Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Constitution
Mains level: Constitutional morality and features of Indian constitution a
Context
- This Republic Day, as India marks the completion of 74 years of its constitutional functioning, the moral and ethical spirit of the Constitution that has phenomenally shaped the trajectory of constitutional democracy, needs to be delved into. To adequately comprehend the promise and practice of the Indian Constitution, it is crucial to unpack its underlying moral or ethical tenets that have shaped or has been shaping the discourse of constitutionalism in India.
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- Constitution for governance: Constitutions are primarily seen as the legal edifice that prescribes the fundamental principles and rules crucial for governing a nation.
- Legal guiding document: The Indian Constitution, as the revered guiding document, for governing the post-colonial independent nation, consists of the prescription, pronouncements, and provisions that gave shape to India’s legal-political system of governance.
- Contains ethical values: Beyond the legal directives and provisions, the document reflects a set of normative ethical values which the Indian Constitution makers perceived as integral for laying the foundation of the Indian Republic.
- Basic premise of Constitutional morality: Such constitutional predilection towards a set of ‘substantive moral entailments’ that goes beyond the legal-doctrinal reading of the Constitution entails the basic premise of constitutional morality.
What is mean by Constitutional morality?
- Constitutional morality refers to the set of moral principles and values that are reflected in the Indian Constitution and considered important for the proper functioning of Indian society.
- This includes not only legal rules but also broader ethical guidelines for how the country should be governed.
Contextualizing constitutional morality
- Constitutional Morality to Understand Democracy in India: The premise of constitutional morality needs to be extrapolated to better understand the larger ethical dynamics that have consolidated the form and substance of democracy in India.
- Two dimensions of representative democracy: The practise of representative democracy is constituted by two dimensions procedural democracy as well as substantive democracy. The former encapsulates the practise of electoral democracy while the latter also includes the larger substantive or qualitative impact of electoral democracy on the lives of the people.
- The resilience of constitutional democracy in India: Despite the apprehensions raised at the time of independence as India was dubbed as an ‘improbable democracy’, constitutional democracy in India undoubtedly remains stable and durable, manifesting its unflinching resilience in the last seven decades.
- The ethical drivers of India’s vibrant democratic continuity: The success of India’s vibrant democratic continuity, in spite of the humongous challenges of multi-dimensional diversity, geographical, and demographic expanse and other socio-economic hindrances can be attributed to the moral and ethical drivers of the Indian Constitution that needed to be deciphered further.
Ethical motivation and democracy
- The Democratic Ethic of the Indian Republic: The book, Politics and Ethics of Indian Constitution, notes that the Constitution at its very inception identified itself to belong to the ‘people’ underlining the democratic ethic of the Indian Republic. The Constitution’s genuinely egalitarian project got manifested in the granting of the universal adult franchise to all sections of people in India.
- Right to vote: India, by virtue of its constitutional inclination towards inclusivity, commenced universal political enfranchisement immediately after the independence while the right to vote has been granted to women in stable western democracies much later after their independence.
- The autonomous election commission and free and fair elections: The constitutionally designated Election Commission in India functions as an autonomous body and has remained successful in conducting largely free and fair elections. Voter turnout has remarkably increased since then specially women to be mentioned. Also, the instances of major electoral violence have also declined with time.
- Political participation and equal opportunity: In tandem with the principle of inclusiveness based on the idea of equal political opportunity that the Indian constitution espoused, India witnessed a gradual increase in the political participation and representation of the hitherto marginalised and weaker sections of people.
- Strengthening democratic credentials through fundamental rights: The fundamental rights rolled out by the Constitution have acted as an extremely helpful instrument for strengthening India’s democratic credentials by making the ‘modern citizen’ aware of their political, legal and civic rights based on the inalienable principle of individual liberty.
- Welfare state by Directive Principles of State Policy: The Indian Constitution includes important but non-enforceable provisions for welfare in the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP). These provisions have helped to expand welfare and development programs in electoral politics, and have given many people access to basic necessities for a decent life, in line with the democratic ideal of a better life for all.
Conclusion
- The values of freedom, fraternity, equality and social justice in the Indian Constitution have enabled inclusive participation and given citizens the power to demand welfare and development. Thus, the inextricably embedded values of India’s constitutional morality have played a pivotal role in strengthening the ethical vision of democracy, despite challenges, further enhancing India’s democratic resilience.
Mains question
Q. What do you understand by mean constitutional morality? Despite of challenges India’s constitution showed remarkable democratic resilience. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: C+1 strategy
Mains level: C+1 strategy and India's adavtages
Context
- In January 2023, India surpassed China to become the world’s most populous country with a population count of approximately 1.417 billion as against China’s 1.412 billion, as estimated by the World Population Review (WPR). This creates both opportunities and challenges for India.
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The global turmoil and China as enablers of the Indian growth story
- There are three factors that have enabled the Indian growth story.
- Overdependence on specific economies: If the pandemic had had one crucial lesson for the global economy, it must be reducing the overdependence on China-specific Global Value Chains (GVCs). As is evident from the pandemic, the subsequent Ukraine-Russia war or the recent disastrous COVID-19 surge in China the overdependence on specific economies is bound to have cascading effects on the world economy because of the macroeconomic shocks they produce.
- Glocalised models of economic partnerships: Countries now strive to strike the right balance between globalisation and localisation, through bilateral and multilateral platforms characterised by leveraging sub-regional comparative advantages. To a large extent, these emerging forms of glocalised models are also based on controlling Beijing’s political and economic prowess in the Indo-Pacific and beyond, where India plays an active role.
- Use of technology: There is no doubt that the pandemic has provided an uptick in the use of technology ranging from the provision of social security payments at the grassroots to government-level conferences.
China plus one (C+1) strategy
- The US-China trade war and the pandemic-induced supply chain disruptions emanating from China have indeed paved the way for many western corporates to consider a China Plus One (C+1) strategy.
- The strategy would entail diversifying investments from China to other countries, to mitigate the economic and geopolitical risks associated with the former.
- While many also hail Vietnam as another economy to be in the race of attracting investments fleeing China, India could be the potential frontrunner in the C+1 game.
- India’s economic advancement: India has a demographic advantage over China, with a larger percentage of its population under 30. This young population is expected to drive consumption, savings, and investments, leading to India’s goal of a multi-trillion dollar economy.
- Low cost of labour is an advantage: India has a low cost of labor and other forms of capital, making production costs lower and increasing competitiveness in international markets. India’s labor cost is also half that of Vietnam, making it a strong player in electronics and semiconductor manufacturing.
- India’s heavy infrastructure investment: A heavy investment in physical infrastructure through the National Infrastructure Pipeline (NIP) is expected to reduce costs in manufacturing sectors and cut transportation time and costs by 20%. This is in contrast to China, where multiple companies handle different parts of the transportation process, increasing costs
- India’s conducive business environment: Recent policy interventions in India such as the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme, tax reforms, liberalization of FDI policies, setting up of land pools and organizing business summits have helped attract investments to the domestic economy. These efforts, driven by the Make in India initiative, have also been supported by efforts to promote competitive federalism and reduce transaction costs of doing business.
- India’s digital advantage: India’s high internet penetration at 43% allows for digital skilling initiatives to bring returns across various economic sectors, particularly services. A combination of home-grown technologies and greater access to Google and Facebook, which are banned in China, gives Indian youth a digital edge.
- As English is the second language provides ease of communication: the prevalence of the English language skill set in the young Indian populace undoubtedly puts India ahead of China. As English is the second official language in the Indian states, it provides business executives with ease of communication in conducting business with North American and European clients.
- Well balanced economic partnerships: India’s economic partnerships are characterized by utilizing sub-regional comparative advantages and controlling Beijing’s political and economic power in the Indo-Pacific. India’s decision to not join the RCEP in 2020 to protect its domestic market and curb trade deficits sends a strong signal of its disassociation with Beijing in trade partnerships. The CEPA signed with the UAE in 2022 is expected to increase two-way trade to $100 billion in five years by opening access for Indian exporters to Arab and African markets.
- Dynamic Indian diplomacy: India has strengthened its economy through diplomatic partnerships and trade agreements, such as the QUAD, I2U2, and agreements with Australia, Canada, the European Union, and African countries. These partnerships have provided Indian businesses with greater access to finance, technology, and new markets. As India assumes the presidency of the G20 and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization this year, it is well-positioned to navigate changing globalisation trends and be a strong voice for the Global South.
- Most important is the large domestic market: India’s large domestic market with a population of 1.3 billion and increasing incomes at 6.9 percent per annum offers a competitive alternative to China’s massive domestic market. With a population base of 98 million, Vietnam’s market is much smaller in comparison.
Conclusion
- Indian economy that has risen from the ashes like a phoenix after a year of negative growth caused by the pandemic-led lockdown. India’s 74th Republic Day, therefore, should not merely mark a remembrance of the past or a celebration of adoption of the world’s largest and most comprehensive constitution, but should also be a celebration of the dazzling future of a roaring economy that will show light to a dreary world.
Mains question
Q. What is China plus one (C+1) strategy? Discuss why it is said that India will surge ahead in C+1?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: India-Saudi Arabia bilateral trade and relationship
Context
- Saudi Arabia and India ties have undergone a significant transformation in recent years. The camaraderie between the two nations is rooted in our cultural and civilisational ties. The Kingdom and India share mutual respect and appreciation which opens doors for our collaboration and partnership. These ties have been cemented by diplomatic visits made by leaders from both countries.
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Recent visits by the leaders of India and Saudi Arabia
- Visit by Prince: The visit of His Royal Highness Prince Mohammed bin Salman bin Abdulaziz, Crown Prince and Deputy Prime Minister then, to New Delhi in February 2019
- PM Modis visit to Saudi: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Riyadh in October of the same year are two watershed moments in our journey of strategic ties.
Outcome of such visits
- Number of MoU’s for multiple sectors: During these visits, both nations concluded a number of MoUs for multiple sectors including energy, civil aviation, security, defence production, regulation of medical products, strategic petroleum reserves, small and medium scale industries, and the training of diplomats in our respective academies.
- Strategic Partnership Council (SPC) and working group: These two high-level visits anchored the historic formation of Strategic Partnership Council (SPC) at the leadership level. The SPC also saw the formation of working groups in multiple sectors significant to both nations.
- Comprehensive review of agreements and new opportunities: Since 2019, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and India have taken a comprehensive review of the agreements and have explored opportunities to work together.
- Trade extended to other sectors apart from energy: While our ties stem from energy security, over the years they have percolated into many other sectors, including pharma, IT and telecommunications. The Kingdom alone accounts for 18 per cent of India’s crude oil import.
- India is the second largest trading partner: Saudi Arabia is also the fourth largest trading partner of India while India is the second largest trading partner of Saudi Arabia with our bilateral trade close to $43 billion.
- Conducive business environment in the Kingdom: A number of leading Indian companies have also set up a base in Saudi Arabia, signifying the conducive business environment in the Kingdom.
- Joint ventures signifies trust and strong relationship: There are close to 750 Indian companies registered as joint ventures or 100 per cent owned companies based in Saudi Arabia, further indicating the strong relationship and trust between the nations.
- Huge investment via Public Investment fund: Since the formation of our SPC, the Public Investment Fund (PIF) has made investments of about $2.8 billion in digital and retail sectors of India. Similarly, Indian investments in Saudi Arabia have also reached $2 billion which are distributed amongst different sectors.
- Shared vision of the two: Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and its 13 vision realisation programmes are closely aligned with India’s flagship initiatives of Make in India, Start-up India, Smart Cities, Clean India, and Digital India. Both economies have seen robust growth in the last decade.
- Close cooperation in important fields: Both nations have now been working closely together in important fields to achieve mutual and strategic objectives. This was in part achieved by allocating funds to the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness and Innovation (CEPI), The Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisations (GAVI), and other international and regional health organisations and programmes.
Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030
- Economic and social reforms: Under the aegis of Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia aims to transform its economy and society. Saudi Arabia is undergoing path-breaking economic and social reforms. The Kingdom has been working towards fostering its growing investment sector that will stimulate the economy.
- Cultural investment: The Kingdom, as part of Vision 2030, has also been investing in its culture with events such as the Red Sea Film Festival, which is dedicated to celebrating excellence in cinema and fostering the resurgent creative energy of Saudi and Arab filmmakers.
- Investment for sustainable infrastructure: The launch of the Events Investment Fund (EIF) by HRH Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman aims to develop a sustainable infrastructure for the culture, tourism, entertainment, and sports sectors across the Kingdom. The fund seeks to develop world-class sustainable infrastructure including indoor arenas, art galleries, theatres, conference centres, horse-racing tracks, auto racing tracks, and other facilities across the Kingdom.
Way ahead
- The opportunities presented under Vision 2030 can be leveraged by India to invest in the Kingdom.
- With India assuming the G20 presidency, it paves the way for the perfect opportunity to sustain meaningful dialogue around accelerated and inclusive growth while achieving Sustainable Development Goals as the global economy navigates through the post-Covid era.
Conclusion
- Amidst current global circumstances, India continues to successfully manoeuvre itself towards greater economic progress, built on strong foundations of sustainability and a thriving local community a feat and vision that it shares with its close partner Saudi Arabia. As India celebrates its 74th Republic Day with a vision of progress and prosperity, strengthening collaboration between India and Saudi Arabia will drive both economies and promote peace and stability in the region and the world.
Mains question
Q Discuss the key developments in the strategic relationship between Saudi Arabia and India. Highlight the growing bilateral trade.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NAM
Mains level: Read the attached story
India and Egypt reiterated their support for the Non-Aligned Movement.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
- NAM is a forum of 120 developing world states that are not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.
- After the United Nations, it is the largest grouping of states worldwide.
- Drawing on the principles agreed at the Bandung Conference in 1955, the NAM was established in 1961 in Belgrade, SR Serbia, and Yugoslavia.
- It was an initiative of then PM Jawaharlal Nehru, Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah, Indonesian President Sukarno, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito.
- The countries of the NAM represent nearly two-thirds of the United Nations’ members and contain 55% of the world population.
Reasons behind NAM creation
- Balancing the US and USSR: Non-alignment, a policy fashioned for the Cold War, aimed to retain the autonomy of policy (not equidistance) between two politico-military blocs i.e. the US and the Soviet Union.
- Platform beyond UN: The NAM provided a platform for newly independent developing nations to join together to protect this autonomy.
Relevance TODAY
- Changing with emerging scenarios: Since the end of the Cold War, the NAM has been forced to redefine itself and reinvent its purpose in the current world system.
- Focus towards development: It has focused on developing multilateral ties and connections as well as unity among the developing nations of the world, especially those within the Global South.
Fading significance of the NAM
- Loosing relevance: The policy of non-alignment lost its relevance after the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the emergence of unipolar world order under the leadership of the US since 1991.
- De-colonization was largely complete by then, the apartheid regime in South Africa was being dismantled and the campaign for universal nuclear disarmament was going nowhere.
- Freed from the shackles of the Cold War, the NAM countries were able to diversify their network of relationships across the erstwhile east-west divide.
India and the NAM
- Important role played by India: India played an important role in the multilateral movements of colonies and newly independent countries that wanted into the NAM.
- India as a leader: Country´s place in national diplomacy, its significant size and its economic miracle turned India into one of the leaders of the NAM and upholder of the Third World solidarity.
- The principle of ‘acting and making its own choices’ also reflected India’s goal to remain independent in foreign policy choices, although posing dilemmas and challenges between national interests on international arena and poverty alleviation.
- Preserving the state’s security required alternative measures: Namely, the economic situation with the aim to raise the population’s living standards challenged the country’s defense capacity and vice versa.
- Fewer choices: Wars with China and Pakistan had led India to an economically difficult situation and brought along food crisis in the mid-1960s, which made the country dependent on US food.
What dictates India’s alignment now?
- National security: China’s rise and assertiveness as a regional and global power and the simultaneous rise of middle powers in the region mean that this balancing act is increasing in both complexity and importance, simultaneously.
- Global decision-making: Another distinctive feature of India’s foreign policy has been the aim to adjust international institutions consistent with changes in international system.
- Prosperity and influence: India’s 21st century’s strategic partnerships aims for India becoming the voice of global South.
- Multi-polarism: Another means to execute India’s foreign policy strategy of autonomy has been forming extensive partnerships with other emerging powers.
Why NAM still matters?
- Global perception of India: India’s image abroad has suffered as a result of allegations that creep into our secular polity and a need arises to actively network and break out of isolation.
- For the Impulsive US: For India complete dependence on the U.S. to counter China would be an error.
- Ukrainian invasion has revitalized Cold War: Critics of NAM who term it as an outcome of the Cold War must also acknowledge that a new Cold War is beginning to unfold, this time between the US and China.
- NAM provides a much bigger platform:NAM becomes relevant to mobilize international public opinion against terrorism, weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), nuclear proliferation, ecological imbalance, safeguarding interests of developing countries in WTO etc.
- NAM as a tool for autonomy:NAM’s total strength comprises 120 developing countries and most of them are members of the UN General Assembly. Thus, NAM members act as an important group in support of India’s candidature as a permanent member in UNSC.
- NAM for multilateralism:Though globalization is facing an existential crisis, it is not possible to return to isolation. In the world of complex interdependence, countries are linked to each other one way or another.
- NAM as a source for soft power:India can use its historic ties to bring together the NAM countries. India’s strength lies in soft power rather than hard power.
Way forward
- Strategic autonomy: India is showing signs of pursuing strategic autonomy separately from non-alignment.
- Bilateralism: Indo-US ties are complementary, and a formal alliance will only help realize the full potential of these relations.
- Non-alliance: India interacts with other states in expectations to change the international system, but without expectations to ‘ally or oppose.’
- Deep engagement: India needs deeper engagement with its friends and partners if it is to develop leverage in its dealings with its adversaries and competitors.
Conclusion
- A wide and diverse range of strategic partners, including the U.S. as a major partner is the only viable diplomatic way forward in the current emerging multipolar world order.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Living Will
Mains level: Passive Euthanasia in India
A five-judge Bench of the Supreme Court headed by Justice K M Joseph agreed to significantly ease the procedure for passive euthanasia in the country by altering the existing guidelines for ‘living wills’.
What is Living Will?
- A living will is a legal document detailing the type and level of medical care one wants to receive if they are unable to make decisions or communicate their wishes when care is needed.
- A living will addresses many life-threatening treatments and procedures, such as resuscitation, ventilation, and dialysis.
- A person can appoint a healthcare proxy to make decisions regarding care when they are unable to do so.
- A living trust is a legal document that addresses how the assets of the incapacitated person should be managed.
- People can enlist the services of an estate planner or an attorney to help draft or review a living will.
Living Will in India
- It was first laid down in its 2018 judgment in Common Cause vs. Union of India & Anr, which allowed passive euthanasia.
- It was in response to the Aruna Shanbaug Case where protagonists were arguing in favor of mercy killing to Aruna.
- The guidelines pertained to questions such as who would execute the living will, and the process by which approval could be granted by the medical board.
- It declared that an adult human being having mental capacity to take an informed decision has right to refuse medical treatment including withdrawal from life-saving devices.
What is Euthanasia?
- Euthanasia refers to the practice of an individual deliberately ending their life, oftentimes to get relief from an incurable condition, or intolerable pain and suffering.
- Euthanasia, which can be administered only by a physician, can be either ‘active’ or ‘passive’.
- Active euthanasia involves an active intervention to end a person’s life with substances or external force, such as administering a lethal injection.
- Passive euthanasia refers to withdrawing life support or treatment that is essential to keep a terminally ill person alive.
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What is the legal history of this matter?
- Passive euthanasia was legalized in India by the Supreme Court in 2018, contingent upon the person having a ‘living will’.
- It must be a written document that specifies what actions should be taken if the person is unable to make their own medical decisions in the future.
- In case a person does not have a living will, members of their family can make a plea before the High Court to seek permission for passive euthanasia.
What did the SC rule in 2018?
- The Supreme Court allowed passive euthanasia while recognising the living wills of terminally-ill patients who could go into a permanent vegetative state.
- It was required to be signed by an executor (the individual seeking euthanasia) in the presence of two attesting witnesses and to be further countersigned by a Judicial Magistrate of First Class (JMFC).
- The court issued guidelines regulating this procedure until Parliament passed legislation on this.
- However, this has not happened, and the absence of a law on this subject has rendered the 2018 judgment the last conclusive set of directions on euthanasia.
What was the situation before 2018?
- P Rathinam vs Union Of India, 1994: In a case challenging the constitutional validity of Section 309 of the IPC — which mandates up to one year in prison for attempt to suicide the Supreme Court deemed the section to be a “cruel and irrational provision”.
- Gian Kaur vs The State Of Punjab, 1996: Two years later, a five-judge Bench of the court overturned the decision in P Rathinam, saying that the right to life under Article 21 did not include the right to die, and only legislation could permit euthanasia.
- Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug vs Union Of India & Ors, 2011: SC allowed passive euthanasia for Aruna Shanbaug, a nurse who had been sexually assaulted in Mumbai in 1973, and had been in a vegetative state since then. The court made a distinction between ‘active’ and ‘passive’, and allowed the latter in “certain situations”.
Key observations by Law Commission
- Earlier, in 2006, the Law Commission of India in its 196th Report’ had said that a doctor who obeys the instructions of a competent patient to withhold or withdraw medical treatment does not commit a breach of professional duty and the omission to treat will not be an offence.
- It had also recognised the patient’s decision to not receive medical treatment, and said it did not constitute an attempt to commit suicide under Section 309 IPC.
- Again, in 2008, the Law Commission’s ‘241st Report On Passive Euthanasia: A Relook’ proposed legislation on ‘passive euthanasia’, and also prepared a draft Bill.
What was the old cumbersome process?
- The treating physician was required to constitute a board comprising three expert medical practitioners from specific but varied fields of medicine, with at least 20 years of experience.
- They would decide whether to carry out the living will or not.
- If the medical board granted permission, the will had to be forwarded to the District Collector for his approval.
- The Collector was to then form another medical board of three expert doctors, including the Chief District Medical Officer.
- Only if this second board agreed with the hospital board’s findings would the decision be forwarded to the JMFC, who would then visit the patient and examine whether to accord approval.
- This cumbersome process will now become easier.
Recent changes after the SC’s order this week
- Medical board: Instead of the hospital and Collector forming the two medical boards, both boards will now be formed by the hospital.
- 5 year experienced doctor: The requirement of 20 years of experience for the doctors has been relaxed to five years.
- Magistrate approval not required: The requirement for the Magistrate’s approval has been replaced by an intimation to the Magistrate.
- No witness required: The 2018 guidelines required two witnesses and a signature by the Magistrate; now a notary or gazetted officer can sign the living will in the presence of two witnesses instead of the Magistrate’s countersign.
- HC for appeal: In case the medical boards set up by the hospital refuses permission, it will now be open to the kin to approach the High Court which will form a fresh medical team.
Different countries, different laws
- NETHERLANDS, LUXEMBOURG, BELGIUM allow both euthanasia and assisted suicide for anyone who faces “unbearable suffering” that has no chance of improvement.
- SWITZERLAND bans euthanasia but allows assisted dying in the presence of a doctor or physician.
- CANADA had announced that euthanasia and assisted dying would be allowed for mentally ill patients by March 2023; however, the decision has been widely criticised, and the move may be delayed.
- UNITED STATES has different laws in different states. Euthanasia is allowed in some states like Washington, Oregon, and Montana.
- UNITED KINGDOM considers it illegal and equivalent to manslaughter.
Justification for Euthanasia/Assisted Suicide
- It provides a way to relieve extreme pain.
- Euthanasia can save life of many other people by donation of vital organs.
Conclusion
- India officially recognizes that- “every single citizen is entitled to and reserves the right to die with dignity.”
- Hon’ble Supreme Courts’ recent updated guidelines are a major move in this direction.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earth's interior
Mains level: Read the attached story
Earth’s inner core, a hot iron ball the size of Pluto, has stopped spinning faster than the planet’s surface and might now be rotating slower than it, research suggested.
A quick recap of Earth’s Interior
Structure of earth’s interior is fundamentally divided into three layers – crust, mantle and core.
[A] Crust
- It is the outermost solid part of the earth, normally about 8-40 kms thick.
- It is brittle in nature.
- Nearly 1% of the earth’s volume and 0.5% of earth’s mass are made of the crust.
- The thickness of the crust under the oceanic and continental areas are different. Oceanic crust is thinner (about 5kms) as compared to the continental crust (about 30kms).
- Major constituent elements of crust are Silica (Si) and Aluminium (Al) and thus, it is often termed as SIAL(Sometimes SIAL is used to refer Lithosphere, which is the region comprising the crust and uppermost solid mantle, also).
- The mean density of the materials in the crust is 3g/cm3.
- The discontinuity between the hydrosphere and crustis termed as the Conrad Discontinuity.
[B] Mantle
- The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called as the mantle.
- The discontinuity between the crust and mantleis called as the Mohorovich Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
- The mantle is about 2900kms in thickness.
- Nearly 84% of the earth’s volume and 67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by the mantle.
- The major constituent elements of the mantle are Silicon and Magnesium and hence it is also termed as SIMA.
- The density of the layer is higher than the crust and varies from 3.3 – 5.4g/cm3.
- The uppermost solid part of the mantle and the entire crust constitute the Lithosphere.
- The asthenosphere (in between 80-200km) is a highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile, deforming region of the upper mantle which lies just below the lithosphere.
- The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).
- The discontinuity between the upper mantle and the lower mantleis known as Repetti Discontinuity.
- The portion of the mantle which is just below the lithosphere and asthenosphere, but above the core is called as Mesosphere.
[C] Core
- It is the innermost layer surrounding the earth’s centre.
- The core is separated from the mantle by Guttenberg’s Discontinuity.
- It is composed mainly of iron (Fe) and nickel (Ni) and hence it is also called as NIFE.
- It constitutes nearly 15% of earth’s volume and 32.5% of earth’s mass.
- It is the densest layer of the earth with its density ranges between 9.5-14.5g/cm3.
- It spins independently because it floats in the liquid metal outer core. One cycle of the swing is about seven decades approximately.
- It consists of two sub-layers: the inner core and the outer core.
- The inner core is in solid state and the outer core is in the liquid state (or semi-liquid).
- The discontinuity between the upper core and the lower core is called as Lehmann Discontinuity.
- Barysphere is sometimes used to refer the core of the earth or sometimes the whole interior.
What should one understand about the interior of the earth?
- It is not possible to know about the earth’s interior by direct observations because of the huge size and the changing nature of its interior composition.
- It is an almost impossible distance for the humans to reach till the centre of the earth (The earth’s radius is 6,370 km).
- The rapid increase in temperature below the earth’s surface is mainly responsible for setting a limit to direct observations inside the earth.
Sources of Information about the interior of the earth
Direct Sources:
- Rocks from mining area
- Volcanic eruptions
Indirect Sources
- By analyzing the rate of change of temperature and pressurefrom the surface towards the interior.
- Meteors, as they belong to the same type of materials earth is made of.
- Gravitation, which is greater near poles and less at the equator.
- Gravity anomaly, which is the change in gravity value according to the mass of material, gives us information about the materials in the earth’s interior.
- Magnetic sources.
- Seismic Waves: the shadow zones of body waves (Primary and secondary waves) give us information about the state of materials in the interior.
What is the new study about?
- Exactly how the inner core rotates has been a matter of debate between scientists— and the latest research is expected to prove controversial.
- A new research has analyzed seismic waves from repeating earthquakes over the last six decades.
- It shows that- the inner core started rotating slightly faster than the rest of the planet in the early 1970s, the study said.
- But it had been slowing down before coming in sync with Earth’s rotation around 2009.
What made the core spin slower?
- So far there is little to indicate that what the inner core does has many effects on surface dwellers.
- The researchers said this rotation timeline roughly lines up with changes in what is called the “length of day”— small variations in the exact time it takes Earth to rotate on its axis.
- But the researchers said they believed there were physical links between all of Earth’s layers, from the inner core to the surface.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aditya L1 mission
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is planning to launch the Aditya-L1 mission by June or July this year.
What is Aditya-L1 Mission?
- ISRO categorizes Aditya L1 as a 400 kg-class satellite that will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) in XL configuration.
- It will observe the Sun from a close distance, and try to obtain information about its atmosphere and magnetic field.
- The space-based observatory will have seven payloads (instruments) on board to study the Sun’s corona, solar emissions, solar winds and flares, and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and will carry out round-the-clock imaging of the Sun.
L1: Behind the name
- L1 refers to Lagrangian/Lagrange Point 1, one of five points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.
- Lagrange Points, named after Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis Lagrange, are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system (like the Sun and the Earth) produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
- The L1 point is about 1.5 million km from Earth, or about one-hundredth of the way to the Sun.
Major payloads
- In total Aditya-L1 has seven payloads, of which the primary payload is the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC), designed and fabricated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bengaluru.
- The satellite carries additional six payloads-
- SUIT, the solar ultraviolet imaging telescope
- ASPEX (Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment),
- PAPA (Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya),
- SoLEXS (Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer),
- HEL1OS (High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray spectrometer) and
- Magnetometer — with enhanced science scope and objectives possible by extensive remote and in-situ observation of the sun.
Why is studying the Sun important?
(1) To understand space weather
- To learn about and track Earth-directed storms, and to predict their impact, continuous solar observations are needed.
- Every storm that emerges from the Sun and heads towards Earth passes through L1, and a satellite placed in the halo orbit around L1 of the Sun-Earth system has the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation/eclipses.
(2) Observing corona
- The VELC payload will be able to observe the corona continuously and the data provided by it is expected to answer many outstanding problems in the field of solar astronomy.
- No other solar coronagraph in space has the ability to image the solar corona as close to the solar disk as VELC can.
- It can image it as close as 1.05 times the solar radius.
- It can also do imaging, spectroscopy, and polarimetry at the same time, and can take observations at a very high resolution (level of detail) and many times a second.
Why are solar missions challenging?
- Distance: What makes a solar mission challenging is the distance of the Sun from Earth (about 149 million km on average, compared to the only 3.84 lakh km to the Moon).
- Heat: More importantly the super-hot temperatures and radiations in the solar atmosphere make it difficult to study.
Major missions to Sun till now
- NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has already gone far closer — but it will be looking away from the Sun.
- The earlier Helios 2 solar probe, a joint venture between NASA and space agency of erstwhile West Germany, went within 43 million km of the Sun’s surface in 1976.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Account settlement, T+1
Mains level: Not Much
After China, India will become the second country in the world to start the ‘trade-plus-one’ (T+1) settlement cycle in top-listed securities today.
What’s the T+1 settlement plan?
- The T+1 settlement cycle means that trade-related settlements must be done within a day, or 24 hours, of the completion of a transaction.
- For example, under T+1, if a customer bought shares on Wednesday, they would be credited to the customer’s demat account on Thursday.
- This is different from T+2, where they will be settled on Friday.
- As many as 256 large-cap and top mid-cap stocks, including Nifty and Sensex stocks, will come under the T+1 settlement from Friday.
What was the earlier settlement system?
- Until 2001, stock markets had a weekly settlement system.
- The markets then moved to a rolling settlement system of T+3, and then to T+2 in 2003.
- In 2020, Sebi deferred the plan to halve the trade settlement cycle to one day (T+1) following opposition from foreign investors.
What are the benefits of T+1?
- T+1 system brings operational efficiency, faster fund remittances, share delivery, and ease for stock market participants.
- In the T+1 format, if an investor sells a share, she will get the money within a day, and the buyer will get the shares in her demat account also within a day.
- The shorter trade settlement cycle augurs well for the Indian equity markets from a liquidity perspective.
- This will also help investors in reducing the overall capital requirements with the margins getting released on T+1 day, and in getting the funds in the bank account within 24 hours of the sale of shares.
- The shift will boost operational efficiency as the rolling of funds and stocks will be faster.
Issues with T+1 system
- T+1 is being implemented despite opposition from foreign investors.
- The United States, United Kingdom and Eurozone markets are yet to move to the T+1 system.
Why are foreign investors opposed?
- Foreign investors have some operational issues as they operate from different geographies.
- Among the issues raised by them were time zone differences, information flow processes, and foreign exchange problems.
- Foreign investors said they would also find it difficult to hedge their net India exposure in dollar terms at the end of the day under the T+1 system.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ideal Train Profile
Mains level: AI, Machine Learning
The Indian Railways has concluded the trial of an Artificial Intelligence (AI) program it built to fix a perennial issue — long waiting lists for tickets.
Ideal Train Profile
- Ideal Train Profile was made by Railways’ in-house software arm Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS).
- It was fed with information like how millions of passengers booked tickets on these trains, which origin-destination pairs were a hit and which were flops at what time of the year, which seats remained vacant for what portion of a journey, etc.
- This project has been in the works for the past two years, wherein the AI has been “taught” ticket booking data and trends of the past few years.
- It has come up with the best possible combination of how many berths to keep for which sectors and at what time.
- The combination of “training data” the AI has been fed goes back three years.
Significance of the project
- The AI-driven program has, for the first time, allocated vacant berths in over 200 trains in such a way that fewer people need to turn away without a confirmed ticket.
- The waiting lists on these trains, as a result, have seen a curtailment.
Need for AI in ticket booking
- Currently, the passenger is handed out a wait-listed ticket and asked to wait until four hours prior to departure, when the final seat chart is prepared, to see if she made the list.
- This is because a large number of berths are earmarked for various quotas and various origin-destination combinations of the train’s routes.
- If there are 60 halts in a long-distance train, then there are 1,800 possible ticket combinations of origin and destination.
- If there are 10 halts, there are typically about 45 ticket combinations and so on.
- The Ideal Train Profile’s AI tells the Passenger Reservation System how best to give out confirmed tickets and for which sectors.
Way forward
- The AI does data-driven remote location selection, completely automates the process of quota distribution, and suggests optimal quota for different ticket combinations based on historical demand.
- The project has got the Railway Board excited about the possibility of how it can manage busy season rush, when the demands of confirmed tickets are at a peak.
- So the coming summer vacation season will be the first big test for the new system.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Etikoppaka Toy
Mains level: NA
The Union conferred Padma Shri to Mr. Raju in the art category as an honour to the Etikoppaka wooden toy craft.
Etikoppaka Toys
- Etikoppaka is a small village on the banks of Varaha River at a distance of 64 Kms away from the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh.
- The name Etikoppaka is synonymous with beautiful wooden artifacts and lacquer colours.
- The toys are made with lacquer color and are traditionally known as Etikoppaka toys or Etikoppaka Bommalu.
- The village is very famous for its toys made of wood. The toys are also called as lacquer toys because of application of lacquer coating.
- Etikoppaka Toys have obtained their GI tag under the Handicrafts category in the state of Andhra Pradesh.
How are they made?
- The toys are made out of wood and are coloured with natural dyes derived from seeds, lacquer, bark, roots and leaves.
- The wood used to make the toys is soft in nature and the art of toy making is also known as Turned wood Lacquer craft.
- While making the Etikoppaka toys, lac, a colourless resinous secretion of numerous insects, is used.
- The already prepared vegetable dyes are further mixed to the lac, during the process of oxidation.
- After this process, the end product obtained is rich and colored lacquer.
- The lac dye is used for decorating the Etikoppaka toys, which are exported all over the world.
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