures?
- As a result of these efforts, the number of crop residue burning events declined from 2016 to 2019.
- This year satellite data did show an almost 50 per cent decline in the number of stubble burning events in Punjab, Haryana and UP in October.
- However, after including burning events till November 21, the decline reduced to about 8 per cent.
- Experts suggest that the respite in October was temporary as the initial decline can be attributed to the delayed withdrawal of monsoon.
- It is thus evident that despite various government initiatives, substantial stubble burning continues in several states.
Suggestions
- Subsidise operational cost for crop residue management: To ease farmers’ financial burden, the government could consider subsidising operational costs along with providing farmers capital subsidy on crop residue management equipment.
- Ex-situ management of crop residue: Ex-situ management of crop residue can also be explored under the schemes covering products such as bales and pellets for biomass power generation and supplementary feedstock in coal-fired power plants.
- Awareness generation: Awareness generation and trust building exercises should be undertaken with the support of local civil society organisations.
- Adopt targeted and cluster-based approach: Stubble burning is fairly concentrated in regions within states.
- A targeted and cluster-based approach can be undertaken by identifying districts with a higher number of stubble burning incidents.
- Central and state government interventions can then be concentrated in these districts.
- Monitoring system at local level: To make these interventions effective, there is a requirement for formulating a robust monitoring system at the local level to track the progress of different activities.
Consider the question “Stubble burning by farmers of the adjacent states contributes significantly to the air pollution in Delhi. In this context, examine the initiatives taken by the government to deal with the problem and suggest the way forward.”
Conclusion
Dealing with the practice of stubble burning requires efforts on multiple levels. A combination of these measures can complement the existing initiatives to encourage farmers to adopt zero stubble burning practices.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various logistics agreement mentioned
Mains level: India-Russia Defense Cooperation
India and Russia are set to ink the RELOS logistics exchange pact during the visit of Russian President Vladimir Putin for the Indo-Russia summit.
What are Logistics Agreements, in general?
- Logistical exchange agreements are designed so that partner countries can enjoy ease of access to use each other’s military facilities like ports, bases, and military installations.
- Such agreements save enormous time and also frees up the need for constant paperwork when one military obtains assistance on matters like refuelling, berthing, use of aviation infrastructure, etc.
RELOS Agreement with Russia
- RELOS agreement with Russia would grant “access to Russian naval port facilities in the Arctic”, thus enhancing “Indian Navy’s reach and operational experience in Polar waters”.
Need for RELOS
- Despite growing engagement with the US on military hardware and tech, Russia remains a partner with whom India has shared traditionally deep defence ties.
- Russia’s growing proximity to China and Pakistan has of late been seen as casting a shadow on the Moscow-New Delhi engagement.
- To that extent, RELOS will be an important step forward in the military sphere as it aims at fostering interoperability and sharing of logistics.
- The “long overdue” agreement was to have come up for signing in 2019 but that was put off pending finalisation of its terms.
Strategic significance of RELOS Agreement
- Naval Cooperation: It is usually the Indian Navy, the most outgoing force of the three services, that stands to benefit the most from a logistical exchange agreement.
- Interoperability: These impart enhanced operational turnaround and strengthened interoperability on the high seas.
- Military enhancements: Given the percentage of Russian military hardware in the Indian armed forces, the two sides can take advantage, through RELOS, of increased interoperability “in any hostile situation in the future”.
- Future defence purchases: India has acquired advanced defence systems from Russia, including fighter jets, and is looking to again obtain a nuclear-powered attack submarine on a long-term lease from Moscow.
Fulfilling Arctic aspirations of India
- Navigation: From a geostrategic point of view, it would give Indian Navy better access to northern sea routes and Russian ports in the Arctic, where India is looking to set up an Arctic station.
- Energy cooperation: Russia and India are also exploring enhanced energy cooperation in the Arctic region.
- Competing China: India’s presence in Arctic will act as a strategic counterweight to China’s strategic posturing with Beijing and Moscow sharing “synergy” in the Arctic.
Does India have similar arrangements with other Countries?
- India has logistical exchange agreements with six other countries, including Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, or Quad, partners US (LEMOA), Japan and Australia.
- Singapore, France and South Korea are the other countries with which similar arrangements have been effected.
- India has become more comfortable in concluding such arrangements with other countries and is currently pursuing one with the UK while exploring arrangement with other partners like Vietnam.
Other defence trade between the two countries
- Russia continues to be among India’s biggest defence suppliers.
- The two sides are now looking to move from licence manufacture to joint research and co-development of defence equipment.
- Both nations have agreed for the manufacture of over six lakh AK-203 assault rifles by a Joint Venture, Indo-Russian Rifles Private Ltd, at Korwa, Amethi, in UP.
- Russia has started deliveries of the S-400 Triumf long-range air defence systems to India. The first division will be delivered by the end of 2021.
- There are several other big such as procurement of 21 Mig-29s and 12 Su-30MKI fighters, Igla-S short-range air defence systems and the manufacture of 200 K-226T utility helicopters.
Future trajectory of the defence cooperation
- Timely supply of spares and support to the large inventory of Russian hardware in service with Indian military has been a major issue from India.
- To address this, Russia has made legislative changes allowing its companies to set up joint ventures in India to address it following an Inter-Governmental Agreement signed in 2019.
- This is in the process of being implemented.
- With increased competition from the U.S., France, Israel and others who have bagged major deals in recent years, Russia is also focusing on timely deliveries and lifetime support.
Conclusion
- Russia will remain a key defence partner for India for decades to come.
- In line with India’s quest for self-sufficiency, such partnerships help curb the reliance of India over other countries.
- This will thereby curb India’s dependency in near future.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Ukraine-Russia Conflict
Thousands of Russian troops have been deployed to stations along Ukraine’s border, sparking fears among Western leaders and Ukraine itself that Moscow is planning an invasion
Roots of the Russia-Ukraine Conflict
Ans. USSR disintegration
- Ukraine was a part of the Russian empire for centuries before becoming a Soviet republic.
- It won independence as the USSR broke up in 1991.
- Since then, it has moved to shed its Russian imperial legacy and is in increasingly close ties with the West.
- After the Crimean annexation, both nations have signed ceasefire agreements at Minsk in 2014 and 2015.
The beginning
Ans. Separatist insurgency in Ukraine’s East (by Russian speaking population)
- In 2014, then Russian-leaning Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych rejected an association agreement with the European Union in favor of closer ties with Moscow.
- This sparked mass protests that led to his ouster in 2014.
- Russia responded by annexing Ukraine’s Crimean Peninsula and throwing its weight behind a separatist insurgency that broke out in Ukraine’s east.
Beginning of armed conflict
- More than 14,000 people have died in the fighting that devastated Ukraine’s eastern industrial heartland known as Donbas.
- Ukraine and the West accused Russia of sending its troops and weapons to back the rebels.
- Moscow denied that, charging that Russians who joined the separatists were volunteers.
- Earlier this year, a spike in cease-fire violations in the east and a Russian troop concentration near Ukraine fueled war fears.
Why is Russia resented over Ukraine?
- Cultural ties defying the conflict: The Russian president has repeatedly described Russians and Ukrainians as “one people” and claims that Ukraine has unfairly received historic Russian lands during Soviet times.
- Influence of the ‘West’: The Kremlin has accused Ukraine of failing to honor the 2015 peace deal and criticized the West for failing to encourage Ukrainian compliance.
- Asylum to rebels: The agreement was a diplomatic coup for Moscow, requiring Ukraine to grant broad autonomy to the rebel regions and offer a sweeping amnesty to the rebels.
- Affinity with the US and NATO: Ukraine’s aspirations to join NATO represent a red line for Moscow.
American concern over Russian build-up
- Buffer state with Russia: Ukraine is a crucial buffer between Russia and the West.
- Heavy troop deployment: Russia hasn’t provided any details about its troop numbers and locations, saying that their deployment on its own territory shouldn’t concern anyone.
- Invasion: Russia is planning to deploy an estimated 175,000 troops and almost half of them are already stationed along various points near Ukraine’s border in preparation for a possible invasion.
- Protection of its ally: Ukraine has been a close ally of the US. Hence, NATO has placed its military infrastructure closer to Russia.
Recent developments
- As it moves a large number of troops towards the border, Russia seeks assurances from the US that Ukraine will not be inducted into NATO.
- However, US President Joe Biden has made it clear that he is not prepared to give any such assurance.
- This has left the countries in a stand-off, with tens of thousands of Russian troops ready to invade Ukraine at short notice, and the West not budging on Russia’s demands.
- Experts believe that Russia is keeping the tensions high at the Ukraine border in order to get sanctions relief and other concessions from the West.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kasturirangan Committee Report
Mains level: Ecological significance of western ghats
Recently, the Karnataka CM has informed the Centre that the state is opposed to the Kasturirangan Committee report on the Western Ghats.
What is the issue?
- The Kasturirangan committee report proposes 37 per cent of the total area of Western Ghats, which is roughly 60,000 square kilometers, to be declared as eco-sensitive area (ESA).
- Declaring this would adversely affect the livelihood of people in the region, asserted the Karnataka CM.
Kasturirangan Committee Report
- The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), also known as the Gadgil Commission after its chairman Madhav Gadgil, was an environmental research commission.
- It was appointed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests of India. The commission submitted the report in 2011.
- The WGEEP was succeeded by an eminent scientist K. Kasturirangan.
Key recommendations
(1) Declaration of Eco-Sensitive Area (ESA)
- The committee report proposes 37 per cent of the total area of Western Ghats, which is roughly 60,000 square km, to be declared as eco-sensitive area (ESA).
- Out of this, 20,668 sq km of the area falls in Karnataka (46.50%) covering 1,576 villages.
(2) Ban on various activities
- The report recommended a blanket ban on mining, quarrying, setting up of red category industries and thermal power projects.
- It also stated that the impact of infrastructural projects on the forest and wildlife should be studied before permission is given for these activities.
(3) Urging of UNESCO World Heritage tag
- It has sought for UNESCO Heritage tag as an opportunity to build global and domestic recognition of the enormous natural wealth that exists in the Western Ghats.
- The 39 sites are located across the Western Ghats and distributed across the states (Kerala 19), Karnataka (10), Tamil Nadu (6) and Maharashtra (4).
Reasons behind rejection by Karnataka
- Hitherto conservation measures: Karnataka has the distinction of being one of the states with extensive forest cover and the government has taken care to protect the biodiversity of Western Ghats.
- Curb over development activities: The state believes that implementation of the report will halt the developmental activities in the region.
- Issues over satellite observations: The Kasturirangan report has been prepared based on the satellite images, but the ground reality is different.
- Adaptation by People: People of the region have adopted agriculture and horticultural activities in an eco-friendly manner.
Significance of the recommendations
- There have been massive encroachments across the state forest areas and these have been done at the behest of political leaders.
- We are in the throes of extreme climate events, which are impacting nature and people.
- Hence it is prudent to conserve the fragile ecosystems as it costs less compared to the situation prone to calamities (with changes in the climate).
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Inequality Report
Mains level: Rich vr Poor divide in India
As per the ‘World Inequality Report 2022’, India is among the most unequal countries in the world, with rising poverty and an ‘affluent elite.’
World Inequality Report
- This report is published by Mr. Lucas Chancel, the co-director of the World Inequality Lab of the Paris School of Economics.
- It was coordinated by famed French economist Thomas Piketty.
Key highlights of the report
(1) Income divide
- The report highlights that the top 10% and top 1% in India hold 57% and 22% of the total national income respectively while the bottom 50% share has gone down to 13%.
- The average national income of the Indian adult population is Rs 2,04,200.
- The bottom 50% earns 20 times more than the top 10%.
(2) Decline in public wealth
- The report notes that the share of public wealth across countries has been on a decline for decades now.
- Public assets typically include public buildings housing administrations, schools, universities, hospitals, and other public services.
(3) Inequality during Colonial India
- Going back in time, the report shows that the income inequality in India under the British colonial rule (1858-1947) was very high, with a top 10% income share around 50%.
- After independence, due to socialist-inspired five-year plans, this share was reduced to 35-40%.
- Owing to poor post-Independence economic conditions, India embarked upon deregulation and loosening controls in the form of liberalization policies.
(4) Wealth inequality
- The average household wealth in India is around Rs 9,83,010.
- The bottom 50% of the nation can be seen to own almost nothing, with an average wealth of Rs 66,280 or 6% of the total pie.
- The middle class is relatively poor with an average wealth of Rs 7,23,930 or 29.5% of the total.
- The top 10% owns 65% of the total wealth, averaging Rs 63,54,070 and the top 1% owns 33%, averaging Rs 3,24,49,360.
(5) Gender Inequality
- Gender inequality in India is also considered on the higher end of the spectrum.
- The share of female labor income share in India is equal to 18% which is significantly lower than the average in Asia (21%, excluding China) & is among the lowest in the world.
- Although, the number is slightly higher than the average share in the Middle East (15%).
- However, a significant increase has been observed since 1990 (+8 p.p.) but it has been insufficient to lift women’s labor income share to the regional average.
(6) Poor States, wealthy population
- Countries across the world have become richer over the past 40 years, but their governments have become significantly poorer.
- The report shows that the share of wealth held by public actors is close to zero or negative in rich countries, meaning that the totality of wealth is in private hands.
- Following the pandemic, governments borrowed the equivalent of 10-20% of GDP, essentially from the private sector.
(7) Issue over data availability
- The report goes on to say that over the past three years, the quality of inequality data released by the government has seriously deteriorated.
- This has made it particularly difficult to assess recent inequality changes.
Conclusions from the report
(1) Wealth is mostly inherited and has a snowball effect
- People accumulate wealth across generations through inheritance.
- It has a snowball effect, wherein successive generations will gain more, but in their concentrated section.
- More capital incentivizes banks to lend. This is why the rich section’s wealth grows faster.
(2) Wealth management is necessary
- Public wealth has been declining for two reasons:
- First, governments have been privatizing assets and natural resources at low costs.
- Second, governments contract debt to the private sector, making it richer.
- Without assets, governments have low resources to invest and to mitigate climate change impacts, particularly in the energy sector.
- Currently, governments have more debts than assets. This calls for strategic management of the economy.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Raigad Fort
Mains level: Not Much
President Ram Nath Kovind is commencing his visit to Maharashtra by visiting the Raigad Fort where he will pay tribute to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
Where is Raigad fort located?
- Raigad is a hill fort situated about 25 km from Mahad in the Raigad district and stands 2,851 feet above sea level.
- The British Gazette states the fort was known to early Europeans as the Gibraltar of the East.
- Its decisive feature is a mile and a half flat top which has adequate room for buildings.
- In its prime, the fort had 300 stone houses and a garrison of 2,000 men.
When was it built?
- The fort, which was earlier called Rairi, was the seat of the Maratha clan Shirke in the 12th century.
- The fort changed hands a number of times from the dynasty of Bahaminis to the Nizamshahis and then the Adilshahis.
- In 1656, Chhatrapati Shivaji captured it from the More’s of Javli who were under the suzerainty of the Adilshahi Sultanate.
- The fort not only helped Shivaji challenge the supremacy of the Adilshahi dynasty but also opened up the routes towards Konkan for the extension of his power.
Significance of the fort in Shivaji’s life
- In 1662, Shivaji formally changed the fort’s name to Raigad and added a number of structures to it.
- By 1664, the fort had emerged as the seat of Shivaji’s government.
- As the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji gained strength in their struggle against the Mughals, the announcement of a sovereign, independent state was made.
- On June 6, 1674, Shivaji was coronated at Raigad by Gagabhatt where he took on the title of Chhatrapati.
- Six years later, Shivaji passed away in Raigad in 1680 and has been cremated at the fort.
Importance of Raigad Fort in Maharashtra’s polity
- Chhatrapati Shivaji is the tallest and the most revered icon in Maharashtra and there is a constant attempt by political parties of all hues to appropriate his legacy.
- Due to the significance of Raigad in his life, many political leaders make it a point to visit the fort.
- Maharashtra has already announced a mid-sea memorial in the Arabian Sea for the Maratha warrior king.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LCRD
Mains level: NA
NASA has launched its new Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) — the agency’s first-ever laser communications system.
What is LCRD?
- LCRD involves laser communications – also called optical communications which uses infrared light to send information.
- LCRD is launched in a geosynchronous orbit, over 35,000km above Earth.
- LCRD has two optical terminals – one to receive data from a user spacecraft, and the other to transmit data to ground stations.
- The modems will translate the digital data into laser signals. This will then be transmitted via encoded beams of light.
Benefits offered by LCRD
- Currently, most NASA spacecraft use radio frequency communications to send data.
- Optical communications will help increase the bandwidth 10 to 100 times more than radio frequency systems.
- The LCRD will help the agency test optical communication in space.
Laser vs Radio
- Laser communications and radio waves use different wavelengths of light. It uses infrared light and has a shorter wavelength than radio waves.
- This will help the transmission of more data in a short time.
- Using infrared lasers, LCRD will send data to Earth at 1.2 gigabits-per-second (Gbps).
- It would take roughly nine weeks to transmit a completed map of Mars back to Earth with current radio frequency systems. With lasers, we can accelerate that to about nine days, says NASA.
Other advantages
Optical communications systems are smaller in size, weight, and require less power compared with radio instruments.
- A smaller size means more room for science instruments.
- Less weight means a less expensive launch.
- Less power means less drain on the spacecraft’s batteries.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- India's participation in summit for democracy
Context
On December 9 and 10, US President Joe Biden will host a virtual “summit for democracy”, which will bring together leaders of 100 countries, civil society and private sector representatives.
Challenges to India’s democratic image
- India categorised as partly free: The US-based Freedom House’s “Freedoms of the World” index categorises India as only “partly free”; the Swedish V-Dem calls India an “electoral autocracy”.
- Others lump India with Hungary, Turkey and the Philippines, where authoritarian leaders rule the roost.
- Factors affecting India’s image: Rights violations in Kashmir, suspension of internet services in Kashmir, the conflation of political dissent with the colonial-era crime of sedition, the use of anti-terrorism laws to silence critics, the failure of the state to ensure freedoms guaranteed by the Constitution, the anti-Muslim amendments to citizenship laws have all but shredded India’s democratic image.
Agenda of the summit
- The agenda of the summit holds contemporary resonance in India.
- Three broad themes: According to the State Department, the summit will convene around three broad themes — defending democracy against authoritarianism, addressing and fighting corruption, and promoting respect for human rights.
- Leaders will be “encouraged” to announce “specific actions and commitments” to meaningful domestic reforms and international initiatives that advance the summit’s goals.
Why India’s contribution to the agenda will be scrutinized closely
- Cultural relativisms: One theme that emerges from these observations is that of cultural relativism — the “Indianness of India’s democracy”— “as India becomes ever more democratic, democracy will become ever more Indian in its sensibilities and texture”.
- Role of civil society: A second theme is the role of civil society.
- It has been accused of “defaming” or bringing harm to India, as espoused most recently in statements by the National Security Adviser, who also called them “the new frontier of a fourth-generation war”.
- Ensuring democratic rights: Another noticeable theme is around the responsibility for ensuring democratic rights.
Challenges for India
- India has to reconcile the paradox inherent in submitting to international gaze at a global assembly where it is apparently required to make commitments adhering to “western” standards of democracy while claiming there is an Indian model.
- In March this year, External Affairs Minister Jaishankar dismissed global standards and international metrics of democracy as rubbish.
- For perspective, this is what China says too.
- When President Biden brought up Beijing’s human rights record, President Xi Jinping told him there was no “uniform model” of democracy, and that dismissing other “forms of democracy different from one’s own is itself undemocratic.
- The summit may intensify these differences, particularly because the host has no shining credentials either.
- If democracy-building was never the US goal in Afghanistan, as Biden declared, why make the unfreezing of Afghan assets overseas conditional to the Taliban turning democratic and inclusive overnight?
Conclusion
India’s expected participation in the summit will come against a rather bleak backdrop of relativism, misinformation, confusion, obfuscation and polarisation on issues of democracy, civil society and rights.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cryptocurrencies
Mains level: Paper 3- Lessons for regulation
Context
The fact that crypto exchanges successfully managed to signal legitimacy for their services and offer these tokens to a mostly-uninformed public for over a year provides lessons on how the government and sectoral regulators may need to act before the game gets out of hand.
Regulating the technology innovation
- Technology innovation typically remains a step ahead of regulatory frameworks, which are designed with current practices in mind.
- Problems occur when these innovations push the envelope beyond accepted codes of social and ethical behaviour.
- Digital lending apps: The joint parliamentary committee (JPC) on a proposed data privacy law that recently released its controversial report has pointed to dubious “digital” lending apps proliferating on the Android platform.
- Blockchain technology, of which cryptos are a part, is an innovation that can facilitate transactions across assorted functions.
Issues with unregulated cryptocurrencies in India
- Some estimates show that over 15 million Indians have invested in cryptos, many of whom live in Tier-II or Tier-III towns.
- But crypto exchanges in India have pushed the boundaries of this invention.
- Important disclaimer not communicated properly: They have been advertising aggressively across media platforms often announcing important disclaimers at warp speed.
- These provisos were supposed to communicate that cryptos are neither currencies nor strictly “assets”, and that these trading platforms are not truly “exchanges”, that crypto values are not determined by the usual dynamics governing other income-yielding assets, and that investing in cryptos was an exceedingly risky proposition.
- In the meantime, with advertising overload stimulating viewer interest, many scam crypto issuers and exchanges have sprung up in attempts to separate the gullible from their savings.
Regulation challenges and how government is tackling it
- The government has now stepped in, seized with the political perils of speculative investments turning sour.
- Unfortunately, sectoral regulators, such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and Securities Exchange Board of India (Sebi), were unable to step in and act earlier because they are governed by specific Acts which do not mention cryptos as a category that needs regulation.
- Need for enabling clauses: This episode provides a valuable lesson on how these Acts should perhaps include some enabling clauses that allow financial sector regulators to intervene whenever any intermediary tries to sell a financial service or any new innovative financial service poses the risk of disrupting financial stability.
- Two important documents have recently been released which discuss entry norms into formal banking, both further strengthening RBI’s hands.
- Think-tank Niti Aayog’s paper on licensing digital banks recommends an evolutionary path for digital banks that’s RBI-regulated at all stages: first a restricted licence, then a regulatory sandbox offering some relaxations, and finally a “full-stack” digital banking licence.
- Simultaneously, RBI has accepted some of the suggestions of its internal working group and modified a few to make entry norms stricter, but has maintained silence on the entry of private sector corporate houses into banking.
- The JPC’s concerns over unregulated digital lending have also focused attention on an RBI-appointed committee’s report on digital lending, given that multiple fintech-based online lenders have mushroomed during the pandemic.
Conclusion
This highlights the need for principle-based regulations, rather than rule-based regulations, to allow for flexibility and adaptability in a fast-changing technology environment.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gini
Mains level: Paper 2- Analysing NHFS-5 data
Context
The release of the NFHS data (and the Niti Aayog’s study on developing a multi-dimensional index of poverty — MPI) has led to a considerable amount of discussion, and justifiably so.
Understanding the progress and development: MPI
- The MPI is an Oxford-based initiative that develops an exclusive broadly non-monetary living standard index of poverty.
- MPI indices are the third in the series of global studies on poverty.
- Global studies on poverty: Global studies started with the World Bank’s income/consumption-based measure of absolute poverty.
- The UN expanded the monetary index adding health and education indicators via the Human Development Index (HDI).
Evolution of poverty over time
- Like with the other poverty indices (World Bank and HDI), most information and useful policy analysis comes via a study of the inter-temporal evolution of poverty.
- Regional inequality: Ajit Ranade acknowledges that regional inequality has existed for some time, but he argues that poverty incidence across Indian states even as per the MPI is astoundingly unequal.
- T N Ninan talks about the simultaneous existence of Africa’s Sahel region and the Philippines in India.
- He finds that the two Indias are not getting any closer.
- Indeed, India’s development trajectory has not been uniform, but the regional imbalance of development cannot be viewed at a fixed point in time.
Analysing the NHFS data
- A detailed examination of the summary statistics reported in the NFHS data (large and small states of India for the two years 2015-16 and 2019-21), reveals the opposite result.
- Convergence: The analysis reveals remarkable convergence in living standards, a convergence possibly unparalleled in Indian history and in the space of just five years.
- NFHS reports the averages for all states, and for 131 variables, for two years 2015-16 and 2020-21.
- Seventeen of these 131 welfare indicators are used to construct indices under four classifications.
- Improvement in lives of girls/women: The first classification concerns itself with the improvement in the lives of girls/women (five indicators, for example, sex ratio, fertility, female education).
- Housing conditions: The second bucket consists of housing conditions (three indicators, for example, improved sanitation, clean fuel).
- Children’s welfare: The third list consists of children’s welfare (four indicators such as adequate diet, stunting)
- Women’s welfare: The fourth classification includes women’s empowerment (five indicators, for example, owning a house, less spousal violence).
- Given that Niti Aayog’s report primarily relies on the NFHS-4, these findings can be used as the baseline scenario to evaluate the delta — that is, the per cent change in indicators between NFHS-4 and NFHS-5.
- The table reports the results for several states.
- Seventeen indicators imply a maximum possible score of 1,700.
- Kerala performs the best with an aggregate index of 1,300 in NFHS-5 — a very small 1.5 per cent increase from its 2015-16 value.
- In contrast, Bihar increases its index by 56 per cent.
- Punjab does better than Tamil Nadu and today has a higher index – 1,240 versus 1,178 in 2020-21.
- UP (along with Rajasthan and MP) performs the best — a 60 plus per cent increase in the welfare index, more than five times the increase in the rich states.
Major findings from the NHFS data
- Convergence: Higher improvement by less developed states is evidence in support of catch-up, which suggests that regional imbalances are reducing, and in some indicators, rapidly so.
- States such as UP, Bihar and Jharkhand are fast approaching similar standards for select indicators as some of the “developed” states.
- Result of targeted intervention: This acceleration in catch up is no coincidence, but rather an outcome of an approach that involves targeted interventions to improve developmental outcomes.
- The approach was not just limited to sanitation, proper fuel or electricity — interventions that are targeted to an individual household — but also to the holistic development of an entire region.
Consider the question “What does NHFS-5 data reveal about the inequality in India?”
Conclusion
India has been, and was, not one but several Indias. What is remarkable about its recent history is the rapid process of uneven change — where progress is considerably higher for the poorer states — the convergent, and inclusive pattern of development. That is the real story behind the NFHS-4 and NFHS-5 numbers.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- Unresolved constitutional cases and their implications
Context
As 2021 draws to a close, a look at the Supreme Court of India’s docket reveals a host of highly significant constitutional cases that were long-pending when the year began, and are now simply a year older without any sign of resolution around the corner.
How delay in judicial process matters differently for the State and individual?
- While the violation of rights — whether through executive or legislative action — is relatively costless for the state, it is the individual, or individuals, who pay the price.
- Making the Constitution effective: Consequently, a Constitution is entirely ineffective if a rights-violating status quo is allowed to exist and perpetuate for months, or even years, before it is finally resolved.
- This point, of course, is not limited to the violation of rights, but extends to all significant constitutional questions that arise in the course of controversial state action.
- Missing the accountability: Issues around the federal structure, elections, and many others, all involve questions of power and accountability, and the longer that courts take to resolve such cases, the more we move from a realm of accountability to a realm of impunity.
- The longer such cases are left hanging without a decision, the greater the damage that is inflicted upon our constitutional democracy’s commitment to the rule of law.
Significant cases that are unresolved
[a] Challenge to the dilution of Article 370
- There is the constitutional challenge to the Presidential Orders of August 5, 2019, that effectively diluted Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, and bifurcated the State of Jammu and Kashmir into two Union Territories, controlled by the Centre.
- It raises the question of whether the Centre can take advantage of an Article 356 situation in a State — a time when no elected government and Assembly is in existence — to make permanent and irreversible alterations in the very structure of the State itself.
- Implications for federal structure: The answer will have important ramifications not just for Jammu and Kashmir but for the entire federal structure:
- India has a long history of the abuse of Article 356 to “get rid of” inconvenient State governments, and a further expansion of the power already enjoyed by the Centre will skew an already tilted federal scheme even further.
- Power of the Parliament to alter convert State into UT: The case also raises the question of whether, under the Constitution, the Union Legislature has the authority not simply to alter State boundaries (a power granted to it by Article 3 of the Constitution), but degrade a State into a Union Territory.
- If it turned out that the Union Legislature does have this power, it would essentially mean that India’s federal structure is entirely at the mercy of Parliament.
[2] Constitutional challenge to the electoral bond scheme
- Opaque and structurally biased: The electoral bonds scheme authorises limitless, anonymous corporate donations to political parties, making election funding both entirely opaque to the people, as well as being structurally biased towards the party that is in power at the Centre.
- Impact on integrity and right of the citizens to informed vote: In numerous central and State election cycles in the last four years, thousands of crores of rupees have been spent in anonymous political donations, thus impacting not only the integrity of the election process but also the constitutional right of citizens to an informed vote.
- However, other than two interim orders, the Supreme Court has refused to accord a full hearing to the constitutional challenge.
[3] Other significant cases
- Statutory basis of the CBI: As far back as 2013, the Gauhati High Court held that the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) was not established under any statutory authority.
- This verdict was immediately stayed when it was appealed to the Supreme Court, but in the intervening years, it has never been heard.
- Challenge to the CAA: More recently, constitutional challenges to the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA), filed in the immediate aftermath of the legislation’s enactment, remain unheard.
- Challenge to the UAPA: The challenges to the much-criticised Section 43(D)(5) of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, which makes the grant of bail effectively impossible, and is responsible for the years-long incarceration of several people.
- The challenge to Section 43(D)(5) is perhaps the case that most directly affects civil rights, as the section continues to be applied on a regular basis.
Implications of the delay
- Favouring one party: The Supreme Court’s inaction is not neutral, but rather, favours the beneficiaries of the status quo.
- In other words, by not deciding, the Court is in effect deciding — in favour of one party — but without a reasoned judgment that justifies its stance.
- Impact on accountability: Judicial evasion of this kind is also damaging for the accountability of the judiciary itself.
- The Court’s inaction plays as significant a role on the ground as does its action, there is no judgment — and no reasoning — that the public can engage with.
- Impact on the rule of law: For obvious reasons, this too has a serious impact on the rule of law.
Consider the question “What are the implications of the delay in deciding the constitutionally significant cases? Suggest the way forward.”
Conclusion
The current CJI has been on record stressing the importance of the rule of law and the independence of the judiciary. One way of demonstrating that in action might be to hear — and decide — the important constitutional cases pending before the Court.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AFSPA
Mains level: Human Rights and National Security dichotomy
The death of at least 14 civilians in Nagaland as a result of the action of the Indian Army has brought back into focus the controversial Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 [AFSPA].
AFSPA: A Backgrounder
- The AFSPA, 1958 came into force in the context of insurgency in the North-eastern States decades ago.
- It provides “special power” to the Armed Forces applies to the Army, the Air Force and the Central Paramilitary forces etc.
- It has been long contested debate whether the “special powers” granted under AFSPA gives total immunity to the armed forces for any action taken by them.
Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958
- Armed Forces Special Powers Act, to put it simply, gives armed forces the power to maintain public order in “disturbed areas.”
- AFSPA gives armed forces the authority use force or even open fire after giving due warning if they feel a person is in contravention of the law.
- The Act further provides that if “reasonable suspicion exists”, the armed forces can also arrest a person without warrant; enter or search premises without a warrant; and ban the possession of firearms.
What are the Special Powers?
The ‘special powers’ which are spelt out under Section 4 provide that:
(a) Power to use force, including opening fire, even to the extent of causing death if prohibitory orders banning assembly of five or more persons or carrying arms and weapons, etc are in force in the disturbed area;
(b) Power to destroy structures used as hide-outs, training camps, or as a place from which attacks are or likely to be launched, etc;
(c) Power to arrest without warrant and to use force for the purpose;
(d) Power to enter and search premises without a warrant to make arrest or recovery of hostages, arms and ammunition and stolen property etc.
What are the Disturbed Areas?
- A disturbed area is one that is declared by notification under Section 3 of the AFSPA.
- As per Section 3, it can be invoked in places where “the use of armed forces in aid of the civil power is necessary”.
Who can declare/notify such areas?
- The Central Government or the Governor of the State or administrator of the Union Territory can declare the whole or part of the State or Union Territory as a disturbed area.
- A suitable notification would have to be made in the Official Gazette.
Presently ‘Disturbed Areas’
- AFSPA is currently in force in Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, 3 districts of Arunachal Pradesh, and areas falling within the jurisdiction of 8 police stations in Arunachal Pradesh bordering Assam.
- In Jammu and Kashmir, a separate law Armed Forces (Jammu and Kashmir) Special Powers Act, 1990 has been in force.
AFSPA: Is it a License to Kill?
While the operation of the Section has been controversial in itself, it has attracted much criticism when actions have resulted in the death of civilians.
- Power to kill: Section 4 of the Act granted officers the authority to “take any action” even to the extent to cause the death.
- Protection against prosecution: This power is further bolstered by Section 6 which provides that legal can be instituted against the officer, except with the previous sanction of the Central Government.
Supreme Court’s Observations over AFSPA
- These extra-judicial killings became the attention of the Supreme Court in 2016.
- It clarified that the bar under Section 6 would not grant “total immunity” to the officers against any probe into their alleged excesses.
- The judgment noted that if any death was unjustified, there is no blanket immunity available to the perpetrator(s) of the offense.
- The Court further noted that if an offense is committed even by Army personnel, there is no concept of absolute immunity from trial by the criminal court constituted under the CrPC.
Constitutionality of AFSPA
- Attempts have been made to examine the constitutionality of the Act on the grounds that it is contravention to the:
- Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21) and
- Federal structure of the Constitution since law and order is a State subject
Recommendations to repeal AFSPA
(1) Justice B.P. Jeevan Reddy Commission
- The 2004 Committee headed by Justice B.P. Jeevan Reddy, the content of which has never officially been revealed by the Government, recommended that AFSPA be repealed.
- Additionally, it recommended that appropriate provisions be inserted in the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967 (UAPA) instead.
- It also recommended that the UAPA be modified to clearly specify the powers of the armed forces and paramilitary forces and grievance cells should be set up in each district where the armed forces are deployed.
(2) ARC II
- The Administrative Reforms Commission in its 5th Report on ‘Public Order’ had also recommended that AFSPA be repealed.
- It recommended adding a new chapter to be added to the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967.
- However, the recommendation was considered first and then rejected.
Other issues with AFSPA
(1) Sexual Misconduct by Armed Forces
- The issue of violation of human rights by actions of armed forces came under the consideration of the Committee on Amendments to Criminal Law (popularly known as Justice Verma Committee) set up in 2012.
- It observed that- in conflict zones, legal protection for women was neglected.
(2) Autocracy
- The reality is that there is no evidence of any action being taken against any officer of the armed forces or paramilitary forces for their excesses.
Caution given by the Supreme Court
A July 2016 judgment authored by Justice Madan B. Lokur in Extra Judicial Execution Victim Families Association quoted the “Ten Commandments” issued by the Chief of the Army Staff for operations in disturbed areas:
- Definite circumstances: The “power to cause death is relatable to maintenance of public order in a disturbed area and is to be exercised under definite circumstances”.
- Declaration preconditions: These preconditions include a declaration by a high-level authority that an area is “disturbed”.
- Due warning: The officer concerned decides to use deadly force on the opinion that it is “necessary” to maintain public order. But he has to give “due warning” first.
- No arbitrary action: The persons against whom the action was taken by the armed forces should have been “acting in contravention of any law or order for the time being in force in the disturbed area”.
- Minimal use of force: The armed forces must use only the “minimal force required for effective action against the person/persons acting in contravention of the prohibitory order.”
- Empathy with perpetrators: The court said that: the people you are dealing with are your own countrymen. All your conduct must be dictated by this one significant consideration.
- People friendliness: The court underscored how the Commandments insist that “operations must be people-friendly, using minimum force and avoiding collateral damage – restrain must be the key”.
- Good intelligence: It added that “good intelligence is the key to success”.
- Compassion: It exhorted personnel to “be compassionate, help the people and win their hearts and minds. Employ all resources under your command to improve their living conditions”.
- Upholding Dharma (Duty): The judgment ended with the final Commandment to “uphold Dharma and take pride in your country and the Army”.
Conclusion
- Despite demands by civil society groups and human rights activities, none of the recommendations have not been implemented to date.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NPK fertilizers
Mains level: Fertilizer subsidies in India
An unprecedented spike in natural gas prices and other raw materials is set to inflate the fertilizer subsidy bill by a whopping 62% or ₹50,000 crores to ₹1,30,000 crore this fiscal.
Fertilizer Subsidy in India
- Fertilizer subsidy is purchasing by the farmer at a price below MRP (Maximum Retail Price), that is, below the usual demand-and-supply-rate, or regular production and import cost.
- Subsidy as a concept originated during the Green Revolution of the 1970s-80s.
How does it work?
- Fertilizer subsidy ultimately goes to the fertilizer company, even though it is the farmer that benefits.
- Before 2018, companies were reimbursed after the material was dispatched and received by the district railhead or designated godown.
- 2018 saw the beginning of DBT (Direct Benefit Transfer), which would transfer money directly to the retailer’s account.
- However, the companies will be paid only after the actual sale to the farmer.
- With the DBT system, each retailer — there is over 2.3 lakh of them across India — now has a point-of-sale (PoS) machine linked to the Department of Fertilizers’ e-Urvarak DBT portal.
What about non-urea fertilizers?
- Decontrolled system: The non-urea fertilizer is decontrolled or fixed by the companies.
- The non- urea fertilizers are further divided into two parts, DAP (Diammonium Phosphate) and MOP (Muriate of Phosphate).
Issues with such subsidies
- Flawed subsidy policy: This is harmful not just to the farmer, but to the environment as well.
- No permanent remedy: Indian soil has low Nitrogen use efficiency, which is the main constituent of Urea.
- Excessive use: Consequently, excess usage contaminates groundwater.
- Emission: The bulk of urea applied to the soil is lost as NH3 (Ammonia) and Nitrogen Oxides causing emissions.
- Health hazards: For human beings, “blue baby syndrome” is a common side ailment caused by Nitrate contaminated water.
Post your answers in the comment box for this PYQ:
Q.What are the advantages of fertigation in agriculture? (CSP 2020)
1. Controlling the alkalinity of irrigation water is possible.
2. Efficient application of Rock Phosphate and all other phosphatic fertilizers is possible.
3. Increased availability of nutrients to plants is possible.
4. Reduction in the leaching of chemical nutrients is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1,2 and 4 only
(c) 1,3 and 4 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Snail Physella Acuta
Mains level: Not Much
A tiny snail with a striking, pellucid golden-yellow shell found in the Edappally canal in Kochi has been flagged as an invasive species that could play havoc with native ecosystems.
Snail Physella Acuta
- First described by J.P.R. Draparnaud in 1805, Physella acuta is considered native to North America but is now found in all continents except Antarctica.
- The snail was first reported in India in the early 1990s.
- It is believed to have reached Kerala through the aquarium trade, a major vector for invasive species.
- In Kerala, the snail had made its home in a highly polluted reach plagued by high sedimentation, untreated sewage, commercial effluents, construction wastes and a thick growth of invasive aquatic weeds.
Threats posed
- This snail plays host to worms that can cause food-borne diseases and skin itches in humans.
- Moreover, its rapid growth rate, air-breathing capability, and tolerance to pollution make it a potential competitor to native fauna.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Challenges facing cooperatives in India
Context
The article delved into the past of the cooperative movement and give some suggestions to resolve the issues facing cooperatives in India.
Background of cooperatives
- Friedrich Raiffeisen, who along with compatriot Schulze-Delitzsch in Germany, and Luzzatti of Italy, pioneered cooperatives in Europe.
- Cooperatives in India: The Governor of the Madras Presidency, Lord Wenlock, was the first to seriously attempt replicating European cooperatives in India.
- Principles: Raiffeisen based them on the principles of self-help, self-governance, and self-responsibility.
- Nicholson wrote that the ‘future of rural credit lies with those who being of the people, live among the people, and yet by their intelligence, prescience and energy, are above the people’.
- Plunkett, in his foreword to Eleanor Hough’s The Cooperative Movement in India (1932), commented that what India had was not a movement, but a policy.
- It was ‘created by ‘resolutions of the Central Government’ unlike Europe.
- Increasing government control: John Matthai wrote in 1925 that the challenge was to loosen government grip on cooperation over the years.
- But, government control has only increased, violating a core cooperative principle of political neutrality.
- This reflects a collective failure of the political class.
Challenges facing cooperatives
- After Independence, cooperative institutions became an instrument of planning and state action.
- Not surprisingly, successful Indian cooperatives such as the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd (GCMMF)/Amul, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) and Krishak Bharati Cooperative Limited (KRIBHCO), are outside government control.
- Globally, seven of the top 10 cooperatives by asset size are from the financial sector.
- The Indian financial sector is nowhere in the picture going by asset size.
- Cooperatives have also become avenues for regulatory arbitrage, circumventing lending and anti-money laundering regulations.
- The committees which examined cooperative banking suffered from the top-down quality that Plunkett and others frowned upon.
- Recent initiatives such as an umbrella organisation for urban cooperatives and a new Ministry of Cooperation at the Centre threaten to further this approach in the absence of safeguards.
Suggestions
- First, the powers of the RCS need to be scaled back.
- In almost all States, the RCS has become an instrument of inspection and domination, one which imposes uniform by-laws, and amends them when individual societies do not fall in line.
- There is a need to transfer work from the RCS to cooperative federations — as in Singapore.
- Second, the rural-urban dichotomy in the regulatory treatment of cooperatives is specious and outdated.
- Such differences are immaterial when regulation is to be based on the cooperative nature of organisations.
- Third, the regulation and the supervision of cooperative banks should move to a new body from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for urban banks and the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) for rural banks.
- Fourth, lessons from the Netherlands, where cooperative banks owe their success to a segmented market, are pertinent.
- In India, adopting a multi-agency approach, especially after bank nationalisation, has affected the efficiency of both commercial and cooperative banks.
- Commercial bank-cooperative sector linkages at various levels could alternatively provide better synergies.
Conclusion
The cooperative sector in India faces challenges on various fronts. There is a need for implementing the changes suggested above to play an important role expected from it in the economy.
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