Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Climate change and associated migration
Context
- Climate-induced displacements have increased both in numbers and magnitude worldwide. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre’s (IDMC) report, 23.7 million people experienced displacements in 2021 as a result of cyclones and floods.
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Estimates about Migration
- IOM estimates: The International Organisation on Migration (IOM) estimates that on a global scale, between 25 million and 1 billion people would be compelled to migrate from their homes because of climate change and environmental degradation by 2050.
- Situation in south Asia: South Asia is no exception to it. Disasters cause most of the internal displacements occurring in South Asia every year, and in the year 2021, nearly 5.3 million disaster displacements were reported.
- CANSA Report: The Climate Action Network South Asia (CANSA) reports that approximately 45 million people in India alone, shall be compelled to migrate by 2050 due to climate disasters, with a threefold increase in current figures.
How women and children are most vulnerable?
- UN report: The United Nations asserts that around 80 percent of climate change displaces include women.
- Global International Migrant Stock: The present share of women migrants in the Global International Migrant Stock oscillates between 48 percent and 52 percent, as they frequently experience ‘triple discrimination’ given their positions as women, unprotected workers and migrants.
- Developing countries are most vulnerable: The situation becomes even more precarious in developing countries like India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and several small island nations in the Pacific Ocean.
- Violence is likely: Women uprooted due to climate change become more vulnerable to violence, human trafficking, and armed conflicts. For instance, a study by the Sierra Club (2018) revealed how women impacted by Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar witnessed increased occurrences of sexual and domestic abuse, forced prostitution, and sex and labour trafficking.
What is the New York Declaration on international Migration?
- Global compact for migration (GCM): It mandated the adoption of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) in 2018 and for the first time, a comprehensive framework recognising the concept of climate change-induced migration within the broader concept of international migration was developed.
- Global compact on refugee: The Declaration also paved the way for an adoption of a Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) in the same year, but an extension of refugee law to cater to the needs of those displaced by the forces of climate change does not really resolve this humanitarian concern.
- More investment in research: It also highlights the need for pumping in more investments towards research to tackle the challenges of environmental migration and rests on important climate change mitigation instruments like the Paris Climate Agreement, Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
- Share responsibility on states: The Zero Draft of the GCM itself highlights how it sets out shared responsibilities of the states in commitment to the causes of migration– showing how the GCM relies on the countries having a sense of moral responsibility for the fulfilment of its goals and objectives.
Discussion in COP27 about climate migration
- Global goal on adaptation: The 2022 Conference of the Parties’ (or COP27) summit was seen as a platform that would lend visibility to the concept of climate migration, especially in light of how a work programme for defining a Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) towards identifying collective needs and solutions in light of the ongoing climate crisis that has already affected so many countries around the world, was established in the 2021 COP26 summit.
- Lack of progress on migration: While COP27 established a framework towards the attainment of the GGA (likely to be adopted in 2023 at COP28), its progress towards protecting and assisting climate migrants remains in a state of limbo.
- Task force on displacement: As highlighted in a study by the ECDM, the key problem lies in how the Task Force on Displacement has projected climate-induced mobility as a “loss and damage” concern, in turn putting forth the idea that this kind of human mobility stands as a failed adoption strategy.
- No clear reference to climate migration: Paragraph 40 of the G20 Bali Leaders’ Declaration talks about preventing irregular migration flows, the trafficking of migrants and holding such talks in the future G20 summits to come, but the term “climate migration” fails to make an appearance.
- Leverage G20 for climate migration consensus: India seeks to play a significant role in the international efforts for climate action, and its commitment can be reflected in it being party to the UNFCCC and its instruments–the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Its presidency could provide a platform for the G20 countries to work together in addressing the growing concerns of human mobility in forms of both migration and displacements.
- Intergovernmental dialogue: Also, knowledge gaps pertaining to human mobility because of climate change and environmental degradation can be addressed through intergovernmental dialogues to be held at the G20 platform under India’s Presidency.
Conclusion
- Policymakers meet to discuss the several concerns of climate change at various platforms, progress concerning any support for the climate migrants remain insufficient till date, resting on goodwill gestures instead. World must pay attention and money to firmly address the climate migration issue.
Mains Question
Q. What is climate induced migration? How women and children are most vulnerable to climate migration? What role India can play to address the issue?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Methane, MARS system, OGMP
Mains level: Methane, MARS system, framework, OGMP and India
Context
- The Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) initiative was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) at the 27th Conference of Parties (COP27) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on November 11, 2022. Is it right to say that India not joining the Oil & Gas Methane Partnership is a missed opportunity?
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Methane a Toxic greenhouse gas
- A major greenhouse gas: Methane is the second-most common of the six major greenhouse gases, but is far more dangerous than carbon dioxide in its potential to cause global warming.
- One of major contributor of GHG emissions: Contribution Accounting for about 17 per cent of the current global greenhouse gas emissions.
- One of the key reasons behind Temperature rise: Methane is blamed for having caused at least 25 to 30 per cent of temperature rise since the pre-industrial times.
- Methane largely a Sectoral gas: Unlike carbon dioxide, methane is largely a sectoral gas, and there are only a few sources of emission.
- Few sources large emissions of methane: The global warming potential of methane is about 80 times that of carbon dioxide. It accounts for a small portion of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions compared to carbon dioxide.
Did you know? Global Methane pledge
- The global methane pledge was adopted during COP26.
- Under it, countries agreed to reduce global methane emissions by 30 per cent by 2030.
- This will help to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels.
- into the right hands for emissions mitigation.
What is Oil and Gas Methane Partnership (OGMP)?
- A methodology to help companies reduce methane emissions: The Oil and Gas Methane Partnership (OGMP) methodology was created by the Climate and Clean Air Coalition in 2014 as a voluntary initiative to help companies reduce methane emissions in the oil and gas sector.
- The Oil & Gas Methane Partnership 2.0: OGMP 2.0 is a multi-stakeholder initiative launched by UNEP and the Climate and Clean Air Coalition. The OGMP 2.0 is the only comprehensive, measurement-based reporting framework for the oil and gas industry that improves the accuracy and transparency of methane emissions reporting in the oil and gas sector.
- Companies joined the partnership: Over 80 companies with assets on five continents, representing a significant share of of the world’s oil and gas production, have joined the Partnership. OGMP 2.0 members also include operators of natural gas transmission and distribution pipelines, gas storage capacity and LNG terminals. The members constitute around 35 per cent of the total global oil and gas production and two-thirds of the total liquefied natural gas flows around the world
- MARS is a part of global efforts to slow climate change by tracking the global warming gas.
- The system will be the first publicly available global system to connect methane detection to notification processes transparently.
- The data-to-action platform was set up as part of the UN Environment Programme’s (UNEP) International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO) strategy to get policy-relevant data
How many countries and companies are engaged with the MARS initiative and is India involved?
- The system was requested by the United States and the European Union but it is in the service of the entire world.
- There are no Indian companies that have joined the OGMP.
Conclusion
- MARS is a satellite-based system to help industries and governments detect and reduce methane emissions. This will help UNEP confirm methane emissions reported by companies and analyze changes over time. India should consider this as an opportunity to cooperate in reducing methane emissions
Mains question
Q. Methane is 25 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide and currently contributes about a quarter of global warming. In light of this, what does it mean to engage with the OGMP and MARS system?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Economic inequality In India, Welfare state and the relation between state, citizen and taxation
Context
- Economic inequality in India impacts every aspect of our everyday lives, despite the country being a welfare state. As we celebrate 75 years of Independence, the poor citizens of India continue to face increased fiscal burden in the form of inflation and higher taxes, with fewer benefits.
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“No taxation without representation”
- This slogan played a crucial role in the freedom movements of India and the United States.
- The statement indicates the relationship between the state, citizens and taxation.
- A concept of welfare state: The legitimacy of taxation is derived from the welfare done by the government.
- Government’s role: The Constitution of India envisaged the state’s role as a welfare one. For that, the government is empowered to administer taxes and their transfer.
- However, in the year of Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav, ‘transfers’ are being painted as revadi (freebies) and the lives of poor citizens are being burdened by regressive “taxes”
- Inflation as a hidden tax: Inflation acts as a hidden tax on poor and middle-class citizens. For instance, at the time of the introduction of the central scheme Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi or PM-KISAN, which gave Rs 6,000 cash benefit to farmers, diesel cost Rs 65 per litre. Thus, fuel inflation devours the cash benefit of this scheme
- Highway taxation in contrast with the idea of a welfare state: The roadways are meant to be available free of cost, being public goods. However, Privatisation and PPP models, such services now demand a fee. In the financial year 2021-2022, the government mopped up Rs 35,000 crore as toll tax. The same is projected to reach Rs 1.34 lakh cr by 2025.
- The diversion of funds meant for one to other sectors is an implicit fiscal burden: The road cess that was intended to fund the construction of roads is diverted to other projects, while citizens are charged heavy tolls for the roads, adding up to already toll burdened people.
- The case of municipal tax and user charges: When citizens pay municipal tax, the municipality is supposed to ensure cleanliness and sanitation facilities. But the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) introduced a “User Charge” of Rs 365 per household to make the city clean, which is 15% of the municipal tax amount.
- Discriminatory practices of the administration: Flawed administrative rules also impose fiscal costs on the poor and middle classes of society. Administration allows cars to be parked on the road with impunity, but if two-wheelers are parked on the road, they get towed.
Criticism: Discriminatory treatment to rich and poor in the name of welfare state
- Monetisation of public spaces weakens state- citizen relationship: It is said when people take ownership and responsibility of public spaces, people become citizens. It ought to be remembered that monetisation of public spaces portends to weaken the state-citizen relationship.
- The nomenclature of government language itself reflects discriminatory approach: When governments provide fiscal help to the poor, it is called revadi, but the same offered to the rich is lucratively termed “incentive”.
- Subsidised food is advertised while incentives provided to corporates are not well known: Posters for subsidised food to the poor are ubiquitous across India, but no public posters are screaming about the Rs 1.97 lakh crore “incentive” given to the corporate sector under 13 production linked incentive schemes.
- Flawed mechanism of personal details in the name of transparency: In the name of transparency, the government uploads the personal details of each Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) worker on its website; but the same government does not disclose the names of willful bank defaulters to uphold those ideals of privacy.
Conclusion
- 73% of the wealth generated in India in 2017 went to the richest 1%, while the poorest half of the population saw only a 1% increase in their wealth. When we celebrate the Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, the need of the hour is to focus must be to make India economically equal and prosperous.
Mains question
Q. As we celebrate 75 years of Independence, the poor citizens of India continue to face increased fiscal burden in the form of inflation and higher taxes, with fewer benefits. Critically examine.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Trading
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Parliament passed the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill, 2022. It amends the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, to empower the Government to establish carbon markets in India and specify a carbon credit trading scheme.
A quick recap
- In order to keep global warming within 2°C, ideally no more than 1.5°C, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions need to be reduced by 25 to 50% over this decade.
- Nearly 170 countries have submitted their nationally determined contributions (NDCs) so far as part of the 2015 Paris Agreement, which they have agreed to update every five years.
- NDCs are climate commitments by countries setting targets to achieve net-zero emissions.
- India, for instance, is working on a long-term roadmap to achieve its target of net zero emissions by 2070.
What are Carbon Markets?
- In order to meet NDCs, one mitigation strategy is becoming popular with several countries— carbon markets.
- Article 6 of the Paris Agreement provides for the use of international carbon markets by countries to fulfil their NDCs.
- Carbon markets are essentially a tool for putting a price on carbon emissions— they establish trading systems where carbon credits or allowances can be bought and sold.
- A carbon credit is a kind of tradable permit that, per United Nations standards, equals one tonne of carbon dioxide removed, reduced, or sequestered from the atmosphere.
- Carbon allowances or caps, meanwhile, are determined by countries or governments according to their emission reduction targets.
Popularity of the carbon markets
- A UN Development Program release this year noted that interest in carbon markets is growing globally.
- Almost 83% of NDCs submitted by countries mention their intent to make use of international market mechanisms to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
What are the types of carbon markets?
There are broadly two types of carbon markets that exist today— compliance markets and voluntary markets.
(A) Voluntary Markets
- They are those in which emitters— corporations, private individuals, and others— buy carbon credits to offset the emission of one tonne of CO 2 or equivalent greenhouse gases.
- Such carbon credits are created by activities which reduce CO 2 from the air, such as afforestation. In a voluntary market, a corporation looking to compensate for its unavoidable GHG emissions purchases carbon credits from an entity engaged in projects that reduce, remove, capture, or avoid emissions.
- For Instance, in the aviation sector, airlines may purchase carbon credits to offset the carbon footprints of the flights they operate.
- In voluntary markets, credits are verified by private firms as per popular standards.
- There are also traders and online registries where climate projects are listed and certified credits can be bought.
(B) Compliance Market
- Compliance markets— set up by policies at the national, regional, and/or international level— are officially regulated.
- Today, compliance markets mostly operate under a principle called ‘cap-and-trade”, most popular in the European Union (EU).
Successful example of Carbon Market: EU’s emissions trading system (ETS)
- Under the EU’s ETS launched in 2005, member countries set a cap or limit for emissions in different sectors, such as power, oil, manufacturing, agriculture, and waste management.
- This cap is determined as per the climate targets of countries and is lowered successively to reduce emissions.
- Entities in this sector are issued annual allowances or permits by governments equal to the emissions they can generate.
- If companies produce emissions beyond the capped amount, they have to purchase additional permit, either through official auctions or from companies.
- This makes up the ‘trade’ part of cap-and-trade.
How is carbon price determined?
- The market price of carbon gets determined by market forces when purchasers and sellers trade in emissions allowances.
- Notably, companies can also save up excess permits to use later.
- Through this kind of carbon trading, companies can decide if it is more cost-efficient to employ clean energy technologies or to purchase additional allowances.
- These markets may promote the reduction of energy use and encourage the shift to cleaner fuels.
Other such examples
- China launched the world’s largest ETS in 2021, estimated to cover around one-seventh of the global carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
- Markets also operate or are under development in North America, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Switzerland, and New Zealand.
Significance of Carbon Market
- The World Bank estimates that trading in carbon credits could reduce the cost of implementing NDCs by more than half — by as much as $250 billion by 2030.
- Last year, the value of global markets for tradable carbon allowances or permits grew by 164% to a record 760 billion euros ($851 billion).
- The EU’s ETS contributed the most to this increase, accounting for 90% of the global value at 683 billion euros.
- As for voluntary carbon markets, their current global value is comparatively smaller at $2 billion.
What is the progress at UN?
- The UN international carbon market envisioned in Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is yet to kick off as multilateral discussions are still underway about how the inter-country carbon market will function.
- Under the proposed market, countries would be able to offset their emissions by buying credits generated by greenhouse gas-reducing projects in other countries.
- In the past, developing countries, particularly India, China and Brazil, gained significantly from a similar carbon market under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
- India registered 1,703 projects under the CDM which is the second highest in the world.
- But with the 2015 Paris Agreement, the global scenario changed as even developing countries had to set emission reduction targets.
India’s efforts
The new Bill empowers the Centre to specify a carbon credits trading scheme.
- Issuance of credit certificates: Under the Bill, the central government or an authorised agency will issue carbon credit certificates to companies or even individuals registered and compliant with the scheme.
- Tradable carbon credits: These carbon credit certificates will be tradeable in nature. Other persons would be able to buy carbon credit certificates on a voluntary basis.
Existing mechanisms
- Notably, two types of tradeable certificates are already issued in India-
- Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and
- Energy Savings Certificates (ESCs)
- These are issued when companies use renewable energy or save energy, which are also activities which reduce carbon emissions.
Lacunas of the bill
- No clear mechanism: The Bill does not provide clarity on the mechanism to be used for the trading of carbon credit certificates— whether it will be like the cap-and-trade schemes or use another method— and who will regulate such trading.
- Confusion over nodal agency: The right ministry to bring in a scheme of this nature, pointing out that while carbon market schemes in other jurisdictions like the US, UK are framed by their environment ministries, the Indian Bill was tabled by the power ministry instead of the MoEFCC.
- Ambiguity over existing certificates: The Bill does not specify whether certificates under already existing schemes would also be interchangeable with carbon credit certificates and tradeable for reducing carbon emissions.
- Overlapping: The question, thus, is whether all these certificates could be exchanged with each other. There are concerns about whether overlapping schemes may dilute the overall impact of carbon trading.
Challenges to carbon markets
- Double counting: of greenhouse gas reductions
- Quality and authenticity: These parameters of climate projects that generate credits to poor market transparency
- Greenwashing: Companies may buy credits, simply offsetting carbon footprints instead of reducing their overall emissions or investing in clean technologies.
- Inefficiency: The IMF points out that including high emission-generating sectors under trading schemes to offset their emissions by buying allowances may immensely increase emissions on net.
Way forward
- Alignment with NDCs: The UNDP emphasizes that for carbon markets to be successful, emission reductions and removals must be real and aligned with the country’s NDCs.
- Transparent financing: It says that there must be “transparency in the institutional and financial infrastructure for carbon market transactions”.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Minimum Tax
Mains level: Not Much
Members of the EU last week agreed in principle to implement a global minimum tax of 15% on big businesses.
Global Minimum Corporate Tax
- Major economies are aiming to discourage multinational companies from shifting profits – and tax revenues – to low-tax countries regardless of where their sales are made.
- Increasingly, income from intangible sources such as drug patents, software, and royalties on intellectual property has migrated to these jurisdictions.
- This has allowed companies to avoid paying higher taxes in their traditional home countries.
What is the recent EU agreement?
- EU members have agreed to implement a minimum tax rate of 15% on big businesses in accordance with Pillar 2 of the global tax agreement framed by the OECD last year.
- Under the OECD’s plan, governments will be equipped to impose additional taxes in case companies are found to be paying taxes that are considered too low.
- This is to ensure that big businesses with global operations do not benefit by domiciling themselves in tax havens in order to save on taxes.
Need for a global minimum tax
- Corporate tax rates across the world have been dropping over the last few decades as a result of competition between governments to spur economic growth through greater private investments.
- Large multinational companies have traditionally paid taxes in their home countries even though they did most of their business in foreign countries.
- The OECD plan tries to give more taxing rights to the governments of countries where large businesses conduct a substantial amount of their business.
- As a result, large US tech companies may have to pay more taxes to the governments of developing countries.
History of such taxes
- Global corporate tax rates have fallen from over 40% in the 1980s to under 25% in 2020.
- The global tax competition was kick-started by former US President Ronald Reagan and former British PM Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s.
- The OECD’s tax plan tries to put an end to this “race to the bottom” which has made it harder for governments to shore up the revenues required to fund their rising spending budgets.
- The minimum tax proposal is particularly relevant at a time when the fiscal state of governments across the world has deteriorated as seen in the worsening of public debt metrics.
Response to the EU move
- Some governments, particularly those of traditional tax havens, are likely to disagree and stall the implementation of the OECD’s tax plan.
- High tax jurisdictions like the EU are more likely to fully adopt the minimum tax plan as it saves them from having to compete against low tax jurisdictions.
- Low tax jurisdictions, on the other hand, are likely to resist the OECD’s plan unless they are compensated sufficiently in other ways.
Way forward
- Supporters of the OECD’s tax plan believe that it will end the global “race to the bottom” and help governments collect the revenues required for social spending.
- The plan will also help counter rising global inequality by making it tougher for large businesses to pay low taxes by availing the services of tax havens.
- Critics of the OECD’s proposal, however, see the global minimum tax as a threat.
- They argue that without tax competition between governments, the world would be taxed a lot more than it is today, thus adversely affecting global economic growth.
- In other words, these critics believe that it is the threat of tax competition that keeps a check on governments that would otherwise tax their citizens heavily to fund profligate spending programs.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CBD
Mains level: Read the attached story
Negotiators reached a historic deal at a UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) conference that would represent the most significant effort to protect the world’s lands and oceans and provide critical financing to save biodiversity in the developing world.
Key outcomes
[A] 30×30 Deal
- Delegates committed to protecting 30% of land and 30% of coastal and marine areas by 2030, fulfilling the deal’s highest-profile goal, known as 30-by-30.
- Currently, 17% of terrestrial and 10% of marine areas are protected.
- Indigenous and traditional territories will also count toward this goal, as many countries and campaigners pushed for during the talks.
- The deal also aspires to restore 30% of degraded lands and waters throughout the decade, up from an earlier aim of 20%.
- And the world will strive to prevent destroying intact landscapes and areas with a lot of species, bringing those losses “close to zero by 2030”.
[B] Money for nature
- Signatories aim to ensure $200 billion per year is channeled to conservation initiatives, from public and private sources.
- Wealthier countries should contribute at least $20 billion of this every year by 2025, and at least $30 billion a year by 2030.
- This appeared to be the Democratic Republic of Congo’s main source of objection to the package.
[C] Big companies report impacts on biodiversity
- Companies should analyse and report how their operations affect and are affected by biodiversity issues.
- The parties agreed to large companies and financial institutions being subject to “requirements” to make disclosures regarding their operations, supply chains and portfolios.
- This reporting is intended to progressively promote biodiversity, reduce the risks posed to business by the natural world, and encourage sustainable production.
[D] Harmful subsidies
- Countries committed to identify subsidies that deplete biodiversity by 2025, and then eliminate, phase out or reform them.
- They agreed to slash those incentives by at least $500 billion a year by 2030, and increase incentives that are positive for conservation.
[E] Pollution and pesticides
- One of the deal’s more controversial targets sought to reduce the use of pesticides by up to two-thirds.
- But the final language to emerge focuses on the risks associated with pesticides and highly hazardous chemicals instead, pledging to reduce those threats by “at least half”, and instead focusing on other forms of pest management.
- Overall, the Kunming-Montreal agreement will focus on reducing the negative impacts of pollution to levels that are not considered harmful to nature, but the text provides no quantifiable target here.
[F] Monitoring and reporting progress
- All the agreed aims will be supported by processes to monitor progress in the future, in a bid to prevent this agreement meeting the same fate as similar targets that were agreed in Aichi, Japan, in 2010, and never met.
- National action plans will be set and reviewed, following a similar format used for greenhouse gas emissions under U.N.-led efforts to curb climate change.
- Some observers objected to the lack of a deadline for countries to submit these plans.
Back2Basics: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
- The CBD (wef 1993) known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty.
- The convention has three main goals:
- the conservation of biodiversity
- the sustainable use of its components
- the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
- Its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, and it is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development.
- It has two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol.
(1) Cartagena Protocol
- It is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another.
(2) Nagoya Protocol
- It deals with Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS).
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Alcohol laws
Mains level: Read the attached story
The official death toll from the latest hooch tragedy in “dry” Bihar has mounted to 38. Bihar has completely prohibited alcohol.
Alcohol Ban in India
- India has a long history of banning alcohol, with prohibition a part of the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution and also among the key Gandhian principles.
- Gandhi wrote, “Alcohol makes a man forget himself and while its effects last, he becomes utterly incapable of doing anything useful. Those who take to drinking, ruin themselves and ruin their people.”
How the Indian constitution views alcohol?
- One of the DPSP mentions that “in particular, the State shall endeavour to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs which are injurious to health.”
- While DPSPs are not in themselves legally enforceable, they set goals that the state should aspire towards to establish conditions under which citizens can lead a good life.
- According to the Seventh Schedule, alcohol is a state subject, i.e. state legislatures have the right and responsibility to draft laws regarding it.
- This includes “the production, manufacture, possession, transport, purchase and sale of intoxicating liquors.
- Thus, laws regarding alcohol differ from state to state, falling in the whole spectrum between prohibition and private sale.
Why do all states not have prohibition?
Ans. Huge Liquor Revenues
- While the Constitution sets prohibition on alcohol as a goal, for most states, it is very difficult to declare a ban on alcohol.
- This is primarily because liquor revenues are not easy to ignore and have consistently contributed a large share of state governments’ revenue.
- For instance, in Maharashtra, state liquor revenues amounted to Rs 11,000 crore in April 2020 (during the nationwide Covid lockdown), compared with Rs 17,000 crore in March.
- The state government attributed much of this drop to the closure of liquor stores, later categorising them as an essential service, in part due to the industry’s contribution to tax revenues.
- The day liquor stores were reopened, the Maharashtra government collected Rs 11 crore revenue from liquor sales in a single day.
States with complete ban
- All states have some regulations with regards to alcohol consumption and sale (like age requirements or dry days).
- Currently, there are five states with total prohibition and some more with partial prohibition:
(1) Bihar
- Both the sale and prohibition of liquor was completely banned by the Nitish Kumar government back in 2016, in keeping with a promise made to the women of Bihar ahead of the Assembly polls.
- Severe punishments were imposed on those found to be flouting the ban, including heavy fines and prison sentences.
- Earlier this year, the Bihar government passed an amendment to its prohibition laws, which dials down on punishment to first-time “drinkers” and lets them get away with a fine rather than face arrest.
- This was done to unclog Bihar’s already overcrowded jails and focus the government’s attention on sellers and distributors rather than consumers of liquor.
(2) Gujarat
- Gujarat has had prohibition since it came into existence as a state in 1960.
- In the 62 years since prohibition has been around in Gujarat, the Act has seen several amendments.
- Notably, in 2009, then CM introduced the death penalty for sellers/producers if their spurious alcohol caused deaths.
- However, Gujarat has provisions for special alcohol licences for hospitality establishments as well as individuals.
(3) Lakshadweep
- The Union Territory bans both the consumption and sale of alcohol keeping in mind the culture and sentiments of its predominantly Muslim population.
- However, the island of Bangram has a resort with a bar which is allowed to legally serve liquor.
(4) Mizoram
- In 2019, Mizoram became a “dry state” once again after the new government reintroduced prohibition that was repealed in 2015.
- Previously, Mizoram had seen prohibition for 18 years.
- The Mizo National Front (MNF) government had prohibition as one of its most important pre-poll promises.
- Here, the loss of revenue is much less than the loss of human life and suffering. Larger societal benefit is considered more vital.
- Only military personnel and those with “medical needs” are allowed to consume alcohol.
(5) Nagaland
- Nagaland introduced total prohibition in 1989 due to “moral and social” reasons, for the greater good of its citizens.
- However, in recent times, the Naga government has mulled partially lifting prohibition due to various reasons.
Partial prohibitions in some states
- Some states with partial prohibition are Karnataka, which specifically banned country-made arrack in 2007.
- In Maharashtra, the districts of Wardha and Gadhricholi have banned on production and sale of liquor.
- In Manipur, districts of Bishnupur, Imphal East, Imphal West and Thoubal have prohibition.
- In 2014, then CM Oomen Chandy announced that Kerala would implement prohibition in a phased manner.
- However, the state has since gone back on this promise.
Reason behind Bihar tragedy: Alcohol Ban
- Critics have claimed that one of the reasons behind the tragedy is the state’s prohibition policy.
- An official ban on alcohol leads to a thriving underground economy where such spurious alcohol is produced and sold.
Does prohibition really work?
- Creates no deterrence: There is evidence to show that, prohibition creates opportunities for a thriving underground economy that distributes liquor, outside the regulatory framework of the state.
- Rise of mafias: This creates its own problems, from strengthening organized crime groups (or mafias) to the distribution of spurious liquor.
- No evidence of progress: In the case of Bihar, a year after prohibition was enforced, there was a spike in substance abuse.
- Anti-poor: In the case of Bihar, a majority of cases registered under its prohibition laws are on the less privileged.
Limited benefits
- Prevented crime against women: Various studies have provided evidence linking alcohol with domestic abuse or domestic violence. In India, prohibition has often been framed as a “women’s rights” issue.
- Prevented domestic violence: Prohibition might have some limited benefits as well. Various studies have provided evidence linking alcohol with domestic abuse or domestic violence.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Goa Liberation Day
Mains level: Decolonization in India
The President of India tweeted her greetings to the nation on December 19, marking Goa Liberation Day, which is celebrated annually to mark the success of ‘Operation Vijay’ undertaken by the Indian armed forces to defeat Portuguese colonial forces and liberate Goa in 1961.
What is the news?
- Goa was liberated 15 years after India attained freedom.
- Last year PM Modi accused Nehru as guilty of leaving satyagrahis in the dismay, refusing to send the Indian Army to liberate Goa, even after 25 of them were shot dead by the Portuguese Army.
Goa’s Colonization: A backgrounder
- Goa became a Portuguese colony in 1510, when Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the forces of the sultan of Bjiapur, Yusuf Adil Shah.
- The next four and a half centuries saw one of Asia’s longest colonial encounters — Goa found itself at the intersection of competing regional and global powers.
- It received a religious and cultural ferment that lead eventually to the germination of a distinct Goan identity that continues to be a source of contestation even today.
- By the turn of the twentieth century, Goa had started to witness an upsurge of nationalist sentiment opposed to Portugal’s colonial rule, in sync with the anti-British nationalist movement.
Beginning of freedom movement
- Tristao de Braganza Cunha, celebrated as the father of Goan nationalism, founded the Goa National Congress at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress in 1928.
- In 1946, the socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia led a historic rally in Goa that gave a call for civil liberties and freedom, and eventual integration with India.
- This event became a watershed moment in Goa’s freedom struggle.
- At the same time, there was a thinking that civil liberties could not be won by peaceful methods, and a more aggressive armed struggle was needed.
- This was the view of the Azad Gomantak Dal (AGD), whose co-founder Prabhakar Sinari is one of the few freedom fighters still living today.
- Finally, Goa was liberated on December 19, 1961 by swift Indian military action that lasted less than two days.
Recognition of Goa
- The Supreme Court of India recognized the validity of the annexation and rejected the continued applicability of the law of occupation.
- In a treaty with retroactive effect, Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty in 1974.
- Under the jus cogens rule, forceful annexations including the annexation of Goa are held as illegal since they have taken place after the UN Charter came into force.
Why was Goa left un-colonized?
As India moved towards independence, however, it became clear that Goa would not be free any time soon, because of a variety of complex factors.
- No immediate war: Then PM Nehru felt that if he launched a military operation (like in Hyderabad) to oust the colonial rulers, his image as a global leader of peace would be impacted.
- Trauma of Partition: The trauma of Partition and the massive rupture that followed, coupled with the war with Pakistan, kept the Government of India from opening another front.
- Internationalization of the issue: This might have led the international community to get involved.
- No demand from within: It was Gandhi’s opinion that a lot of groundwork was still needed to raise the consciousness of the people, and the diverse political voices emerging within be brought under a common umbrella.
Nehruvian dilemma
- India’s global image: Nehru was headed in shaping India’s position in the comity of nations.
- Trying peaceful options: He was trying to exhaust all options available to him given the circumstances that India was emerging from.
- Portuguese obsession: Portugal had changed its constitution in 1951 to claim Goa not as a colonial possession, but as an overseas province.
- Portugal in NATO: The move was apparently aimed at making Goa a part of the newly formed North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) military alliance. Hence the collective security clause of the treaty would be triggered.
- Weak indigenous push: Nehru saw it prudent to pursue bilateral diplomatic measures with Portugal to negotiate a peaceful transfer while, at the same time, a more ‘overt’ indigenous push for liberation.
Why did Nehru wait until December 1961 to launch a full-scale military offensive?
India could no longer be seen to delay the liberation of Goa because:
- Portuguese offensive against Satyagrahis: The firing incident also provoked a sharp response from the Government of India, which snapped diplomatic and consular ties with Portugal in 1955.
- India as torchbearer of de-colonization: India got itself firmly established as a leader of the Non Aligned World and Afro-Asian Unity, with decolonization and anti-imperialism as the pillars of its policy.
- Criticisms from African nations: An Indian Council of Africa seminar on Portuguese colonies organized in 1961 heard strong views from African as this was hampering their own struggles against the ruthless regime.
- Weakening Colonialism: The delegates were certain that the Portuguese empire would collapse the day Goa was liberated.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Location of Rwanda
Mains level: Not Much
Britain’s plan to send migrants to Rwanda is lawful, London’s High Court ruled, in a victory for PM Rishi Sunak who has made a high-stakes political promise to tackle the record number of migrant arrivals.
Immigrant’s crisis in UK
- Since 2018, there has been a marked rise in the number of refugees and asylum seekers that undertake dangerous crossings between Calais in France and Dover in England.
- Most such migrants and asylum seekers hail from war-torn countries like Sudan, Afghanistan, and Yemen, or developing countries like Iran and Iraq.
- The Britain that has adopted a hardline stance on illegal immigration, these crossings constitute an immigration crisis.
- The Nationality and Borders Bill, 2021, which is still under consideration in the UK, allows the British government to strip anyone’s citizenship without notice under “exceptional circumstances”.
- The Rwanda deal is the operationalization of one objective in the Bill which is to deter illegal entry into the United Kingdom.
What is the Rwanda Deal?
- The UK and Rwanda Migration and Economic Development Partnership or the Rwanda Deal is a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between the two governments.
- Under this deal, Rwanda will commit to taking in asylum seekers who arrive in the UK on or after January 1, 2022, using illegally facilitated and unlawful cross border migration.
- Rwanda will function as the holding centre where asylum applicants will wait while the Rwandan government makes decisions about their asylum and resettlement petitions in Rwanda.
- Rwanda will, on its part, accommodate anyone who is not a minor and does not have a criminal record.
Rationale of the deal
- The deal aims to combat “people smugglers”, who often charge exorbitant prices from vulnerable migrants to put them on unseaworthy boats from France to England that often lead to mass drownings.
- The UK contends that this solution to the migrant issue is humane and meant to target the gangs that run these illegal crossings.
What will the scheme cost the UK?
- The UK will pay Rwanda £120 million as part of an “economic transformation and integration fund” and will also bear the operational costs along with an, as yet undetermined, amount for each migrant.
- Currently, the UK pays £4.7 million per day to accommodate approximately 25,000 asylum seekers.
- At the end of 2021, this amounted to £430 million annually with a projected increase of £100 million in 2022.
- The Rwanda Deal is predicted to reduce these costs by outsourcing the hosting of such migrants to a third country.
Will the Rwanda Deal solve the problem of illegal immigration?
- This deal will be implemented in a matter of weeks unless it is challenged and stayed by British courts.
- While Boris Johnson’s government is undoubtedly bracing for such legal challenges, it remains unclear if the Rwanda Deal will solve the problem of unlawful crossings.
- Evidence from similar experiences indicates that such policies do not fully combat “people smuggling”.
Criticisms of the deal
- There are dangers of transferring refugees and asylum seekers to third countries without sufficient safeguards.
- The refugees are traded like commodities and transferred abroad for processing.
- Such arrangements simply shift asylum responsibilities, evade international obligations, and are contrary to the letter and spirit of the Refugee Convention.
- Rwanda also has a known track record of extrajudicial killings, suspicious deaths in custody, unlawful or arbitrary detention, torture, and abusive prosecutions, particularly targeting critics and dissidents.
Do any other countries send asylum seekers overseas?
- Yes, several other countries — including Australia, Israel and Denmark — have been sending asylum seekers overseas.
- Australia has been making full use of offshore detention centres since 2001.
- Israel, too, chose to deal with a growing influx of asylum seekers and illegal immigrants from places like Sudan and Eritrea by striking deals with third countries.
- Those rejected for asylum were given the choice of returning to their home country or accepting $3,500 and a plane ticket to one of the third countries.
- They faced the threat of arrest if they chose to remain in Israel.
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