Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- Implications of Ukraine war for European security
Context
The post-Cold War period of peace in Europe is more an aberration than norm in the continent’s history of conflicts.
Background of the First World War
- The Russian power had collapsed in its far east after the war with Japan in 1904-05.
- Faced with the erosion of Russian influence and the rise of Wilhelmine Germany, which together threatened to alter Europe’s balance of power, France and Britain, competing colonial powers, came together.
- France had already reached an alliance with Russia.
- The three would later form the Triple Entente, triggering a dangerous security competition in Europe with the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy), which would eventually lead to the First World War in 1914.
- What triggered the great power security competition in the run-up to the First World War was the phenomenal rise of Wilhelmine Germany as a military and industrial power and the regional hegemons’ response to it.
Similarities with the past
- When Otto von Bismarck became the Minister-President of Prussia in September 1862, there was no unified German state.
- Bismarck adopted an aggressive foreign policy, fought and won three wars — with Denmark, Austria and France — destroyed the confederation, established a stronger and larger German Reich that replaced Prussia.
- Bismarck stayed focused on transforming Germany internally in his last two decades.
- It was on the foundation Bismarck built that Wilhelmine Germany turned to weltpolitik in the early 20 century, seeking global domination.
- If Bismarck inherited a weak, loosely connected group of German speaking entities in 1862, Russian President Vladimir Putin got a Russia in 2000 that was a pale shadow of what was the Soviet Union.
- Bismarck spent his years in power expanding the borders of Germany and building a stronger state and economy.
- The post-Cold War Russia initially stayed focused on the restoration of the state and the economy, and then sought to expand its borders and challenge the continent’s balance of power — first the Crimean annexation and now the Ukraine invasion.
- While NATO’s expansion deepened Russia’s security concerns, driving it into aggressive moves, Russia’s aggression has strengthened NATO’s resolve to expand further into Russia’s neighbourhood.
Offensive realism
- Offensive realists argue that “revisionist powers” tend to use force to rewrite the balance of power if they find the circumstances are favourable, while the status quo powers, or the existing regional hegemons, would seek to thwart any new country attaining more power at their expense.
- The result of this type of competition is permanent rivalry and conflict.
- One major difference between the era of Wilhelmine Germany and modern Russia is that there were no well-defined international laws in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- The international system has evolved ever since.
- But its basic instincts, as realists would argue, have not changed much.
- Mr. Putin’s Russia is not the first country that violated the sovereignty of a weaker power and flouted international laws in the “rules-based” order.
Future of Europe’s security
- Russia apparently had two strategic objectives in Ukraine —
- One, to expand Russian borders and create a buffer.
- And two, to reinforce Russia’s deterrence against NATO.
- While Russia has succeeded, though slowly, in expanding its borders by capturing almost all of Ukraine’s east, the war has backfired on its second objective.
- Russia’s inability to clinch a quick outright victory in Ukraine and the tactical retreats it has already made have invariably dealt a blow to the perception of Russian power that existed before the war.
- This has strengthened NATO, driving even Sweden and Finland into its arms. Besides, the economic sanctions would leave a long-term hole in Russia’s economy.
- But a Russia that is bogged down in Ukraine and encircled by NATO need not enhance Europe’s security.
- As Henry Kissinger said at Davos, Russia had been and would remain an important element in the European state system.
Conclusion
The prospects are bleak. There will not be peace in Europe unless either Russia accepts its diminished role and goes into another spell of strategic retreat or Europe and the West in general accommodate Russia’s security concerns. Both look unrealistic as of today.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 2- Use of technology in governance
Context
There are several reforms and governance initiatives that have successfully steered India to its current strength.
Contribution of Digital India program
- A report carding of Digital India’s performance shows impressive progress.
- Thus far, the government has transferred more than Rs 17 lakh crore through DBT while saving Rs 2.2 lakh crore.
- Today, India has the world’s fastest-growing and most vibrant startup ecosystem with close to 70,000 registered startups and around 100 unicorns, with a unicorn coming up every week.
- GST regime: Thanks to the most significant reform in indirect taxation through the GST and tax compliance, India has registered its highest ever collections.
- Revenue increased from Rs 22 lakh crore in FY 21 to Rs 27 lakh crore in FY 22 — a whopping 22 per cent growth.
- Role in India’s response to pandemic: Digital India played a significant role in India’s response to the pandemic.
- It ensured that the government could reach people in remote parts of the country.
- Health, education and other essential services migrated swiftly to the online mode.
Use of technology for governance amid pandemic
- Digital India played a significant role in India’s response to the pandemic.
- It ensured that the government could reach people in remote parts of the country.
- Health, education and other essential services migrated swiftly to the online mode.
- It would not be an aberration to say that post-Covid, India emerged as a preeminent nation in the use of technology for governance.
Conclusion
The rapid digitalisation of the world along with a new focus on trust in the global supply chains for digital products and services presents tremendous opportunities for India and its youth. It is now up to all of us to engage in a collective “sabka prayas” to realise New India’s economic potential.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Reservation issues
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the TH.
Reservation in Promotion
- The jurisprudence of reservation relies on the symbiotic coexistence of constitutionally guaranteed equality of opportunity in public employment under Article 16 (1) of the Constitution of India.
- The classifications were various clauses of the same article, especially Article 16(4) and Article 16 (4 A).
- It specifically aimed to provide reservation in promotion to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, respectively.
- These articles vested a discretion on the government to consider providing reservations for the socially and educationally backward sections of the society.
Reservation not a fundamental Right
- It is a settled law, time and again reiterated by the Supreme Court, that there is no fundamental right to reservation or promotion under Article 16(4) or Article 16(4 A) of the Constitution.
- Rather they are enabling provisions for providing reservation, if the circumstances so warrant (Mukesh Kumar and Another vs State of Uttarakhand & Ors. 2020).
- However, these pronouncements no way understate the constitutional directive under Article 46.
- Article 46 mandates that the state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular SCs and STs.
- However such provisions resulted in the ever-evolving jurisprudence of affirmative action in public employment.
Major events
(1) Mandal storm
- Reservation in employment which was otherwise confined to SC and STs got extended to new section called the Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
- This was the basis of the recommendations of the Second Backward Class Commission as constituted, headed by B.P. Mandal.
- The Mandal Commission (1980) provided for 27% reservation to OBC in central services and public sector undertakings.
- This was over and above the existing 22.5% reservation for SCs and STs, was sought to be implemented by the V.P. Singh Government in 1990.
- The same was assailed in the Supreme Court resulting in the historic Indra Sawhney Judgment.
(2) Indra Sawhney Judgment (1992)
- In the judgment, a nine-judge bench presided by CJI MH Kania upheld the constitutionality of the 27% reservation.
- But it put a ceiling of 50% unless exceptional circumstances warranting the breach, so that the constitutionally guaranteed right to equality under Article 14 would remain secured.
- While Article 16(1) is a fundamental right, Article 16(4) is an enabling provision and not an exception.
- Further, the Court directed the exclusion of creamy layer by way of horizontal division of every other backward class into creamy layer and non-creamy layer.
(3) The Constitution (Seventy-seventh Amendment) Act, 1995
- In Indra Sawhney Case, the Supreme Court had held that Article 16(4) of the Constitution of India does not authorise reservation in the matter of promotions.
- However, the judgment was not to affect the promotions already made and hence only prospective in operation, it was ruled.
- By the Constitution (Seventy-seventh Amendment) Act, 1995, which, Article 16(4-A), was inserted.
- It aimed to provide the State for making any provision for reservation in matters of promotion to any class or classes of posts in the services under the State.
- This was to be in favour of the SCs and the STs which, in the opinion of the State, are not adequately represented in the services under the State.
- Later, two more amendments were brought, one to ensure consequential seniority and another to secure carry forward of unfilled vacancies of a year.
(4) M. Nagaraj (2006) Case
- A five-judge bench of Supreme Court declared the 1995 amendment as not vocative of basic structure of the Constitution.
- It laid down ceratin conditions which included the collection of quantifiable data showing backwardness of the class and inadequacy of representation of that class in public employment.
- The bench held that the creamy layer among SCs and STs is to be excluded from reservation.
(5) Jarnail Singh vs Lachhmi Narain Gupta (2018)
- It was authored by Justice Rohinton Nariman and indicates a critical turn in the jurisprudence of reservation.
- In this case, a constitution bench of Supreme Court was called on to examine wisdom of the 2006 judgment.
- This task was to examine the constitutionally recognised socio-economic backwardness of the SCs and STs which may not require any further substantiation.
- It was also contended that the requirement to identify creamy lawyer among SC and STs fell foul of Indra Sawhney decision.
- The constitution bench invalidated the requirement to collect quantifiable data in relation to SCs and STs.
- It upheld the principle of applicability of creamy lawyer in relation to SCs and STs.
(6) The Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act, 2019
- The 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) other SCs, STs and backward classes for government jobs and admission in educational institutions.
- This is currently under challenge before the Supreme Court which has referred the same to a constitution bench.
- This was a critical milestone to specifically include economic backwardness without social backwardness as is traditionally seen.
(7) Dr. Jaishri Laxmanrao Patil vs Chief Minister (2021)
- Despite the Indra Sawhney ruling, there have been attempts on the part of many States to breach the rule by way of expanding the reservation coverage.
- The Maharashtra Socially and Educationally Backward Classes Act 2018, (Maratha reservation law) came under challenge before the Supreme Court.
- This case was referred to a bench of five judges to question whether the 1992 judgment needs a relook.
- Interestingly, the Supreme Court affirmed the Indra Sawhney decision, and struck down Section 4(1)(a) and Section 4(1)(b) of the Act which provided 12% reservation for Marathas in educational institutions and 13% reservation in public employment respectively.
- This judgment gave out a strong message that some State governments blatantly disregard the stipulated ceiling on electoral gains rather than any exceptional circumstances.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GST slabs, Inverted Duty Structure
Mains level: Read the attached story
The GST regime is due for an overhaul in tax rates levied on different products because of structural anomalies and to reduce the multiple tax slabs.
What is GST?
- GST launched in India on 1 July 2017 is a comprehensive indirect tax for the entire country.
- It is charged at the time of supply and depends on the destination of consumption.
- For instance, if a good is manufactured in state A but consumed in state B, then the revenue generated through GST collection is credited to the state of consumption (state B) and not to the state of production (state A).
- GST, being a consumption-based tax, resulted in loss of revenue for manufacturing-heavy states.
What are GST Slabs?
- In India, almost 500+ services and over 1300 products fall under the 4 major GST slabs.
- There are five broad tax rates of zero, 5%, 12%, 18% and 28%, plus a cess levied over and above the 28% on some ‘sin’ goods.
- The GST Council periodically revises the items under each slab rate to adjust them according to industry demands and market trends.
- The updated structure ensures that the essential items fall under lower tax brackets, while luxury products and services entail higher GST rates.
- The 28% rate is levied on demerit goods such as tobacco products, automobiles, and aerated drinks, along with an additional GST compensation cess.
Why rationalize GST slabs?
- From businesses’ viewpoint, there are just too many tax rate slabs, compounded by aberrations in the duty structure through their supply chains with some inputs are taxed more than the final product.
- These are far too many rates and do not necessarily constitute a Good and Simple Tax.
- Multiple rate changes since the introduction of the GST regime in July 2017 have brought the effective GST rate to 11.6% from the original revenue-neutral rate of 15.5%.
- Merging the 12% and 18% GST rates into any tax rate lower than 18% may result in revenue loss.
Haven’t GST revenues been hitting new records?
- Yes, they have – GST revenues have scaled fresh highs in three of the first four months of 2022, going past ₹1.67 lakh crore in April.
- But there is another key factor — the runaway pace of inflation.
- Wholesale price inflation, which captures producers’ costs, has been over 10% for over a year and peaked at 15.1% in April.
- Inflation faced by consumers on the ground has spiked to a near-eight year high of 7.8% in April.
- The rise in prices was the single most important factor for higher tax inflows along with higher imports.
Can we expect the rate reset this year?
- Any re-arrangement of GST rates will entail some products being taxed higher, with concomitant ripple effects on prices.
- The Centre and the States are not unmindful of the desperate need to rationalise the rate slabs and structure but we just need to get the timing right.
- Presently inflation is the top worry.
- With inflation, much of it imported through pricier fuels, commodities and food items, expected to hover high through the year, the GST rate reset hopes appear bleak in 2022-23.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various terms related to Monsoon
Mains level: Indian Monsoon
The monsoon has reached Kerala, the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
What does the “Onset of Monsoon” mean?
- The onset of the monsoon over Kerala marks the beginning of the four-month — June-September — southwest monsoon season over India.
- It brings more than 70 per cent of the country’s annual rainfall. This marks a significant day in India’s economic calendar.
- IMD announces it only after certain newly defined and measurable parameters, adopted in 2016, are met.
- Broadly, the IMD checks for the consistency of rainfall over a defined geography, its intensity, and wind speed.
(1) Rainfall
- The IMD declares the onset of the monsoon if at least 60% of 14 designated meteorological stations in Kerala and Lakshadweep.
- The 14 enlisted stations are: Minicoy, Amini, Thiruvananthapuram, Punalur, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kottayam, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, Thalassery, Kannur, Kasaragod, and Mangaluru.
- It records at least 2.5 mm of rain for two consecutive days at any time after May 10.
- In such a situation, the onset over Kerala is declared on the second day, provided specific wind and temperature criteria are also fulfilled.
(2) Wind field
- The depth of westerlies should be up to 600 hectopascal (1 hPa is equal to 1 millibar of pressure) in the area bound by the equator to 10ºN latitude, and from longitude 55ºE to 80ºE.
- The zonal wind speed over the area bound by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-80ºE longitude should be of the order of 15-20 knots (28-37 kph) at 925 hPa.
(3) Heat
- According to IMD, the INSAT-derived Outgoing Longwave Radiation (OLR) value (a measure of the energy emitted to space by the Earth’s surface, oceans, and atmosphere) should be below 200 watt per sq m (wm2).
- This is measured in the box confined by 5-10ºN latitude and 70-75ºE latitude.
Is it unusual for the monsoon to hit the Kerala coast early?
- Neither early nor late onset of the monsoon is unusual.
- In 2018 and 2017, the onset over Kerala occurred on May 29 and May 30, respectively.
- In 2010, onset was realised on May 31.
- In 2020 and 2013, the monsoon was exactly on time, hitting the Kerala coast on June 1.
Does an early onset foretell a good monsoon?
- No, it does not — just as a delay does not foretell a poor monsoon.
- The onset is just an event that happens during the progress of the monsoon over the Indian subcontinent.
- A delay of a few days, or perhaps the monsoon arriving a few days early, has no bearing on the quality or amount of rainfall.
How does the monsoon spread across the country after hitting Kerala coast?
- The northward progression of the monsoon after it has hit the Kerala coast depends on a lot of local factors, including the creation of low pressure areas.
- Though this year monsoon has arrived early, it is possible that despite a late onset over Kerala, other parts of the country start getting rain on time.
- After its onset over Kerala, the monsoon spreads over the entire country by July 15.
Back2Basics:
Various terms related to Indian Monsoon
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: West Nile Virus
Mains level: Vector borne diseases
The Kerala health department is on alert after the death occurred due to the West Nile Virus.
West Nile Virus
- The West Nile Virus is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded RNA virus.
- According to the WHO, it is a member of the flavivirus genus and belongs to the Japanese Encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae.
How does it spread?
- Culex species of mosquitoes act as the principal vectors for transmission.
- It is transmitted by infected mosquitoes between and among humans and animals, including birds, which are the reservoir host of the virus.
- Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days.
- The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands.
- During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness.
- WNV can also spread through blood transfusion, from an infected mother to her child, or through exposure to the virus in laboratories.
- It is not known to spread by contact with infected humans or animals.
Symptoms of WNV infection
- The disease is asymptomatic in 80% of the infected people.
- The rest develop what is called the West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease.
- In these 20% cases, the symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, rash, and swollen glands.
- Severe infection can lead to encephalitis, meningitis, paralysis, and even death.
- It is estimated that approximately 1 in 150 persons infected with the West Nile Virus will develop a more severe form of the disease.
- Recovery from severe illness might take several weeks or months.
- It usually turns fatal in persons with co-morbidities and immuno-compromised persons (such as transplant patients).
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