Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: particulars of doctrine of essentiality
Mains level: judicial reforms
Context
- A two-judge Bench of the Supreme Court of India is presently hearing arguments on the correctness of a Karnataka High Court judgment that upheld the ban on the use of the hijab by students in Karnataka which raises question on doctrine of essentiality.
What is ‘doctrine of essentiality’?
- A seven-judge Bench of the Supreme Court invented the doctrine of “essentiality” in the Shirur Mutt case in 1954. The court held that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion.
Importance doctrine of essentiality
- In the legal framework, the doctrine of essentiality is a doctrine that has evolved to protect the religious practices that are essential or integral and does not violate any fundamental right. India being a secular country has discrete religious beliefs and to deny any is to violate the freedom of religion.
Why hijab is not an essential practice?
- Wearing of hijab (head scarf) by Muslim women does not form a part of essential religious practices in Islamic faith and it is not protected under the right to freedom of religion guaranteed under Article 25 of the Constitution of India, the High Court of Karnataka declared on March 15 2022.
Is hijab essential part of Islam?
- The Qur’an instructs Muslim women and men to dress modestly, and for some, the hijab is worn by Muslim girls and women to maintain modesty and privacy from unrelated males. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty concerns both men’s and women’s “gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia”.
How do you identify essential religion practice?
- The Court observed that in order to determine whether or not a particular practice is an essential part of religion, the test must be whether the absence of the practice itself
- Freedom to manage religious affairs Subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right.
Examples of the essential religious practices test
- While these issues are largely understood to be community-based, there are instances in which the court has applied the test to individual freedoms as well.
- In a 2004 ruling, the Supreme Court held that the Ananda Marga sect had no fundamental right to perform the Tandava dance in public streets since it did not constitute an essential religious practice of the sect.
- For example, in 2016, the Supreme Court upheld the discharge of an airman from the Indian Air Force for keeping a beard.
- It distinguished the case of a Muslim airman from that of Sikhs who are allowed to keep a beard.
- In 2015, the Supreme Court restored the Jain religious practice of Santhara/Sallekhana (a ritualistic fast unto death) by staying an order of the Rajasthan HC.
What is the Supreme Court’s judgement on Doctrine of Essentiality?
- The doctrine of “essentiality” was invented by a seven-judge Bench of the Supreme Court in the ‘Shirur Mutt’ case in 1954.
- It is a contentious doctrine evolved by the court to protect only such religious practices which were essential and integral to the religion.
- The court held that the term “religion” will cover all rituals and practices “integral” to a religion, and took upon itself the responsibility of determining the essential and non-essential practices of a religion.
- Referring to the Ayodhya case, the Constitution Bench had ruled in 1994 that A mosque is not an essential part of the practice of the religion of Islam and namaz (prayer) by Muslims can be offered anywhere, even in open.
How has the doctrine been used in subsequent years?
- The ‘essentiality doctrine’ of the Supreme Court has been criticised by several constitutional experts.
- Scholars of constitutional law have argued that the essentiality/integrality doctrine has tended to lead the court into an area that is beyond its competence, and given judges the power to decide purely religious questions.
- As a result, over the years, courts have been inconsistent on this question — in some cases they have relied on religious texts to determine essentiality.
- In others it relied on the empirical behaviour of followers, and in yet others, based on whether the practice existed at the time the religion originated.
Issues over the doctrine
- In the beginning, the court engaged with the question of whether untouchability, manifested in restrictions on entry into temples, was an “essential part of the Hindu religion”.
- After examining selected Hindu texts, it came to the conclusion that untouchability was not an essential Hindu practice.
- The idea of providing constitutional protection only to those elements of religion which the court considers “essential” is problematic as it assumes that one element or practice of religion is independent of other elements or practices.
- So, while the essentiality test privileges certain practices over others, it is, in fact, all practices taken together that constitute a religion.
How does essentiality square up against religious freedom?
- Freedom of religion was meant to guarantee freedom to practice one’s beliefs based on the concept of “inward association” of man with God.
- The apex court in ‘Ratilal Panachand Gandhi vs The State of Bombay and Ors’ (March 18, 1954) acknowledged that “every person has a fundamental right to entertain such religious beliefs as may be approved by his judgment or conscience”.
- The framers of the Constitution wanted to give this autonomy to each individual. Scholars have argued that the essentiality test impinges on this autonomy.
- The apex court has itself emphasised autonomy and choice in its Privacy (2017), 377 (2018), and Adultery (2018) judgments.
Its effect on society
- Narrowing of safeguards to religious customs: It has allowed the Court to narrow the extent of safeguards available to religious customs by directly impinging on the autonomy of groups to decide for themselves what they deem valuable, violating, in the process, their right to ethical independence.
- Negated legislation that might otherwise enhance the cause of social justice: It has also negated legislation that might otherwise enhance the cause of social justice by holding that such laws cannot under any circumstances encroach on matters integral to the practice of a religion. For example, in 1962, the Court struck down a Bombay law that prohibited excommunications made by the Dai of the Dawoodi Bohra community when it held that the power to excommunicate is an essential facet of faith and that any measure aimed at social welfare cannot reform a religion out of its existence.
- A principle of anti-exclusion: Its application would require the Court to presume that a practice asserted by a religious group is, in fact, essential to the proponents of its faith. But regardless of such grounding, the Constitution will not offer protection to the practice if it excludes people on grounds of caste, gender, or other discriminatory criteria.
Conclusion
- For now, any Court hearing a matter touching upon a matter of faith has the unenviable task of acting not merely as an expert on law but also as an expert on religion.
Mains question
Q. Every person has a fundamental right to entertain such religious beliefs as may be approved by his judgment or conscience. Critically examine in context of doctrine of essentiality.
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Context
- In an interview earlier this month, Telecom Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw spoke about a comprehensive policy roadmap for India’s digital economy and digital governance.
What is digital governance ?
- Electronic governance or e-governance can be defined as the usage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by the government to provide and facilitate government services, exchange of information, communication transactions and integration of various standalone systems and services.
What is “global digital governance”?
- Global digital governance encompasses the norms, institutions, and standards that shape the regulation around the development and use of these technologies. Digital governance has long-term commercial and political implications.
Why is it important?
- The main objective of e-governance is to provide a friendly, affordable, and efficient interface between a government and its people. It is about ensuring greater transparency, accountability and objectivity, resulting in cost-effective and high-quality public service.
What are the three domains of e-governance?
- E-administration: improving government processes
- E-services: connecting individual citizens with their government
- E-society: building interactions with and within civil society.
Is there a historical parallel to governing key economic sectors globally?
- Digital economy is not unprecedented: Sectors critical to the global economy are subject to international cooperation frameworks and pacts. Therefore, the idea of setting up a single multilateral organization with a mandate to govern the digital economy is not unprecedented.
- The International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN): Global aviation has been regulated since 1903 when the International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN) first met, subsequently replaced by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in 1947.
- Bank for International Settlements (BIS): Similarly, the modern international banking system is governed by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), an institution initially set up in the interwar period in 1930 to oversee Germany’s reparations to the Allies under the Treaty of Versailles. The BIS acquired a more global mandate beginning in the 1950s and is now partially responsible for global financial stability.
Who are the key players in the global contest for digital governance?
- China seeks to champion the concept of cyber sovereignty: An authoritarian vision drives the first model. Most notably, China is emerging as the standard-bearer for this model with its desire to “reinvent the internet.” China seeks to champion the concept of “cyber sovereignty,” allowing countries to control access to the internet, censor content, and institute data localization requirements, as a pretext to protecting individual national interests.
- European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR): Which provides a more democratic concept for digital governance. This model primarily seeks to protect the privacy and rights of internet users and online content consumers. Adopted with the overwhelming support of the European Parliament in 2014, the GDPR came into effect in May 2018, giving firms that rely on digital technologies the opportunity to modify their data usage and privacy policies. The adoption of the GDPR has been a turning point for global internet governance as consumers gained unprecedented control over their data in a manner that preserved freedom and openness online.
Why global digital governance is important?
- Minimum rights and protections for platform workers: Under the G20, the International Labour Organisation has already placed a proposal in the employment working group for digital labour platforms to develop an international governance system determining minimum rights and protections for platform workers.
- Implementation of central bank digital currency projects: Similarly, on digital money, a reincarnated Bretton Woods is being advocated to address the distrust in private currencies and to coordinate the implementation of central bank digital currency projects.
- Digital taxation: Finally, in the deeply contested area of digital taxation, the OECD facilitated Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) negotiations and helped arrive at a global solution.
- Digital sovereignty: The internet is splintering and digital sovereignty is now commonplace; yet, there is no better time for countries to come together and build a framework for global digital governance.
What are the big 5 tech companies called?
- The Big Five tech giants—Apple, Amazon, Google (Alphabet), Meta, and Microsoft.
Conclusion
- The rapid digitalisation of the world along with a new focus on trust in the global supply chains for digital products and services presents tremendous opportunities for India and its youth. It is now up to all of us to engage in a collective “sabka prayas” to realise New India’s economic potential.
Mains question
Q. The rapid digitalisation of the world along with a new focus on trust in the global supply chains for digital products and services presents tremendous opportunities for India. Comment.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Death penalty debate
The Supreme Court has referred to a Constitution Bench the question of how to provide accused in death penalty cases a “meaningful, real and effective” hearing of their mitigating circumstances before a trial judge.
Death Penalty: A backgrounder
- Capital punishment, sometimes called death penalty, is execution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law for a criminal offense.
- It should be distinguished from extrajudicial executions carried out without due process of law.
- The term death penalty is sometimes used interchangeably with capital punishment, though imposition of the penalty is not always followed by execution, because of the possibility of commutation to life imprisonment.
When is it awarded?
- The term “Capital Punishment” stands for most severe form of punishment.
- It is the punishment which is to be awarded for the most heinous, grievous and detestable crimes against humanity.
- While the definition and extent of such crimes vary, the implication of capital punishment has always been the death sentence.
Special factors on the death penalty jurisprudence in India
(a) Increase in Sexual Offences
- The report on death penalty published by NLU Delhi shows that the rate of awarding capital punishment to the offences of rape with murder is much higher than other offences.
- There is no doubt that rape is one of the most heinous crimes.
(b) Sedition and waging War against India
- India has seen many cases of treason, terrorism and seditious activities.
- It is in fact the most vulnerable state for such crimes.
Judicial observations related to Death Penalty
The Supreme Court has always said that the death sentence should be given rarely.
Judgments against:
(a) Mithu vs State of Punjab (1983):
- The Supreme Court ruled that the mandatory death penalty is unconstitutional.
- It struck down Section 303 in the IPC, which entailed a mandatory death sentence for a person who commits murder while serving a life term in another case.
- The Supreme Court ruled Section 303 violated Articles 14 (right to equality) and 21 (right to life) since an unreasonable distinction was sought to be made between two classes of murders.
(b) State of Punjab vs Dalbir Singh (2012):
- Similarly, the Supreme Court ruled that mandatory death penalty as punishment for crimes under Section 27 (3) of the Arms Act, 1959, was unconstitutional.
(c) Channulal Verma vs State of Chhattisgarh (2018):
- In Channulal, the Supreme Court, through Justice Kurian Joseph noted that the time was appropriate to review the constitutionality of the death penalty and take into consideration reformative aspects of punishment
Judgments in favour:
- In Jagmohan Singh vs State of UP’ (1973), then in ‘Rajendra Prasad vs State of UP’ (1979), and finally in ‘Bachan Singh vs State of Punjab’ (1980) the Supreme Court affirmed the constitutional validity of the death penalty.
- It said that if capital punishment is provided in the law and the procedure is a fair, just and reasonable one, the death sentence can be awarded to a convict.
- This will, however, only be in the “rarest of rare” cases, and the courts should render “special reasons” while sending a person to the gallows.
Avenues available to a Death-Row Convict
- Confirmation by HC: After a trial court awards the death penalty, the sentence must be confirmed by a High Court. The sentence cannot be executed till the time the High Court confirms it, either after deciding the appeal filed by the convict, or until the period allowed for preferring an appeal has expired.
- Review Petition: If the High Court confirms the death penalty and it is also upheld by the Supreme Court, a convict can file a review petition.
- Curative Petition: If the review petition is rejected, the convict can file a curative petition for reconsideration of the judgment.
- Mercy Petition: Under Article 72 of the Indian Constitution, the President shall have the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishments or to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any convicted person.
Debate over Death Penalty
Arguments in favor:
- Forfeiture of life: Supporters of the death penalty believe that those who commit murder, because they have taken the life of another, have forfeited their own right to life.
- Moral indignation of the victim: It is a just form of retribution, expressing and reinforcing the moral indignation not only of the victim’s relatives but of law-abiding citizens in general.
- Highest form of Justice: For heinous crimes such as the Nirbhaya Gangrape Case, no other punishment could have deterred the will of the convicts.
- Deterrent against crime: Capital punishment is often justified with the argument that by executing convicted murderers, we will deter would-be murderers from killing people.
- Proportional punishment: The guilty people deserve to be punished in proportion to the severity of their crime.
- Prevailing lawlessness: The crimes we are now witnessing cannot be addressed by simple punishments. We are seeing horrific attacks on women, young girls, minority communities and Dalits etc.
- Prevention of crime is non-existent: Despite of stringent regulations, it is certainly visible that some crimes can never be prevented in our society.
Arguments against:
- Eye for an eye: Reformative justice is more productive, that innocent people are often killed in the search for retribution, and that “an eye for an eye makes the whole world blind.
- Deterrence is a myth: Death penalty is not a deterrent to capital crimes state that there is no evidence to support the claim that the penalty is a deterrent.
- Political tool of suppression: The authorities in some countries, for example Iran and Sudan, use the death penalty to punish political opponents.
- Reverence for life’ principle: Death penalty is an immoral punishment since humans should not kill other humans, no matter the reasons, because killing is killing.
- Stigma against killing: With the introduction of lethal injection as execution method, medical professionals participate in executions. Many professionals have now refused to administer such deaths.
- Skewed justice systems: In many cases recorded by Amnesty International, people were executed after being convicted in grossly unfair trials, on the basis of torture-tainted evidence and with inadequate legal representation.
- Discriminatory nature: The weight of the death penalty is disproportionally carried by those with less advantaged socio-economic backgrounds or belonging to a racial, ethnic or religious minority.
- Penalizing the innocents: The risk of executing the innocent precludes the use of the death penalty. Our colonial history has witnessed many such executions.
Other issues with such executions
(a) Socio-Economic Factors
- The recent statistics shows that the death row prisoners in India are more from the backward classes of the society.
- The death row prisoners belong to backward classes and religious minorities and the majority of convicts’ families are living in adjunct poverty.
- These people who are backward both in economic and social respects, are not in a position to here expensive lawyers and get proper representation in the Court.
(b) Delayed Execution
- The law provides for a long process before the execution of the convicts actually takes place.
- The unexplained delay in execution can be a ground for commutation of death penalty, and an inmate, his or her kin, or even a public-spirited citizen could file a writ petition seeking such commutation.
- Their trials are often cruelly forced to endure long periods of uncertainty about their fate.
Way forward: Law Commission recommendations on death penalty
The Law Commission of India in its 262nd Report (August 2015) recommended that:
- Death penalty be abolished for all crimes other than terrorism related offences and waging war.
- Measures such as police reforms, witness protection scheme and victim compensation scheme should be taken up expeditiously by the government.
- It felt that time has come for India to move towards abolition of the death penalty. However the concern is often raised that abolition of death penalty for terrorism-related offences and waging war, will affect national security.
Further, the Commission sincerely hopes that the movement towards absolute abolition will be swift and irreversible
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Quota benefits for religious convertees
The Centre is likely to soon decide on setting up a national commission to study the social, economic and educational status of Dalits who converted to religions other than Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism.
What is the news?
- Several petitions are pending before the Supreme Court seeking Scheduled Caste (SC) reservation benefits for Dalits who converted to Christianity or Islam.
Dalit Convertees and Quota Benefits
- The original rationale behind giving reservation to Scheduled Castes was that these sections had suffered from the social evil of untouchability, which was practised among Hindus.
- Under Article 341 of the Constitution, the President may specify the castes, races or tribes or parts of or groups within castes, races or tribes which shall…be deemed to be Scheduled Castes.
- The first order under this provision was issued in 1950, and covered only Hindus.
- Following demands from the Sikh community, an order was issued in 1956, including Sikhs of Dalit origin among the beneficiaries of the SC quota.
- In 1990, the government acceded to a similar demand from Buddhists of Dalit origin, and the order was revised to state: “No person who professes a religion different from the Hindu, the Sikh or the Buddhist religion shall be deemed to be a member of Scheduled Caste.”
Does this religion-based bar apply to converted STs and OBCs as well?
- It does not.
- The Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT) website states, “The rights of a person belonging to a Scheduled Tribe are independent of his/her religious faith.”
- Following the implementation of the Mandal Commission report, several Christian and Muslim communities have found place in the Central and state lists of OBCs.
What efforts have been made to include Muslims and Christians of Dalit origin among SCs?
- After 1990, a number of Private Member’s Bills were brought in Parliament for this purpose.
- In 1996, a government Bill called The Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Orders (Amendment) Bill was drafted, but in view of a divergence of opinions, the Bill was not introduced in Parliament.
- Then government headed by PM Manmohan Singh set up two important panels:
- Ranganath Misra Commission: The National Commission for Religious and Linguistic Minorities, popularly known as the Ranganath Misra Commission, in October 2004 and
- Sachar Committee: A seven-member high-level committee headed by former Chief Justice of Delhi High Court Rajinder Sachar to study the social, economic, and educational condition of Muslims in March 2005.
What did they recommend?
- The Sachar Committee Report observed that the social and economic situation of Dalit Muslims and Dalit Christians did not improve after conversion.
- The Ranganath Misra Commission, which submitted its report in May 2007, recommended that SC status should be completely de-linked from religion and Scheduled Castes should be made fully religion-neutral like Scheduled Tribes.
Reception to these recommendations
- The report was tabled in Parliament in 2009, but its recommendation was not accepted in view of inadequate field data and corroboration with the actual situation on the ground.
- Few studies, commissioned by the National Commission for Minorities, was also not considered reliable due to insufficient data.
What lies ahead?
- Based on the recommendations of the Ranganath Misra Commission, there are some petitions pending before the Supreme Court, seeking reservation benefits for Christians and Muslims of Dalit orgin.
- In the last hearing, a three-judge Bench gave the Solicitor General of India three weeks’ time to present the stand of the Union government on the issue.
- The next hearing is awaited.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Plant treaty
Mains level: Not Much
The ninth session of the governing body of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) has recently begun in New Delhi.
Theme of this years event
- The theme of the meeting is ‘Celebrating the Guardians of Crop Diversity: Towards an Inclusive Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework’.
What is the Plant Treaty?
- The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA) was adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations November 3, 2001.
- It was signed in 2001 in Madrid, and entered into force on 29 June 2004.
- It is the first legally-binding international instrument to formally acknowledge the enormous contribution of indigenous people and small-holder farmers as traditional custodians of the world’s food crops.
- It also calls on nations to protect and promote their rights to save and use the seeds they have taken care of for millennia.
- The parties to this treaty have come together after nearly three years to discuss governance of agricultural biodiversity and global food security.
Objectives of the treaty
The treaty aims at:
- Guaranteeing food security through the conservation
- Exchange and sustainable use of the world’s plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA)
- Fair and equitable benefit sharing arising from its use, as well as
- Recognition of farmers’ rights.
Key feature: Annex 1 Crops
- The treaty has implemented a Multilateral System (MLS) of access and benefit sharing, among those countries that ratify the treaty, for a list of 64 of some of the most important food and forage crops essential for food security and interdependence.
- The genera and species are listed in Annex 1 to the treaty. The treaty facilitates the continued open exchange of food crops and their genetic materials.
- The list of plant genetic material included in the Multilateral System of the Treaty is made of major food crops and forages.
- The Forages are also divided in legume forages and grass forages.
- They were selected taking into account the criteria of food security and country interdependence
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PM PRANAM Scheme
Mains level: India's fertilizer subsidy
In order to reduce the use of chemical fertilisers by incentivising states, the Union government plans to introduce a new scheme – PM PRANAM, which stands for PM Promotion of Alternate Nutrients for Agriculture Management Yojana.
What is the PM PRANAM scheme?
- The proposed scheme intends to reduce the subsidy burden on chemical fertilisers.
- This burden if uneased, is expected to increase to Rs 2.25 lakh crore in 2022-2023, which is 39% higher than the previous year’s figure of Rs 1.62 lakh crore.
- The scheme will not have a separate budget and will be financed by the “savings of existing fertiliser subsidy” under schemes run by the Department of fertilisers.
Subsidies under the PRANAM
- Further, 50% subsidy savings will be passed on as a grant to the state that saves the money and that 70% of the grant provided under the scheme can be used for asset creation related to technological adoption of alternate fertilisers.
- It would create alternate fertiliser production units at village, block and district levels.
- The remaining 30% grant money can be used for incentivising farmers, panchayats, farmer producer organisations and self-help groups that are involved in the reduction of fertiliser use and awareness generation.
- The government will compare a state’s increase or reduction in urea in a year, to its average consumption of urea during the last three years.
How much fertiliser does India require?
- The kharif season (June-October) is critical for India’s food security, accounting for nearly half the year’s production of foodgrains, one-third of pulses and approximately two-thirds of oilseeds.
- A sizable amount of fertiliser is required for this season.
- The Department of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare assesses the requirement of fertilisers each year before the start of the cropping season, and informs the Ministry of Chemical and fertilisers to ensure the supply.
- The amount of fertiliser required varies each month according to demand, which is based on the time of crop sowing, which also varies from region to region.
- For example, the demand for urea peaks during June-August period, but is relatively low in March and April, and the government uses these two months to prepare for an adequate amount of fertiliser for the kharif season.
Why is the scheme being introduced?
- Due to increased demand for fertiliser in the country over the past 5 years, the overall expenditure by the government on subsidy has also increased.
- The final figure of fertiliser subsidy touched Rs 1.62 lakh crore in 2021-22.
- The total requirement of four fertilisers — Urea, DAP (Di-ammonium Phosphate), MOP (Muriate of potash), NPKS (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) — increased by 21% between 2017-2018 and 2021-2022, from 528.86 lakh metric tonnes (LMT) to 640.27 LMT.
- PM PRANAM, which seeks to reduce the use of chemical fertiliser, will likely reduce the burden on the exchequer.
- The proposed scheme is also in line with the government’s focus on promoting the balanced use of fertilisers or alternative fertilisers in the last few years.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What are the advantages of fertigation in agriculture? (CSP 2020)
1.Controlling the alkalinity of irrigation water is possible.
2.Efficient application of Rock Phosphate and all other phosphatic fertilizers is possible.
3.Increased availability of nutrients to plants is possible.
4.Reduction in the leaching of chemical nutrients is possible.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1,2 and 4 only
(c) 1,3 and 4 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only
Post your answers here.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: types of inflation
Mains level: inflation overview
Context
- It seems that inflation may hover around 7 per cent despite RBI’s tightening of monetary policy in the months to come.
What is a simple definition for inflation?
- Inflation is an increase in the level of prices of the goods and services that households buy. It is measured as the rate of change of those prices. Typically, prices rise over time, but prices can also fall (a situation called deflation).
Inflation Rate
- Inflation Rate is the percentage change in the price level from the previous period. If a normal basket of goods was priced at Rupee 100 last year and the same basket of goods now cost Rupee 120, then the rate of inflation this year is 20%.
- Inflation Rate= {(Price in year 2 – Price in year 1)/ Price in year 1} *100
Types of Inflation
Creeping Inflation
- Creeping or mild inflation is when prices rise 3% a year or less. This kind of mild inflation makes consumers expect that prices will keep going up. That boosts demand. Consumers buy now to beat higher future prices. That’s how mild inflation drives economic expansion.
Walking Inflation
- This type of strong, or pernicious, inflation is between 3-10% a year. It is harmful to the economy because it heats up economic growth too fast. People start to buy more than they need, just to avoid tomorrow’s much higher prices. This drives demand even further so that suppliers can’t keep up. More important, neither can wages. As a result, common goods and services are priced out of the reach of most people.
Galloping Inflation
- When inflation rises to 10% or more, it wreaks absolute havoc on the economy. Money loses value so fast that business and employee income can’t keep up with costs and prices. Foreign investors avoid the country, depriving it of needed capital. The economy becomes unstable, and government leaders lose credibility. Galloping inflation must be prevented at all costs.
Hyperinflation
- Hyperinflation is when prices skyrocket more than 50% a month. It is very rare. In fact, most examples of hyperinflation have occurred only when governments printed money to pay for wars. Examples of hyperinflation include Germanyin the 1920s, Zimbabwe in the 2000s, and Venezuela in the 2010s. The last time America experienced hyperinflation was during its civil war.
Core Inflation
- The core inflation rate measures rising prices in everything except food and energy. That’s because gas prices tend to escalate now and then. Higher gas costs increase the price of food and anything else that has large transportation costs.
Consumer Price Index
- CPI is used to monitor changes in the cost of living over time. When the CPI rises, the average Indian family has to spend more on goods and services to maintain the same standard of living. The economic term used to define such a rising prices of goods and services is Inflation.
Whole sale Price Index
- WPI is used to monitor the cost of goods and services bought by producer and firms rather than final consumers. The WPI inflation captures price changes at the factory/wholesale level.
GDP Deflator
- Another important measure of calculating standard of living of people is GDP Deflator. GDP Deflator is the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP. The nominal GDP is measured at the current prices whereas the real GDP is measured at the base year prices. Therefore, GDP Deflator reflects the current level of prices relative to prices in a base year. Example, In India the base year of calculating deflator is 2011-12.
Factors fuelling inflation in India
- Falling rupee: Inflation is here to stay because it has much to do with the decline in value of the rupee that has fallen to its lowest, which makes imports of oil and gas more expensive.
- Ukraine crisis: The war in Ukraine has the same effect and pushes the price of some food items upward.
- Poor inflation management: With inflation, as measured by the consumer price index, in August going back to 7 per cent, and the wholesale price index coming in at 12.4 per cent, one thing is clear India is not out of the woods on inflation management.
Rising inflation have these implications
- Impact on the poor: This upsurge of inflation is affecting the poor more because some of the commodities whose prices are increasing the most represent a larger fraction of the budget of the most vulnerable sections of society.
- Rising inequality: As a result, inequalities which were already on the rise are increasing further. Recently, the State of Inequality in India report showed that an Indian making Rs 3 lakh a year belonged to the top 10 per cent of the country’s wage earners.
- Inequality in healthcare: India’s spending on healthcare is among the lowest in the world. Decent level of healthcare is available only to the ones who can afford it because of increasing out-of-pocket expenditure the payment made directly by individuals for the health service, not covered under any financial protection scheme. Overall, these out-of-pocket expenses on healthcare are 60 per cent of the total expenditure on public health in India, which is one of the highest in the world.
Need for bold steps on three fronts to tackle inflation
- Unless bold and innovative steps are taken at least on three fronts, GDP growth and inflation both are likely to be in the range of 6.5 to 7.5 per cent in 2022-23.
1] Tightening of loose monetary policy: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is mandated to keep inflation at 4 per cent, plus-minus 2 per cent.
- The RBI has already started the process of tightening monetary policy by raising the repo rate, albeit a bit late.
- It is expected that by the end of 2022-3, the repo rate will be at least 5.5 per cent, if not more.
- It will still stay below the likely inflation rate and therefore depositors will still lose the real value of their money in banks with negative real interest rates.
- That only reflects an inbuilt bias in the system — in favour of entrepreneurs in the name of growth and against depositors, which ultimately results in increasing inequality in the system.
2] Prudent fiscal policy: Fiscal policy has been running loose in the wake of Covid-19 that saw the fiscal deficit of the Union government soar to more than 9 per cent in 2020-21 and 6.7 per cent in 2021-22, but now needs to be tightened.
- Government needs to reduce its fiscal deficit to less than 5 per cent, never mind the FRMB Act’s advice to bring it to 3 per cent of GDP.
- However, it is difficult to achieve when enhanced food and fertiliser subsidies, and cuts in duties of petrol and diesel will cost the government at least Rs 3 trillion more than what was provisioned in the budget.
3] Rational trade policy: Export restrictions/bans go beyond agri-commodities, even to iron ore and steel, etc. in the name of taming inflation.
- But abrupt export bans are poor trade policy and reflect only the panic-stricken face of the government.
- A more mature approach to filter exports would be through a gradual process of minimum export prices and transparent export duties for short periods of time, rather than abrupt bans, if at all these are desperately needed to favour consumers.
Conclusion
- Though the government is opting for market-based economics, currently, India needs a mixed solution that comprises price stability via government channels and subsidies.
Mains question
Q.What are the fuelling factors for inflation? Discuss what steps should be taken to tackle inflation.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: Three Capitals Issue in AP
After much discontent on the High Court (HC) verdict in the three capitals case, the Andhra Pradesh government has finally challenged it in the Supreme Court through a special leave petition (SLP).
AP’s move for three capitals
- AP had introduced a ‘Three Capitals Act’ titled Andhra Pradesh Decentralisation and Inclusive Development of All Regions Act, 2020.
- Thus, it was decided that:
- Amaravati was to be the Legislative capital
- Visakhapatnam the Executive capital and
- Kurnool the Judicial capital
- However, the Andhra Pradesh High Court repealed this Act citing that the legislature has no competence to enact any law for shifting the three organs of the capital.
Concerns raised by AP government
- AP contended that the judgement was in violation of the basic structure of the Constitution as the HC cannot hold that the State does not have the powers to decide on its capital.
- The judgement was against the doctrine of separation of powers as it sought to preempt the legislature from taking up the issue (of three capitals).
- Further, it is argued that under the federal structure of the Constitution, every State has an inherent right to determine where it should carry out its capital functions from.
Reasons for AP’s consideration
(1) Viable option of Visakhapatnam
- Vizag always had been the biggest city, after Hyderabad, even in the combined State.
- It has all the settings to become a good living space.
(2) Sri Krishna panel recommendations
- The advantages and qualities of Visakhapatnam to become the capital was elaborately deliberated by the Sri Krishna Committee to study the alternatives for a new capital for the State of Andhra Pradesh.
- Coming to suggestion for the alternative capital, the Committee primarily took up three things for consideration — creation of single city or super city in greenfield location, expanding existing cities and distributed development.
(3) Decentralisation
- This idea was elaborately described in the Sri Bagh pact.
- The pact clearly defined decentralisation, for the benefit of all three main regions such as Coastal AP, Godavari and Krishna districts and Rayalaseema.
Major practical problems
- Continuum of work: The government argues that the Assembly meets only after gaps of several months, and government Ministers, officers, and staff can simply go to Amaravati when required.
- Logistics nightmare: coordinating between seats of legislature and executive in separate cities will be easier said than done.
- Time and costs of travel: The distances in Andhra Pradesh are not inconsiderable. Executive capital Visakhapatnam is 700 km from judicial capital Kurnool, and 400 km from legislative capital Amaravati.
Examples of multi-capital states in India
- Among Indian states, Maharashtra has two capitals– Mumbai and Nagpur (which holds the winter session of the state assembly).
- Himachal Pradesh has capitals at Shimla and Dharamshala (winter).
- The former state of Jammu & Kashmir had Srinagar and Jammu (winter) as capitals where Darbar Move is carried out.
Back2Basics: Special Leave Petition
- SLP hold a prime place in the Indian judicial system.
- It provides the aggrieved party a special permission to be heard in Apex court in appeal against any judgment or order of any Court/tribunal in the territory of India.
- It has been provided as a “residual power” in the hands of Supreme Court of India to be exercised only in cases when any substantial question of law is involved, or gross injustice has been done.
- Article 136 vests the Supreme Court of India with a special power to grant special leave, to appeal against any judgment or order or decree.
- It is discretionary power vested in the Supreme Court of India and the court may in its discretion refuse to grant leave to appeal.
- The aggrieved party cannot claim special leave to appeal under Article 136 as a right, but it is privilege vested in the Supreme Court to grant leave to appeal or not.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Registration and de-registration of Political Parties, RP Act
Mains level: Read the attached story
The EC has been on a mission to clean up the list of registered unrecognized political parties, deleting 284 since May for either being untraceable during a physical check or not responding to communications.
Why de-list political parties?
- The news highlights the tale of a Bharatiya xyz Party.
- Its registered address, the ground floor of a Delhi Development Authority flat, has been home to a family since they purchased the house in 2008.
When is a party de-registered?
- The EC’s recent order has highlighted that a party must contest an election within five years of its registration, and should continue to contest thereafter.
- If the party does not contest elections continuously for six years, the party shall be taken off the list of registered parties.
Registering a Political Party
- The registration of all political parties is governed by the provisions of the Representation of the People Act, 1951.
- According to the Election Commission (EC), any party seeking registration has to submit an application to the Commission within a period of 30 days.
- This is done as per guidelines prescribed by the EC in exercise of the powers conferred by Article 324 of the Constitution and Section 29A of the RP Act, 1951.
Note: There is no procedure available for de-registration of dormant political parties.
Process of registration
- The applicant is asked to publish a proposed party name in two national daily newspapers and two local daily newspapers, and provide two days for submitting objections, if any.
- The notice for publication is also displayed on the website of the Election Commission.
Why registering with the EC is important?
- It is not mandatory to register with the Election Commission.
- However, registering as a political party with the EC has its advantage in terms of intending to avail itself of the provisions of the RP Act, 1951.
- The candidates set up by a political party registered with the EC will get preference in the matter of allotment of free symbols vis-à-vis purely independent candidates.
- More importantly, these registered political parties, over course of time, can get expanded recognition as a ‘state party’ or a ‘national party’.
How EC recognises a political party as a state or national party?
For recognition as a NATIONAL PARTY, the conditions specified are:
- a 6% vote share in the last Assembly polls in each of any four states, as well as four seats in the last Lok Sabha polls; or
- 2% of all Lok Sabha seats in the last such election, with MPs elected from at least three states; or
- recognition as a state party in at least four states.
For recognition as a STATE PARTY, any one of five conditions needs to be satisfied:
- two seats plus a 6% vote share in the last Assembly election in that state; or
- one seat plus a 6% vote share in the last Lok Sabha election from that state; or
- 3% of the total Assembly seats or 3 seats, whichever is more; or
- one of every 25 Lok Sabha seats (or an equivalent fraction) from a state; or
- an 8% state-wide vote share in either the last Lok Sabha or the last Assembly polls.
Benefits for recognized parties
- This is subject to the fulfilment of the conditions prescribed by the Commission in the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968.
(a) Reserved Sybol
- If a party is recognised as a ‘state party’, it is entitled for exclusive allotment of its reserved symbol to the candidates set up by it in the state in which it is so recognised.
- If a party is recognised as a ‘national party’ it is entitled for exclusive allotment of its reserved symbol to the candidates set up by it throughout India.
(b) Proposer for nomination
- Recognised ‘state’ and ‘national’ parties need only one proposer for filing the nomination.
(c) Campaigning benefits
- They are also entitled for two sets of electoral rolls free of cost and broadcast/telecast facilities over state-owned Akashvani/Doordarshan during the general elections.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UNSC 1267
Mains level: China's support for Pak sponsored terrorism
For the third time in three months, China blocked a joint India-US attempt to put a Pakistan-based terrorist on the UN Security Council’s 1267 list.
What is the UNSC 1267 list?
- The UNSC resolution 1267 was adopted unanimously on 15 October 1999.
- It came to force in 1999, and strengthened after the September, 2001 attacks.
- It is now known as the Da’esh and Al Qaeda Sanctions Committee.
What is UNSC 1267 committee?
- It comprises all permanent and non-permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
- The 1267 list of terrorists is a global list, with a UNSC stamp.
- It is one of the most important and active UN subsidiary bodies working on efforts to combat terrorism, particularly in relation to Al Qaeda and the Islamic State group.
- It discusses UN efforts to limit the movement of terrorists, especially those related to travel bans, the freezing of assets and arms embargoes for terrorism.
How is the listing done?
(1) Submission of Proposal
- Any member state can submit a proposal for listing an individual, group, or entity.
- The proposal must include acts or activities indicating the proposed individual/group/entity had participated in the financing, planning, facilitating, preparing, or perpetrating of acts or activities linked to the said organizations.
(2) Actual decision
- Decisions on listing and de-listing are adopted by consensus.
- The proposal is sent to all the members, and if no member objects within five working days, the proposal is adopted.
- An “objection” means rejection for the proposal.
(3) Putting and resolving ‘Technical Holds’
- Any member of the Committee may also put a “technical hold” on the proposal and ask for more information from the proposing member state.
- During this time, other members may also place their own holds.
- The matter remains on the “pending” list of the Committee.
- Pending issues must be resolved in six months, but the member state that has placed the hold may ask for an additional three months.
- At the end of this period, if an objection is not placed, the matter is considered approved.
Why is India furious this time?
- Recently PM Modi and Xi Jinping attended the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) summit in Samarkand.
- The grouping had agreed to take strong and consolidated action against terrorism in the region.
- Despite this, China has exposed its double standards on the issue of terrorism for consistently stopping the listing of Pakistan-based terrorists.
- This is again very surprising movement by China by putting a ‘Technical Hold’.
Here is a timeline of how China disrupts the global efforts against terrorism:
- 2009: After the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, India moved an independent terror designation proposal against Masood Azhar but China blocked the move.
- 2016: After seven years, India proposes listing of Masood Azhar as a global terrorist and is supported by the US, the UK and France. China blocks the move again.
- 2017: The trio moves a third proposal only to be blocked by China again.
- 2019: After the attacks on the CRPF personnel in J-K’s Pulwama, India calls 25 envoys of different countries to highlight the role Islamabad plays in funding, promoting and strengthening global terrorism. India moves the fourth proposal demanding Masood Azhar’s listing. China lifted its technical hold.
- June 2022: China blocked a proposal by India and the US to list Pakistan-based terrorist Abdul Rehman Makki as a ‘Global Terrorist’
- August 2022: China blocks India-US joint proposal to list Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM) deputy chief Abdul Rauf Azhar as UNSC designated terrorist.
Conclusion
- China’s actions expose its double speak and double standards when it comes to the international community’s shared battle against terrorism.
- This clearly depicts its care for its vassal state Pakistan.
Back2Basics: United Nations Security Council
- The UNSC is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security.
- Its powers include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions.
- It is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions to member states.
- The Security Council consists of fifteen members. Russia, the United Kingdom, France, China, and the United States—serve as the body’s five permanent members (P5).
- These permanent members can veto any substantive Security Council resolution, including those on the admission of new member states or candidates for Secretary-General.
- The Security Council also has 10 non-permanent members, elected on a regional basis to serve two-year terms. The body’s presidency rotates monthly among its members.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hyderabad's accession into India
Mains level: Post-independence consolidation
The Government of India began its year-long celebrations for the ‘Telangana Liberation Day’ on September 17, marking how on the same day in 1948, the state of Hyderabad got its independence from Nizam’s rule, as said in a press release.
Why in news?
- From 1911 to 1948, Nizam Mir Usman Ali, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, ruled the state composed of Telangana and parts of present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra (Marathwada).
- While these states mark the Liberation Day officially, Telangana has never done so.
Hyderabad’s accession into India: A backgrounder
(1) Reluctance of Nizam
- At the time of India’s independence, British India was a mix of independent kingdoms and provinces that were given the options of joining India, Pakistan, or remaining independent.
- One among those who took a long time to make a decision was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
- Believed to be one of the richest people in the world at the time, the Nizam was not ready to let go of his kingdom.
(2) Sufferings for the people
- Meanwhile, the majority population of Hyderabad state was far from enjoying the same kind of wealth as the Nizam did.
- The feudal nature of the state at the time caused the peasant population to suffer high taxes, indignities of forced labour, and various other kinds of exploitation at the hands of powerful landlords.
(3) Lingual friction
- There was also a demand by the Andhra Jan Sangham for Telugu to be given primacy over Urdu.
- By the mid-1930s, apart from a reduction in land revenue rates and the abolition of forced labour, introducing Telugu in local courts became another important issue.
(4) Mass movement
- Soon after the organisation became the Andhra Mahasabha (AMS), and Communists became associated with it.
- Together, the two groups built a peasant movement against the Nizam that found local support.
Who were the Razakars and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen?
- By October 1946, the Nizam banned the AMS.
- A close aide of the Nizam, Qasim Razvi, leader of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, became closely involved in securing the Nizam’s position.
- The Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen was a political outfit that sought a greater role for Muslims in the early 20th century, but after Razvi took over the organisation, it became extremist in its ideology.
- It was under him that a militia of the ‘Razakars’ was formed to suppress the peasant and communist movement, launching a brutal attack.
- Around this time, the Standstill Agreement was also signed between the Nizam and the Indian government in November 1947, declaring a status quo.
- This meant that until November 1948, the Nizam could let things be as they were and not finalise a decision as negotiations with the Indian union continued.
How did the situation escalate to military action?
- In the first half of 1948, tensions grew as the razakar leaders and the government in Hyderabad began to speak of war with India and began border raids with Madras and Bombay Presidencies.
- As a response, India stationed troops around Hyderabad and began to ready itself for military intervention.
India commences Operation Polo
- With the Nizam importing more arms and the violence of the Razakars approaching dangerous proportions, India officially launched ‘Operation Polo’ on September 9 and deployed its troops in Hyderabad four days later.
- On September 17, three days after the deployment, the Nizam surrendered and acceded to the Indian Union in November.
- India has decided to be generous and not punish the Nizam.
- He was retained as the official ruler of the state and given a privy purse of five million rupees.
The legacy of Operation Polo
- It has also been said that the army’s march into Hyderabad did not just target the razakars and the radical extremist forces.
- A four-member goodwill mission led by Pandit Sunderlal was constituted by the then Prime Minister.
- At the request of then PM Nehru, a month was spent in Hyderabad in November 1948 where evidence was gathered and at the end, a report was filed.
- Estimated thousands of people died in communal violence during the military action.
Why debate now?
- The debate about whether the day of independence was about integration into the Indian union after months of negotiations, or liberation from an autocratic monarch has continued.
- Hyderabad’s history continues to affect today’s politics.
- After Qasim Rizvi left India for Pakistan, the organisation was handed over to Abdul Wahed Owaisi, the grandfather of a present day Parliamentarian.
- And communal-sectarian politics is storming up the city of Hyderabad leading to religious tensions.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vaikom satyagraha
Mains level: Social reform movement in tamil nadu
Context
- We celebrate Periyar E.V. Ramasamy’s birth anniversary (September 17) as Social Justice Day.
Who is periyar?
- Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy, revered as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is known as the ‘Father of the Dravidian movement’. He rebelled against Brahminical dominance and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu.
Who started self-respect movement?
- The self-respect movement was founded by V.Ramaswamy Naicker, commonly known as Periyar. It was a dynamic social movement aimed at destroying the contemporary Hindu social order in its totality and creating a new, rational society without caste, religion and god.
Why Periyar is called as vaikom hero?
- V. Ramasamy Periyar led the famous Vaikom Sathya Graha in 1924, where the people of down trodden community were prohibited to enter into the temple. Finally the Travancore government relaxed such segregation and allowed the people to enter into the temple. Hence periyar was given the title of ‘Vaikom Hero’.
Leadership at a critical juncture
- The satyagraha began with the active support of the Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee.
- Within a week all its leaders were behind bars. George Joseph sought directions from Gandhi and C. Rajagopalachari. He also wrote to Periyar pleading with him to lead the satyagraha.
- Periyar was in the midst of political work. As he was then the president of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, Periyar handed over temporary charge to Rajaji before reaching Vaikom in 1924.
- From that date to the day of the victory celebrations in 1925, he was in the struggle giving it leadership at a critical juncture.
Periyar’s role
- Against violence – Periyar presided over the satyagraha in the face of violence and indignity inflicted by the orthodox and the repression of the police.
- Mobilising – To mobilise support, he visited villages in and around Vaikom and delivered public speeches in several towns.
- Gandhi – When the Kerala leaders asked for Gandhi’s permission to make the satyagraha an all-India affair, Gandhi refused saying that volunteers from Tamil Nadu would keep it alive.
- In reports – the British Resident said in his report to the government of Madras: “In fact, the movement would have collapsed long ago but for the support it has received from outside Travancore…”
- Historian T.K. Ravindran — observes that Periyar’s arrival gave “a new life to the movement”.
His Vision for the future
- Ideas on rationality: When he presented his thoughts, there was nuance, honesty, and an explicitness, which prompted even people practising different faiths to discuss and debate his ideas on rationality and religion.
- Freedom of expression: Periyar himself said, “Everyone has the right to refute any opinion. But no one has the right to prevent its expression.”
- Eradication of social evils: Periyar is often referred to as an iconoclast, for the rebellious nature of his ideas and the vigour with which he acted. His vision for the future was a part of all his actions. He did not merely aim at the eradication of social evils; he also wanted to put an end to activities that do not collectively raise standards of society.
Foundation of rationalism
- He understood the evolution of political thought: Periyar’s vision was about inclusive growth and freedom of individuals. He was an important ideologue of his day because of the clarity in his political stand. More importantly, he understood the evolution of political thought and was able to glide through time with this.
- He presented rationalism as a solid foundation: For thinking along these lines. He said, “Wisdom lies in thinking. The spearhead of thinking is rationalism.” Periyar was way ahead of his time.
- Concern towards poor: “Whomsoever I love and hate, my principle is the same. That is, the educated, the rich and the administrators should not suck the blood of the poor.”
- Periyar proclaimed that he would always stand with the oppressed: In the fight against oppressors and that his enemy was oppression. There have been several social reformers in Tamil Nadu who shared their revolutionary thoughts with the people in the past century. In that spectrum, Periyar occupies a unique place because he made interactions of multiple worlds possible.
Periyar said, “Any opposition not based on rationalism or science or experience, will one day or other, reveal the fraud, selfishness, lies, and conspiracies.”
Conclusion
- His works against the Bhraminical dominance, oppression of women in Tamil Nadu, caste prevalence are exemplary. Periyar promoted the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of caste. He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.
Mains question
Q.Discuss the future vision of periyar by discussing his role in vaikom satyagraha. Do you think he has placed foundation of rationalism in Tamil Nadu?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: human population
Context
- Though the Global population, in terms of numbers, has been steadily increasing the average global fertility rate has been consistently declining over the past 70 years.
What Reports say?
- Reports suggest that the global population could grow to around 8.5 billion in 2030.
- According to the World Population Prospects 2022, Average number of children per woman in the reproductive age group has declined by 50%, from an average of five children per woman in 1951 to4 children in 2020.
What is Fertility?
- Fertility is the quality or state of being fertile.
- Fertility is the ability to reproduce through normal sexual interaction. In other words it is the natural capacity to conceive a biological child.
- Fertilitychanges with age. Both males and females become fertile in their teens following puberty.
What is fertility rate?
- The number of live births in women over a specific length of time.
- Total fertility rate is the average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime.
Recent findings
The newly released World Population Prospectus notes that the global fertility rate fell from three in 1990 to 2.3 in 2021.
Overview of fertility dynamics
- Reason: Speeding up the social phenomenon of demographic transition.
- Poorer countries: speeding up the Transition a lot faster than the richer ones.
- Britain: Took 130 years to transition from a fertility rate of five per woman in 1800 to two in 1930, whereas
- South Korea: Took 20 years from 1965 to 1985 to achieve the same. South Korea reporting the lowest fertility rate, 1.05 children per woman.
- Most advanced economies: Have their fertility rate below the replacement rate of 2.1.
- Sub-Saharan African countries: Expected to contribute more than half the population growth after 2050 and grow through 2100. For example, Niger a sub Saharan country with highest fertility rate in the world, estimated to be 91 children per woman.
- What is Demographic transition: is a long-term trend of declining birth and death rate. It is shift from high birth rates to low birth rates in societies with minimal technology, education (especially of women) and economic development and from high death rates to Low death rates in societies with advanced economies and development.
Where India Stands
- According to National Family Health Survey (NFHS), fertility rate falling below the replacement level for the first time to 2.0 in 2021.dropped from 2.2 to 2.0.
- only five States have a fertility rate above the replacement rate: Bihar (3), Meghalaya (2.9), Uttar Pradesh (2.4), Jharkhand (2.3), and Manipur (2.2)
- At the time of Independence, India’s fertility rate was six per woman, and it had taken 25 years to reach five, with the government launching the first ever family planning program in the world in 1952.
- India’s fertility further declined to four in the 1990s when Kerala became the first State in India to have a fertility rate below replacement l
- Increased use of contraception, more years of average schooling, better health care, and an increase in the mean marriage age of women are of the reasons behind the steady dip in fertility rate.
Lower fertility rate as cause and consequences on the economy
Positive impact:
- Lower fertility leads to rise in women’s education.
- Window of time where the ration of working-age population is higher than that of the dependent age groups.
- This high proportion of people in the workforce boosts income and investment, and higher level of saving.
- Lower pressure on land, water and other resources and would also contribute to achieving environmental goals.
- Advanced health care and better nutrition, results in increased life expectancy and productivity of citizens.
Negative impact:
- Lower fertility impacts women’s education positively, which in turn lowers the fertility of the next generations.
- While the income rises with better health care and better infrastructure development, Fertility drops.
- A fall in fertility rate beyond replacement level would have a negative effect on the proportion of the working population, which in turn will affect output in an economy.
- After the window of demographic dividend, the huge working age population moves to old age, supported by fewer workers.
- Japan was the first country to experience the implications of falling fertility rates. Country is now facing fiscal challenges to meet rising social security costs.
Experiments to deal with fertility decline
Countries across the globe are experimenting with policies to boost fertility.
- Germany: found success in boosting births through liberal labour laws, allowing more parental leave and benefits.
- Denmark: offering state-funded IVF for women below 40 years
- Hungary: Recently nationalized IVF clinics.
- Poland: Gives out monthly cash payments to parents having more than two children
- Russia: Makes one-time payment to parents when their second child is born. Reinstituted the Soviet-era ‘Mother Heroine’ title, who bore and raised more than 10 children amounting to almost a one-time payment of 13 lakh.
Way ahead
- Need of the hour is to ensure liberal labor reforms, encourage higher female labor force participation, higher focus on nutrition and health.
- Although India’s working age population will continue to grow for many more decades, it would need to keep an eye on fertility dips.
Mains Question
What are Implications of lower fertility rate on the economy? What steps could be taken to deal with fertility decline? Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Persistence of marital rape and need for its criminalization
The Supreme Court has sought a response from the government on appeals to criminalize marital rape.
Split opinions on Marital Rape
- This follows a split decision from the Delhi High Court on whether or not to prosecute husbands for non-consensual intercourse with their wives.
What is Marital Rape?
- Marital rape is the act of sexual intercourse with one’s spouse without her consent.
- It is no different manifestation of domestic violence and sexual abuse.
- It is often a chronic form of violence for the victim which takes place within abusive relations.
Status in India
- Historically considered as right of the spouses, this is now widely classified as rape by many societies around the world.
- In India, marital rape is not a criminal offense (as protected under IPC section 375).
- India is one of fifty countries that have not yet outlawed marital rape.
Reasons for disapproval of this concept
- The reluctance to define non-consensual sex between married couples as a crime and to prosecute has been attributed to:
- Traditional views of marriage
- Interpretations of religious doctrines
- Ideas about male and female sexuality
- Cultural expectations of subordination of a wife to her husband
- It is widely held that a husband cannot be guilty of any sexual act committed by himself upon his lawful wife their on account of their mutual matrimonial consent.
Why it must be a crime?
- Associated physical violence: Rape by a spouse, partner or ex-partner is more often associated with physical violence.
- Mental harassment: There is research showing that marital rape can be more emotionally and physically damaging than rape by a stranger.
- Compulsive relationship: Marital rape may occur as part of an abusive relationship.
- Revengeful nature: Furthermore, marital rape is rarely a one-time event, but a repeated if not frequent occurrence.
- Obligation on women: In the case of marital rape the victim often has no choice but to continue living with their spouse.
Violation of fundamental rights
- Marital rape is considered as the violation of FR guaranteed under Article 14 of the Indian constitution which guarantees the equal protection of laws to all persons.
- By depriving married women of an effective penal remedy against forced sexual intercourse, it violates their right to privacy and bodily integrity, aspects of the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21.
Problems in prosecuting marital rape
- Lack of awareness: A lack of public awareness, as well as reluctance or outright refusal of authorities to prosecute, is common globally.
- Gender norms: Additionally, gender norms that place wives in subservient positions to their husbands, make it more difficult for women to recognize such rape.
- Acceptability of the concept: Another problem results from prevailing social norms that exist.
Present regulations in India
- Indian Penal Code criminalizes rape in most cases, although marital rape is not illegal when the woman is over the age of 18.
- However, until 2017, men married to those between 15 and 18 could not be convicted of rape.
- Marital rape of an adult wife, who is unofficially or officially separated, is a criminal offence punishable by 2 to 7 year in prison; it is not dealt by normal rape laws which stipulate the possibility of a death sentence.
- According to the Protection of Women From Domestic Violence Act (2005), other married women subject to such crime by their husband may demand for financial compensation.
- They also have the right to continue to live in their marital household if they wish, or may approach shelter or aid homes.
However, marital rape is still not a criminal offence in this case and is only a misdemeanor.
Arguments against criminalization
- Subjective: It is very subjective and intricate to determine whether consent was acquired or not.
- Prone to Misuse: If marital rape is criminalized without adequate safeguards it could be misused like the current dowry law by the dissatisfied wives to harass and torture their Husbands.
- Burden on Judiciary: It will increase the burden of judiciary which otherwise may serve other more important causes.
Way forward
- Sanctioning marital rape is an acknowledgment of the woman’s right to self-determination (i.e., control) of all matters relating to her body.
- In the absence of any concrete law, the judiciary always finds it difficult to decide the matter of domestic rape in the absence of solid evidence.
- The main purpose of marriage is procreation, and sometimes divorce is sought on the ground of non-consummation of marriage.
- Before giving a final interpretation, the judiciary must balance the rights and duties of both partners.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Assisted Suicide
Mains level: Assisted Suicide and issues involved
A renowned French filmmaker died earlier this week by assisted suicide at the age of 91.
What is Assisted Suicide?
- Assisted suicide and euthanasia are practices under which a person intentionally ends their life with active assistance from others.
- These have long been contentious topics of debate as they involve a complex set of moral, ethical and in some cases, religious questions.
- Several European nations, some states in Australia and Colombia in South America allow assisted suicide and euthanasia under certain circumstances.
Difference between assisted suicide and euthanasia
- Euthanasia is the act of intentionally ending a life to relieve suffering – for example a lethal injection administered by a doctor.
- Intentionally helping another person to kill themselves is known as assisted suicide.
- This can include providing someone with strong sedatives with which to end their life or buying them a ticket to Switzerland (where assisted suicide is legal) to end their life
- Euthanasia can further be divided into active and passive.
- The practice of passive euthanasia involves simply stopping lifesaving treatment or medical intervention with the consent of the patient or a family member or a close friend representing the patient.
- Active euthanasia, which is legal in only a few countries, entails the use of substances to end the life of the patient.
India and Assisted suicide/ Euthanasia
- In a landmark judgment, the Supreme Court of India legalised passive euthanasia in 2018, stating that it was a matter of ‘living will’.
- According to the judgment, an adult in his conscious mind is permitted to refuse medical treatment or voluntarily decide not to take medical treatment to embrace death in a natural way, under certain conditions.
Consideration for ‘living will’
- In the 538-page judgment, the court laid down a set of guidelines for ‘living will’ and defined passive euthanasia and euthanasia as well.
- It also laid down guidelines for ‘living will’ made by terminally ill patients who beforehand know about their chances of slipping into a permanent vegetative state.
- The court specifically stated that the rights of a patient, in such cases, would not fall out of the purview of Article 21 (right to life and liberty) of the Indian Constitution.
- The SC’s judgment was in accordance with its verdict in March 2011 on a separate plea.
- While ruling on a petition on behalf of Aruna Shanbaug Case, the court had allowed passive euthanasia for the nurse who had spent decades in a vegetative state.
Who was Aruna Shanbaug?
- Shanbaug had become central to debates on the legality of right to die and euthanasia in India.
- Shanbaug died of pneumonia in March 2015 at the age of 66, 42 years of which she had spent in a room at KEM Hospital in Mumbai, after a brutal rape left her in a permanent vegetative state.
Recent cases in India
- In 2018, an old couple from Mumbai wrote to then President Kovind, seeking permission for active euthanasia or assisted suicide.
- Neither of them suffered from a life-threatening ailment.
- The couple stated in their plea that they had lived a happy life and didn’t want to depend on hospitals for old age ailments.
Justification for Euthanasia/Assisted Suicide
- It provides a way to relieve extreme pain.
- Euthanasia can save life of many other people by donation of vital organs.
Issues with such killings
- Euthanasia can be misused. Many psychiatrists are of the opinion that a terminally ill person or someone who is old and suffering from an incurable disease is often not in the right frame of mind to take a call.
- Family members deciding on behalf of the patient can also lead to abuse of the law legalizing euthanasia as it can be due to some personal interest.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EMRS
Mains level: Schooling for Tribal students
The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has so far been unable to fix the teacher shortage faced across 378 of Eklavya model residential schools (EMRS) that are currently functional.
Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS)
- EMRS started in the year 1997-98 to impart quality education to Scheduled Tribes (ST) children in remote areas in order.
- It aims to enable them to avail of opportunities in high and professional educational courses and get employment in various sectors.
- The schools focus not only on academic education but on the all-round development of the students.
- Each school has a capacity of 480 students, catering to students from Class VI to XII.
- Hitherto, grants were given for construction of schools and recurring expenses to the State Governments under Grants under Article 275 (1) of the Constitution.
- Eklavya schools are on par with Navodaya Vidyalaya and have special facilities for preserving local art and culture besides providing training in sports and skill development.
Features of Eklavya Schools
- Admission to these schools will be through selection/competition with suitable provision for preference to children belonging to Primitive Tribal Groups, first-generation students, etc.
- Sufficient land would be given by the State Government for the school, playgrounds, hostels, residential quarters, etc., free of cost.
- The number of seats for boys and girls will be equal.
- In these schools, education will be entirely free.
Where are the Eklavya schools located?
- It has been decided that by the year 2022, every block with more than 50% ST population and at least 20,000 tribal persons, will have an EMRS.
- Wherever density of ST population is higher in identified Sub-Districts (90% or more), it is proposed to set up Eklavya Model Day Boarding School (EMDBS) on an experimental basis.
- They aim for providing additional scope for ST Students seeking to avail school education without residential facility.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India Discrimination Report, 2022
Mains level: Economic and social discrimination in India
Oxfam India’s latest ‘India Discrimination Report 2022’ finds women in India despite their same educational qualifications and work experience as men will be discriminated in the labour market due to societal and employers’ prejudices.
About the report
- The Oxfam India report refers to unit-level data from:
- 61st round National Sample Survey (NSS) data on employment-unemployment (2004-05)
- Periodic Labour Force Survey in 2018-19 and 2019-20 and
- All India Debt and Investment Survey by the government
Key highlights
(1) Decline of women in workforce
- As per the Union Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI), LFPR for women in India was only 25.1 percent in 2020-21 for urban and rural women.
- This is considerably lower than Brazil, Russia, China and South Africa as per the latest World Bank estimates.
- The LFPR for women in India has rapidly declined from 42.7 percent in 2004-05 to mere 25.1 percent in 2021 showing the withdrawal of women from the workforce.
(2) Earning Gap
- There is also a significant gap in the earnings between men and women in the case of regular and self-employment in urban areas.
- The average earning is INR 15,996 for men and merely INR 6,626 for women in urban areas in self-employment.
- The men’s average earning is nearly 2.5 times that of the earnings of women
(3) Communal aspects of discrimination
- Oppressed communities such as Dalits and Adivasis along with religious minorities such as Muslims also continue to face discrimination in accessing jobs, livelihoods, and agricultural credit.
- The mean income for SCs or STs persons in urban areas who are regular employed is INR 15,312 as against INR 20,346 for persons belonging to the General Category.
- The rural SC and ST communities are facing increase in discrimination in casual employment, the report shows.
- The data shows that the unequal income among urban SC and ST casual wage work is because of 79 percent discrimination in 2019-20.
(4) Muslims and economic backwardness
- Muslims continue to face multidimensional challenges in accessing salaried jobs and income through self-employment as compared to non-Muslims.
- In rural areas, the sharpest increase of 17 percent in unemployment was for Muslims as compared to non-Muslims during the first quarter of the COVID-19 pandemic.
- 6 percent of the urban Muslims population aged 15 and above were engaged in regular salaried jobs whereas 23.3 percent of non-Muslims are in regular salaried jobs in 2019-20.
- The lower employment for urban Muslims attributes 68.3 percent to discrimination in 2019-20.
- The report shows that the discrimination faced by Muslims in 2004-05 was 59.3 percent, indicating an increase in discrimination by 09 percent over the last 16 years.
Recommendations from the report
- Actively enforce effective measures for the implementation of the right to equal wages and work for all women.
- Work to actively incentivise the participation of women in workforce including enhancements in pay, upskilling, job reservations and easy return-to-work options after maternity.
- Work to actively challenge and change societal and caste/religion-based norms, around women’s’ participation in labour markets.
- Strengthen civil society’s engagement in ensuring a more equitable distribution of household work and childcare duties between women and men and facilitating higher participation of women in labour market
- Implement “living wages” as opposed to minimum wages, particularly for all informal workers and formalise contractual, temporary and casual labour as much as possible.
- Extend priority lending and credit access to all farmers, regardless of social groups and penalize biased lending.
Back2Basics: Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR)
- It is the percentage of the population which is either working (employed) or seeking for work (unemployed).
- According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the LFPR is a ‘measure of the proportion of a country’s working-age population that engages actively in the labour market, either by working or looking for work’.
- The breakdown of the labour force (formerly known as economically active population) by sex and age group gives a profile of the distribution of the labour force within a country.
- As per the ministry of statistics and programme implementation, LFPR for women in India was only 25.1% in 2020-21.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PLI scheme
Mains level: sectors of economy
Context
- Manufacturing can create higher productivity jobs.
What is service sector?
- The service sector, also known as the tertiary sector, is the third tier in the three-sector economy. Instead of product production, this sector produces services maintenance and repairs, training, or consulting. Examples of service sector jobs include housekeeping, tours, nursing, and teaching.
What is called manufacturing sector?
- Manufacturing is the making of goods by hand or by machine that upon completion the business sells to a customer. Items used in manufacture may be raw materials or component parts of a larger product. The manufacturing usually happens on a large-scale production line of machinery and skilled labor.
Should India focus on manufacturing over services?
- Services sector failed to create more jobs: So far, in services, we have certainly developed some advantage and we are doing rather well. Services’ share of the economy has gone up to over 50% of the GDP. However, this sector has not been able to create enough jobs in a commensurate manner. The result is that agriculture still continues to sustain nearly half of India’s workforce, which means that 15% of GDP is supporting some 45% of the workforce.
- Manufacturing can provide productive jobs: We need more productive job opportunities for the workforce to shift away from agriculture. We need to focus attention on the manufacturing sector because of the direct and indirect jobs that it can create.
- Empirical fact: It is an empirical fact that manufacturing of all productive sectors has the highest backward and forward linkages.
- Significant potential: So, all together, there is significant potential for the manufacturing sector to create higher productivity jobs for people stuck in agricultural activities. That is the future for India.
What is PLI Scheme?
- As the name suggests, the scheme provides incentives to companies for enhancing their domestic manufacturing apart from focusing on reducing import bills and improving the cost competitiveness of local goods.
- PLI scheme offers incentives on incremental sales for products manufactured in India.
- The scheme for respective sectors has to be implemented by the concerned ministries and departments.
Criteria laid for the scheme
- Eligibility criteria for businesses under the PLI scheme vary based on the sector approved under the scheme.
- For instance, the eligibility for telecom units is subject to the achievement of a minimum threshold of cumulative incremental investment and incremental sales of manufactured goods.
- The minimum investment threshold for MSME is Rs 10 crore and Rs 100 crores for others.
- Under food processing, SMEs and others must hold over 50 per cent of the stock of their subsidiaries, if any.
- On the other hand, for businesses under pharmaceuticals, the project has to be a green-field project while the net worth of the company should not be less than 30 per cent of the total committed investment.
What are the incentives offered?
- An incentive of 4-6 per cent was offered last year on mobile and electronic components manufacturers such as resistors, transistors, diodes, etc.
- Similarly, 10 percent incentives were offered for six years (FY22-27) of the scheme for the food processing industry.
- For white goods too, the incentive of 4-6 per cent on incremental sales of goods manufactured in India for a period of five years was offered to companies engaged in the manufacturing of air conditioners and LED lights.
Benefits of PLI
- The scheme has a direct employment generation potential of over 2,00,000 jobs over 5 years.
- It would lead to large scale electronics manufacturing in the country and open tremendous employment opportunities. Indirect employment will be about 3 times of direct employment as per industry estimates.
- Thus, the total employment potential of the scheme is approximately 8,00,000.
Conclusion
- In order to integrate India as a pivotal part of this modern economy, there is a strong need to step up our manufacturing capabilities.
Mains question
Q.Should India focus on manufacturing over services for job creation? Discuss the role Production Linked Incentive Scheme could play in boosting manufacturing in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EEF
Mains level: Read the attached story
Russia hosted the seventh Eastern Economic Forum- EEF Vladivostok from September 5 to 8. The four-day forum is a platform for entrepreneurs to expand their businesses into Russia’s Far East (RFE).
What is the Eastern Economic Forum-EEF?
- The EEF was established in 2015 aiming to encourage foreign investments in the RFE to display:
- Economic potential
- Suitable business conditions and
- Investment opportunities in the region
- Focus areas: The agreements focus on infrastructure, transportation projects, mineral excavations, construction, industry and agriculture.
- With EEF, Russia is trying to attract the Asian economies in investing and developing the Far East.
- This year, the Forum aimed at connecting the Far East with the Asia-Pacific
What does the EEF aim for?
- FDI inflows: The primary objective of the EEF is to increase the Foreign Direct Investments in the RFE.
- Natural resource exploitation: The region encompasses one-third of Russia’s territory and is rich with natural resources such as fish, oil, natural gas, wood, diamonds and other minerals.
- Demographic revamp: The sparse population living in the region is another factor for encouraging people to move and work in the Far East.
- Unleashing economic potential: The region’s riches and resources contribute to five percent of Russia’s GDP.
Success of EEF
- Agreements signed at the EEF increased from 217 in 2017 to 380 agreements in 2021, worth 3.6 trillion roubles.
- As of 2022, almost 2,729 investment projects are being planned in the region.
Who are the major actors in the EEF?
- China is the biggest investor in the region as it sees potential in promoting the Chinese Belt and Road Initiative and the Polar Sea Route in the RFE.
- China’s investments in the region account for 90% of the total investments.
- South Korea has invested in shipbuilding projects, manufacturing of electrical equipment, gas-liquefying plants, agricultural production and fisheries.
- Japan is another key trading partner. In 2017, its investments through 21 projects amounted to $16 billion.
How does Russia see Chinese investment in EEF?
- Russia has been welcoming Chinese investments since 2015; more now than ever due to the economic pressures caused by the war in Ukraine.
- The Trans-Siberian Railway has further helped Russia and China in advancing trade ties.
- The countries share a 4000-km-long border, which enables them to tap into each other’s resources with some infrastructural assistance.
- China is also looking to develop its Heilongjiang Province which connects with the RFE.
- Both nations have invested in a fund to develop connectivity between the cities of Blagoveshchensk and Heihe.
India and Russia’s Far East
- India seeks to expand its influence in the RFE.
- In 2019, India also offered a $1 billion line of credit to develop infrastructure in the region.
- During the forum, PM Modi expressed the country’s readiness in expanding trade, connectivity and investments in Russia.
- India is keen to deepen its cooperation in energy, pharmaceuticals, maritime connectivity, healthcare, tourism, the diamond industry and the Arctic.
Strategic significance of EEF for Russia
- Gateway to Asia: The RFE is geographically placed at a strategic location; acting as a gateway into Asia.
- Negating the Ukrainian war impact: The Ukraine war is a worrying issue as it affects the economic growth of the country.
- Surviving sanctions: Although, the EEF is an annual gathering, the forum comes at an opportune time for Russia who is dealing with the impact of the sanctions.
- Supply chain resilience: The IPEF will also play a key role in building resilient supply chains.
Will India be able to strike a balance between the EEF and IPEF?
- Both are incomparable: The US-led Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) and the EEF are incomparable based on its geographic coverage and the partnership with the host-countries.
- India values both: India has not shied away from investing in the Russia-initiated EEF despite the current international conditions.
- India is firm for its purpose: At the same time, India has given its confirmation and acceptance to three of the four pillars in the IPEF.
Conclusion
- India understands the benefits of being involved in the development in the RFE but it also perceives the IPEF as a vital platform to strengthen its presence in the Indo-Pacific region.
- India’s participation in the forum will help in disengaging from supply chains that are dependent on China and will also make it a part of the global supply chain network.
Also read:
[Sansad TV] Perspective: Russia’s Far East- Opportunities for India
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Medical education pursuance in foreign and issues
The Centre has told the Supreme Court that the law does not allow undergraduate medical students, who fled the “war-like situation” in Ukraine, to be accommodated in Indian medical colleges.
Which laws is the govt talking about?
- There are no provisions either under the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956, or the National Medical Commission Act, 2019 to accommodate or transfer medical students.
- Till now, no permission has been given by the National Medical Commission to transfer or accommodate any foreign medical students in any Indian medical institute/university.
Why foreign undergraduates are not permitted?
- Absence of law: The extant regulations in India do not permit migration of students from foreign universities to India.
- No backdoor entry: The public notice cannot be used as a back door entry into Indian colleges offering undergraduate courses.
- Merit issue: The students had left for foreign universities for two reasons, poor marks in the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) and affordability of medical education in foreign countries.
- High cost: Besides, these students, if admitted in Indian colleges, would again face the problem of affordability.
Why do Indians go abroad for medical studies?
- According to estimates from Ukraine, reported in the media, around 18,000 Indian students are in Ukraine (before Operation Ganga).
- Most of them are pursuing medicine.
- This war has turned the spotlight on something that has been the trend for about three decades now.
Preferred countries for a medical degree
- For about three decades now, Indian students have been heading out to Russia, China, Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Philippines to pursue a medical degree.
Hype of becoming a Doctor
- Prestige: The desire to study medicine still holds a lot of value in the Indian community (the other is becoming an IAS officer).
- Shortages of Doctor: In many rural areas, people still look at doctors as god’s incarnate.
- Rarity of opportunity: The lack of equal opportunities exacerbated by the caste factor in the Indian context, has a great deal of impact on the prestige still associated with being a doctor.
- Social upliftment ladder: For years, certain communities were denied the opportunities, and finally they do have a chance at achieving significant educational status.
Why do Indians prefer going abroad?
- No language barrier: The medium of education for these students is English, a language they are comfortable with.
- Affordability: The amount spent on living and the medical degree are far more affordable than paying for an MBBS seat in private medical colleges in India.
- Aesthetics and foreign culture: People are willing to leave their home to study far away in much colder places and with completely alien cultures and food habits.
- Practice and OPD exposure: It broadens students’ mind and thinking, expose them to a whole range of experiences, and their approach to issues and crises is likely to be far better.
Doesn’t India have enough colleges?
(a) More aspirants than seats
- There are certainly far more MBBS aspirants than there are MBBS seats in India.
- In NEET 2021, as per a National Testing Agency press release, 16.1 lakh students registered for the exam, 15.4 lakh students appeared for the test, and 8.7 lakh students qualified.
- As per data from the National Medical Commission (NMC), in 2021-22, there were 596 medical colleges in the country with a total of 88,120 MBBS seats.
- While the skew is in favour of Government colleges, it is not greatly so, with the number of private medical institutions nearly neck-to-neck with the state-run ones.
(b) Fees structure
- That means over 50% of the total seats are available at affordable fees in Government colleges.
- Add the 50% seats in the private sector that the NMC has mandated must charge only the government college fees.
- In fully private colleges, the full course fees range from several lakhs to crores.
(c) Uneven distribution of colleges
- These colleges are also not distributed evenly across the country, with States such as Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala having many more colleges.
What about costs?
- The cost factor on both sides of an MBBS degree is significant.
- The costs of an MBBS degree in a Government college tot up to a few lakhs of rupees for the full course, but in a private medical college, it can go up to ₹1 crore for the five-year course.
- In case it is a management seat, capitation fees can inflate the cost by several lakhs again.
- Whereas, an MBBS course at any foreign medical university in the east and Eastern Europe costs far less (upto ₹30lakh-₹40 lakh).
Way forward
- While PM Modi emphasised that more private medical colleges must be set up in the country to aid more people to take up MBBS, medical education experts have called for pause on the aspect.
- If the aim is to make medicine more accessible to students of the country, the path ahead is not in the private sector, but in the public sector, with the Central and State governments’ involvement.
- Starting private medical colleges by reducing the strict standards set for establishing institutes may not actually be the solution to this problem, if we think this is a concern.
Conclusion
- Creating more medical colleges will be beneficial for the country, if access and availability can be ensured.
- This will not be possible by resorting to private enterprise only.
- The State and Central governments can start more medical colleges, as recommended by NITI Aayog, by utilising district headquarters hospitals, and expanding the infrastructure.
- This way, students from the lower and middle socio-economic rung, who are otherwise not able to access medical seats, will also benefit.
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