Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Legal age of marriage , Related considerations
The Supreme Court has rejected a petition seeking a uniform minimum age of marriage for men and women stating that the matter is within the domain of the legislature and not the judiciary.
Central idea: The minimum age of marriage, especially for women, has been a contentious issue. It was evolved in the face of much resistance from religious and social conservatives.
What laws govern marriage age in India?
Following laws prescribe/mention 18 and 21 years as the minimum age of consent for marriage for women and men respectively:
- Special Marriage Act, 1954: It allows people from two different faith/religious backgrounds to come together in the bond of marriage
- Sarda Act, 1978: Named after its sponsor Harbilas Sarda, a judge and a member of Arya Samaj, was eventually amended in 1978 to prescribe 18 and 21 years as the age of marriage for a woman and a man, respectively.
- Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: It provides that the minimum age of marriage is 21 years in case of males, and 18 years in case of females.
Evolution of the idea: Age of Consent
- The IPC enacted in 1860 criminalised sexual intercourse with a girl below the age of 10.
- The provision of rape was amended in 1927 through The Age of Consent Bill, 1927, which declared that marriage with a girl under 12 would be invalid.
- The law faced opposition from leaders including Lokmanya Tilak, who saw the British intervention as an attack to create rift within family intuitions in the name of equal rights.
- A legal framework for the age of consent for marriage in India only began in the 1880s.
Central idea: Attainment of Majority
- The minimum age of marriage is distinct from the age of majority which is gender-neutral.
- An individual attains the age of majority at 18 as per the Indian Majority Act, 1875.
- The law prescribes a minimum age of marriage to essentially outlaw child marriages and prevents the abuse of minors.
How this confers ‘Unequal Treatment’?
- Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution guarantee the right to equality and the right to live with dignity.
- They are clearly violated by having different legal age for men and women to marry, argue activists.
Supreme Court rulings supportive to this
- NALSA vs. Union of India, 2014: The Supreme Court while recognizing transgenders as the third gender said that justice is delivered with the “assumption that humans have equal value and should, therefore, be treated as equal, as well as by equal laws.”
- Joseph Shine v Union of India, 2019: The Court decriminalized adultery and said that “a law that treats women differently based on gender stereotypes is an affront to women’s dignity.”
Contention over different legal standards
- No rationale behind: There is no reasoning in the law for having different legal standards of age for men and women to marry.
- More of religious decree: The laws are a codification of custom and religious practices.
- Stereotype for male dominance: The Law Commission consultation paper has argued that having different legal standards “contributes to the stereotype that wives must be younger than their husbands”.
- Promotes premature marriage of girl child: Women’s rights activists have argued that the law also perpetuates the stereotype that women are more mature than men and therefore, can be allowed to marry sooner.
- Motherhood complexities: An early age of marriage, and consequent early pregnancies, also have impacts on nutritional levels of mothers and their children, and their overall health and mental wellbeing.
- Other factors: Early marriage age has latent outcomes such as early dropouts from school, deprivation from higher education etc.
Why is the law being relooked at?
- Prevalence of child marriage: Despite laws mandating minimum age and criminalizing sexual intercourse with a minor, child marriages are very prevalent in the country.
- Bring gender-neutrality: From bringing in gender-neutrality to reduce the risks of early pregnancy among women, there are many arguments in favour of increasing the minimum age of marriage of women.
- Protection from abuse: This will essentially outlaw premature girls marriages and prevent the abuse of minors.
- Women empowerment: The decision would empower women who are cut off from access to education and livelihood due to an early marriage.
Policy measures in this regard: Jaya Jaitly Committee
- In June 2020, the Ministry of WCD set up a task force to look into the correlation between the age of marriage with issues of women’s nutrition, prevalence of anaemia, IMR, MMR and other social indices.
- The committee was to look at the feasibility of increasing the age of marriage and its implication on women and child health, as well as how to increase access to education for women.
Key recommendations
- The committee has recommended the age of marriage be increased to 21 years, on the basis of feedback they received from young adults from 16 universities across the country.
- The committee also asked the government to look into increasing access to schools and colleges for girls, including their transportation to these institutes from far-flung areas.
- Skill and business training has also been recommended, as has sex education in schools.
- The committee said these deliveries must come first, as, unless they are implemented and women are empowered, the law will not be as effective.
Criticism of the move to raise the legal ages
- Promote illegal marriages: Such legislation would push a large portion of the population into illegal marriages leading to non-institutional births.
- Ineffectiveness of existing laws: Decrease in child marriages has not been because of the existing law but because of an increase in girls’ education and employment opportunities.
- Unnecessary coercion: The law would end up being coercive, and in particular negatively impact marginalized communities, such as the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes, making them law-breakers.
Way forward
- Enacting Legislation: Establishing a Uniform Minimum Age of Marriage for Both Men and Women
- Effective Implementation and Enforcement: Preventing Child Marriages and Gender-Based Discrimination
- Addressing Root Causes: Improving Access to Education and Healthcare, Promoting Women’s Participation, and Reducing Gender-Based Violence and Discrimination
- Coordinated Multi-Sectoral Approach: Involving the Government, Civil Society and religious scholars.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Education Policy, International Mother Language Day
Mains level: Significance of Mother Languages
Central idea
- Former Vice President of India, M Venkaiah Naidu, has emphasized the importance of shedding the colonial legacy in India by promoting and creating content in mother languages. He has pointed out that during the colonial era, the British rulers-imposed English as the language of administration, education, and communication, which led to the neglect of Indian languages.
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International Mother Language Day
- In November 1999, UNESCO declared February 21 as International Mother Language Day in response to the declining state of many languages all over the world.
- This year’s theme, “Multilingual education a necessity to transform education,” underscores the importance of using multiple languages in framing an impactful system of education.
- It is appropriate, therefore, that revitalising languages that are disappearing or are threatened with extinction is one of the themes of Mother Language Day this year
The International Mother Language Day has added significance: Indian context
- India’s Linguistic heritage: India is an ancient repository of hundreds of languages and thousands of dialects with rich linguistic and cultural diversity. Our languages, which are an integral part of our ancient culture, give us a sense of identity.
- The threat westernisation poses: The International Mother Language Day has added significance in the Indian context because of the threat westernisation poses to the survival of as many as 42 of our dialects and languages which have fewer than 10,000 users.
- Grim situation of not having access to education in their mother tongue: The situation is equally grim all over the world with 40 per cent of the speakers of 6,700 languages not having access to education in their mother tongue.
- To express deepest feelings: It is in our mother tongue that we express, with authenticity, our, feelings, values and ideals, as also our literary endeavours.
- Homeland of our innermost thoughts: The former UNESCO Director-General, Koichiro Matsura, highlighted the irreplaceable significance of one’s mother tongue when he observed that the languages, we learn from our mothers are the homeland of our innermost thoughts.
- Science must be taught in mother tongue: The Nobel Prize-winning Physicist C V Raman said, “We must teach science in our mother tongue. Otherwise, science will become a highbrow activity. It will not be an activity in which all people can participate.”
- Better performance: A number of studies have shown that children who learn in their mother tongue in their formative years perform better than those taught in an alien language.
- View of Gandhiji: Writing in Young India in 1921, Mahatma Gandhi spoke with concern, of the strain of the foreign medium which turned “our children into crammers and imitators.” Gandhiji foresaw how “the foreign medium has made our children practically foreigners in their own land.
Colonial legacy
- It been 75 years, still carrying the colonial legacy: Even as we celebrate Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav, to mark 75 years of Independence, we have not been able to shed this colonial legacy of dependence on English.
- Mother tongue as a second language: Educators and parents continue to accord unquestioned primacy to English and, as a result, the child is compelled to study his or her mother tongue as a second/third language at school.
- Building barriers in the path of our progress: Our emphasis on English has, ironically, made the educational system exclusive and restrictive. As a result, while limiting the acquisition of knowledge in technical and professional courses, to a select few, we made it inaccessible to a vast majority of our students.
Shedding the colonial legacy
- The National Education Policy (NEP): The NEP 2020 is a farsighted document which advocates education in one’s mother tongue right from the primary-school level.
- BTech programmes in 11 native languages: Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in his address in 2021, marking the first anniversary of the National Education Policy (NEP), hailed the AICTE’s landmark decision to permit BTech programmes in 11 native languages.
- Promotion of mother tongue education in colleges and universities: The UGC has, in a welcome move, written to governors and chief ministers of various states to give a fillip to measures for the promotion of mother tongue education in colleges and universities.
- For instance: In a survey conducted by AICTE in February last year of over 83,000 students, nearly 44 per cent voted in favour of studying engineering in their mother tongue, highlighting its necessity.
- Initiative to give prominence to native language: The Centre’s initiative to give prominence to native languages in employment and job creation is a welcome step.
- Examinations in native languages: It is also heartening that the Staff Selection Commission has decided to conduct examinations in 13 Indian languages in addition to Hindi and English.
- Supreme court verdicts accessible in all Indian languages: Similarly, the Supreme Court’s decision to make verdicts accessible in all Indian languages is of great significance.
Conclusion
- NEP’s emphasis on mother tongue as the medium of instruction will instil confidence in students belonging to poor, rural and tribal backgrounds. These steps need to be scaled up at all levels. Moreover, we must hasten the process of content creation in mother languages, especially with respect to technical and professional courses. Leveraging technology will drive development in this respect.
Mains Question
Q. India has rich linguistic diversity. In this backdrop discuss the importance of mother language specifically in education policy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AMR
Mains level: AMR challenges and Government measures
Central Idea
- While the world is emerging from the acute phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, the very harmful but invisible pandemic of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is unfortunately here to stay. Most countries understood in 2020 the clear and present danger of COVID-19, forcing governments, including India’s, to respond with speed and accuracy. The rapidly rising AMR rates also need an accelerated, multi-sectoral, global and national response.
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What is Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)?
- Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a natural phenomenon that occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites evolve to become resistant to antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics that were previously effective in treating infections caused by those microorganisms.
The Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance
- Human deaths: In 2019, AMR caused approximately 4.95 million human deaths worldwide, highlighting the urgency of addressing this issue.
- Report by OECD: A 2018 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that the world could experience a significant rise in resistance to second and third-line antibiotics by 2030.
- Resistance increases by 5% to 10% every year: A 2022 study by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) revealed that resistance to broad-spectrum antimicrobials increases by 5% to 10% every year.
- High rate of resistance found in commonly used drugs: The Indian Network for Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance (INSAR) also found a high rate of resistance to commonly used drugs such as ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, co-trimoxazole, erythromycin, and clindamycin, underscoring the importance of taking steps to combat AMR.
- High levels of resistance: WHO has increasingly expressed concern about the dangerously high levels of antibiotic resistance among patients across countries.
- For example: Ciprofloxacin, an antibiotic commonly used to treat urinary tract infections. According to WHO, resistance to ciprofloxacin varied from 8.4% to 92.9% for Escherichia coli (E. coli) and from 4.1% to 79.4% for Klebsiella pneumoniae (a bacteria that can cause life-threatening infections such as pneumonia and intensive care unit- related infections). The global epidemic of TB has been severely impacted by multidrug resistance patients have less than a 60% chance of recovery.
- Adds burden to communicable disease: AMR adds to the burden of communicable diseases and strains the health systems of a country, making it even more challenging to address health crises.
What is Muscat conference is about?
- Ministerial Conference on AMR: Third Global High-Level Ministerial Conference on Antimicrobial Resistance (November 24-25, 2022) held in Muscat where over 30 countries adopted the Muscat Ministerial Manifesto on AMR.
- The conference focused on three health targets:
- Reduce the total amount of antimicrobials used in the agri-food system at least by 30-50% by 2030;
- Eliminate use in animals and food production of antimicrobials that are medically important for human health;
- Ensure that by 2030 at least 60% of overall antibiotic consumption in humans is from the WHO Access group of antibiotics.
- Need to accelerate One Health action: The manifesto recognised the need to accelerate political commitments in the implementation of One Health action for controlling the spread of AMR.
- Need to address the overall impact of AMR: It also recognised the need to address the impact of AMR not only on humans but also on animals, and in areas of environmental health, food security and economic growth and development.
- The National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (2017-21): The National Action Plan on AMR emphasised the effectiveness of the government’s initiatives for hand hygiene and sanitation programmes such as Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, Kayakalp and Swachh Swasth Sarvatra.
- Increasing community awareness: The government has also attempted to increase community awareness about healthier and better food production practices, especially in the animal food industry.
- Specific guidelines regarding use and limiting use of antibiotics: The National Health Policy 2017 also offered specific guidelines regarding use of antibiotics, limiting the use of antibiotics as over-the-counter medications and banning or restricting the use of antibiotics for growth promotion in livestock.
- Called for scrutiny of antibiotic prescriptions: It also called for scrutiny of prescriptions to assess antibiotic usage in hospitals and among doctors.
Examples of Limiting AMR worldwide
- Less use of Antimicrobials less likely resistance: Scientific evidence suggests that the less antimicrobials are used, it is less likely that there will be an emergence of drug resistance.
- Netherlands and Thailand: Countries such as the Netherlands and Thailand have decreased their usage by almost 50%.
- China: In China, the consumption of antibiotics in the agricultural sector has fallen substantially.
Way ahead: India’s role
- India committed to strengthen surveillance: India has committed to strengthening surveillance and promoting research on newer drugs.
- GLASS: It also plans to strengthen private sector engagement and the reporting of data to the WHO Global Antimicrobial Resistance and Use Surveillance System (GLASS) and other standardised systems.
Conclusion
- The various G-20 health summits spread through 2023 offer an opportunity for India to ensure that all aspects of AMR are addressed and countries commit to progress. As the current G-20 president, and as a country vulnerable to this silent pandemic, India’s role is critical in ensuring that AMR remains high on the global public health agenda.
Mains question
Q. In the backdrop of recently held Muscat Conference on AMR highlight the threats posed by AMR and Discuss India’s efforts in combating the silent pandemic.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 and Marital age of women and issues
Central Idea
- Recently, the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking to increase the minimum age of marriage of women in India from 18 years to 21 years. The Chief Justice of India, D.Y. Chandrachud, noted that the power to amend the law lies with Parliament.
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The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021
- Amendment to the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006: The Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 is a proposed amendment to the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, which is an Indian law that prohibits the marriage of children below the age of 18 for girls and 21 for boys.
- Aim to strengthen the existing laws: The bill was introduced in the Indian Parliament in March 2021 with the aim of strengthening the existing law and further protecting the rights of children. Some of the key provisions of the bill include
- Referred to the Standing Committee: But after Opposition MPs demanded greater scrutiny of the Bill, it was referred to the Parliamentary Standing Committee.
Why the age of marriage of women matters?
- Age of marriage has bearing on maternal mortality rates, fertility levels, nutrition of mother and child, sex ratios, and, on a different register, education and employment opportunities for women.
- It is also argued that other factors such as poverty and health services were far more effective as levers for improving women’s and children’s health and nutritional status.
Some of the key provisions of the Bill
- Making registration of marriages mandatory: The bill proposes to make registration of all marriages, including child marriages, mandatory. This is aimed at improving the implementation of the law and making it easier to track and prevent child marriages.
- Making child marriages voidable: The bill proposes to make child marriages voidable at the option of the contracting party who was a child at the time of marriage. This means that a child who was married before the age of 18 can seek to have the marriage declared void, provided it is done within two years of attaining adulthood.
- Punishment for promoting or permitting child marriage: The bill proposes to increase the punishment for promoting or permitting child marriage. The punishment for such offences will now be imprisonment of up to two years and/or a fine of up to one lakh rupees.
- Despite of the legal age girl married before their 18th birthday: The caution exercised by the Supreme Court and the advice of the Opposition MPs to scrutinise the Bill before passing it is well grounded. This is because, despite the legal age of marriage for women being 18 years, almost 23% of women who were aged between 20 and 24 years in 2019-21 married before their 18th birthday.
- State wise: In fact, in the eastern States of Bihar and West Bengal, the share was over 40% In Assam, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan, the share was over 25%. The share was below 10% in Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Uttarakhand, among other States.
- Less no of cases reported despite of high prevalence: Despite such a high share of women marrying before turning 18 years, only 1,050 cases were registered under The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act in 2021, according to the National Crime Records Bureau.
- Question of enforcement gets even bigger: With the Bill proposing to raise the legal age from 18 to 21, the question of enforcement gets even bigger. In India, over 60% of women who were aged between 25 and 29 in 2019-21 married before their 21st birthday. In the eastern States of Bihar and West Bengal, the share was over 70%.
Way ahead
- While laws can be changed, enforcement may remain weak as underage marriages are rarely reported.
- Education, more than wealth, determines women’s marital age
- Better-educated women have had more control over when they should get married for decades now.
- The Data Point also showed that due to awareness and better negotiation powers, younger women have pushed up their median marriage age by many years compared to their mothers and grandmothers.
Conclusion
- Overall, the Prohibition of Child Marriage (Amendment) Bill, 2021 is an important step towards strengthening the legal framework to prevent child marriages in India and ensuring that children are protected from this harmful practice. However, raising the bar alone may not be sufficient. Enforcement while emphasizing education awareness will be the key.
Mains Question
Q. While laws can be changed, enforcement may remain weak as underage marriages are rarely reported In this light discuss why the age of marriage of women matters?
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Digital Personal Data Protection Bill and the concerns
Central Idea
- The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has drafted a Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Bill. A data protection law must safeguard and balance peoples’ right to privacy and their right to information, which are fundamental rights flowing from the Constitution. Unfortunately, this Bill fails on both counts.
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Why do we need data protection?
- Increasing internet use: India currently has over 750 million Internet users, with the number only expected to increase in the future.
- Data breaches: At the same time, India has among the highest data breaches in the world. Without a data protection law in place, the data of millions of Indians continue to be at risk of being exploited, sold, and misused without their consent.
- Individual privacy: Data monetization may happen at cost of individual privacy. The most sought-after datasets are those that contain sensitive personal data of individuals, ex. medical history, and financial data.
- Lack of writ proceedings against corporate action: Unlike state action, corporate action or misconduct is not subject to writ proceedings in India. This is because fundamental rights are, by and large, not enforceable against private non-state entities. This leaves individuals with limited remedies against private.
DPDP Bill, 2022 is based on seven principles
According to an explanatory note for the bill, it is based on seven principles-
- Lawful use: The first is that “usage of personal data by organisations must be done in a manner that is lawful, fair to the individuals concerned and transparent to individuals.”
- Purposeful dissemination: The second principle states that personal data must only be used for the purposes for which it was collected.
- Data minimisation: Bare minimum and only necessary data should be collected to fulfill a purpose.
- Data accuracy: At the point of collection. There should not be any duplication.
- Duration of storage: The fifth principle talks of how personal data that is collected cannot be “stored perpetually by default,” and storage should be limited to a fixed duration.
- Authorized collection and processing: There should be reasonable safeguards to ensure there is “no unauthorised collection or processing of personal data.”
- Accountability of users: The person who decides the purpose and means of the processing of personal data should be accountable for such processing.
- Dilutes the provisions of the Right to Information (RTI) Act: The Bill seeks to dilute the provisions of the Right to Information (RTI) Act, which has empowered citizens to access information and hold governments accountable. It is behind the cloak of secrecy that the rights of individuals are most frequently abrogated, and corruption thrives.
- Fails to safeguard right to privacy: Proposed Bill creates wide discretionary powers for the Central government and thus fails to safeguard people’s right to privacy.
- For instance: Under Section 18, it empowers the Central government to exempt any government, or even private sector entities, from the provisions of the Bill by merely issuing a notification.
- The Bill does not ensure autonomy of the Data Protection Board: Given that the government is the biggest data repository, it was imperative that the oversight body set up under the law be adequately independent to act on violations of the law by government entities. The Bill does not ensure autonomy of the Data Protection Board, the institution responsible for enforcement of provisions of the law.
- Government direct control over the Data Protection Board: The Central government is empowered to determine the strength and composition of the Board and the process of selection and removal of its chairperson and other members.
- Serious apprehensions of its misuse by the executive: The Central government is also empowered to assign the Board any functions under the provisions of this Act or under any other law.
- Going digital by design fails to those who do not have meaningful access: The Bill stipulates that the Data Protection Board shall be ‘digital by design’, including receipt and disposal of complaints. As per the latest National Family Health Survey, only 33% of women in India have ever used the Internet. The DPDP Bill, therefore, effectively fails millions of people who do not have meaningful access to the Internet.
Conclusion
- The government has been given the power to exempt not only government agencies but any entity that is collecting user data, from having to comply with the provisions of this bill when it is signed into law.
Mains question
Q. It is behind the cloak of secrecy that the rights of individuals are most frequently abrogated, and corruption thrives. Discuss.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Solar energy promotion and export
Central idea: The article states that the Ministry for New and Renewable Energy is working towards increasing the production of solar modules in the country, with the goal of making India a net exporter of solar modules by 2026.
How can India be a net exporter of solar energy?
- Increased manufacturing of PV modules: By 2026, Indian industry will be able to manufacture solar modules worth 100 gigawatts (GW) annually, and help the country be a net exporter of solar power.
- Increased installation capacity: This would significantly aid India’s target of installing 500 GW of electricity capacity from non-fossil sources by 2030.
Issues with solar power sector
Ans. Reduced capacity
- Slow pace: India had planned to install 175 GW of renewable energy by December 2022, including 100 GW of solar power, but has only achieved 122 GW, with solar power accounting for only 62 GW.
- Huge cost: A key bottleneck has been the cost of solar modules (or panels).
- Regressive import duties: While India has traditionally relied on China-made components such as poly-silicon wafers, necessary to make modules, higher customs duty on them has shrunk supply. This was done to make equivalent India-manufactured components more competitive.
Motive behind export promotion
- Surplus generation: India need about 30-40 GW for our domestic purposes annually and the rest can be used for export.
- Manufacturing boost: PLI scheme for polysilicone manufacturing is in place are designed to encourage the manufacturers of ingots and wafers in India.
What obstructs solar power growth in India?
Ans. Land crunch
- Apart from module prices, land acquisition has been a major challenge for solar power manufacturers.
- Despite the Centre commissioning 57 large solar parks worth 40 GW in recent years, only 10 GW have been operationalized.
- Installing a megawatt of solar power requires on average four acres of land. So various developers face challenges in acquiring it and that’s one reason for the delay.
Various initiatives for solar energy in India
- International Solar Alliance (ISA): India, along with France, launched the ISA in 2015, a global platform to promote the use of solar energy.
- Solar Parks: The government has set up Solar Parks to provide land and infrastructure to developers for the installation of solar power projects.
- Rooftop Solar Program: The government has launched a rooftop solar program to promote the installation of solar panels on rooftops of residential and commercial buildings.
- Incentives and subsidies: The government has provided various incentives and subsidies to promote the adoption of solar energy, including tax exemptions, accelerated depreciation, and subsidies for capital costs.
Way forward
India has significant potential to become a major exporter of solar power. Here are some steps that can be taken to promote solar power export by India:
- Increase domestic production: To promote solar power export, India needs to increase domestic production of solar panels and equipment. This can be achieved by providing incentives and subsidies to domestic manufacturers, reducing import duties on raw materials, and investing in research and development.
- Focus on quality: Indian manufacturers need to focus on producing high-quality solar panels and equipment that can compete with products from other countries. The government can establish quality standards and certification programs to ensure that Indian-made products meet international quality standards.
- Develop infrastructure: India needs to develop a robust infrastructure to support the export of solar power, including transportation, storage, and transmission facilities. The government can provide support for the development of this infrastructure, such as funding and regulatory support.
- Partner with other countries: India can partner with other countries to promote the export of solar power. The International Solar Alliance, of which India is a founding member, can play a key role in this regard.
- Expand market access: India needs to expand market access for its solar power products by signing trade agreements with other countries and participating in international exhibitions and events. The government can also provide support for Indian companies to participate in trade fairs and exhibitions abroad.
By implementing these measures, India can promote the export of solar power and become a key player in the global solar energy market.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Trading
Mains level: Emission Trading Schemes
After the passing of the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill last December, the Centre is now in the final stages of notifying an Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS)
- India does not currently have a national Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). However, there have been some efforts to introduce an ETS in the country.
- In 2018, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) released a draft of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
- It proposed the introduction of a market-based mechanism for reducing air pollution for the first time.
- The mechanism was not explicitly called an ETS, but it was described as a “cap-and-trade system.”
Successful example of Carbon Market: EU’s emissions trading system (ETS)
- Under the EU’s ETS launched in 2005, member countries set a cap or limit for emissions in different sectors, such as power, oil, manufacturing, agriculture, and waste management.
- This cap is determined as per the climate targets of countries and is lowered successively to reduce emissions.
- Entities in this sector are issued annual allowances or permits by governments equal to the emissions they can generate.
- If companies produce emissions beyond the capped amount, they have to purchase additional permit, either through official auctions or from companies.
- This makes up the ‘trade’ part of cap-and-trade.
How is carbon price determined?
- The market price of carbon gets determined by market forces when purchasers and sellers trade in emissions allowances.
- Notably, companies can also save up excess permits to use later.
- Through this kind of carbon trading, companies can decide if it is more cost-efficient to employ clean energy technologies or to purchase additional allowances.
- These markets may promote the reduction of energy use and encourage the shift to cleaner fuels.
Other such examples
- China launched the world’s largest ETS in 2021, estimated to cover around one-seventh of the global carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
- Markets also operate or are under development in North America, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Switzerland, and New Zealand.
Significance of Carbon Market
- The World Bank estimates that trading in carbon credits could reduce the cost of implementing NDCs by more than half — by as much as $250 billion by 2030.
- Last year, the value of global markets for tradable carbon allowances or permits grew by 164% to a record 760 billion euros ($851 billion).
- The EU’s ETS contributed the most to this increase, accounting for 90% of the global value at 683 billion euros.
- As for voluntary carbon markets, their current global value is comparatively smaller at $2 billion.
What is the progress at UN?
- The UN international carbon market envisioned in Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is yet to kick off as multilateral discussions are still underway about how the inter-country carbon market will function.
- Under the proposed market, countries would be able to offset their emissions by buying credits generated by greenhouse gas-reducing projects in other countries.
- In the past, developing countries, particularly India, China and Brazil, gained significantly from a similar carbon market under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
- India registered 1,703 projects under the CDM which is the second highest in the world.
- But with the 2015 Paris Agreement, the global scenario changed as even developing countries had to set emission reduction targets.
India’s efforts
The new Bill empowers the Centre to specify a carbon credits trading scheme.
- Issuance of credit certificates: Under the Bill, the central government or an authorised agency will issue carbon credit certificates to companies or even individuals registered and compliant with the scheme.
- Tradable carbon credits: These carbon credit certificates will be tradeable in nature. Other persons would be able to buy carbon credit certificates on a voluntary basis.
Existing mechanisms
- Notably, two types of tradeable certificates are already issued in India-
- Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and
- Energy Savings Certificates (ESCs)
- These are issued when companies use renewable energy or save energy, which are also activities which reduce carbon emissions.
Lacunas of the bill
- No clear mechanism: The Bill does not provide clarity on the mechanism to be used for the trading of carbon credit certificates— whether it will be like the cap-and-trade schemes or use another method— and who will regulate such trading.
- Confusion over nodal agency: The right ministry to bring in a scheme of this nature, pointing out that while carbon market schemes in other jurisdictions like the US, UK are framed by their environment ministries, the Indian Bill was tabled by the power ministry instead of the MoEFCC.
- Ambiguity over existing certificates: The Bill does not specify whether certificates under already existing schemes would also be interchangeable with carbon credit certificates and tradeable for reducing carbon emissions.
- Overlapping: The question, thus, is whether all these certificates could be exchanged with each other. There are concerns about whether overlapping schemes may dilute the overall impact of carbon trading.
Challenges to carbon markets
- Double counting: of greenhouse gas reductions
- Quality and authenticity: These parameters of climate projects that generate credits to poor market transparency
- Greenwashing: Companies may buy credits, simply offsetting carbon footprints instead of reducing their overall emissions or investing in clean technologies.
- Inefficiency: The IMF points out that including high emission-generating sectors under trading schemes to offset their emissions by buying allowances may immensely increase emissions on net.
Way forward
- Alignment with NDCs: The UNDP emphasizes that for carbon markets to be successful, emission reductions and removals must be real and aligned with the country’s NDCs.
- Transparent financing: It says that there must be “transparency in the institutional and financial infrastructure for carbon market transactions”.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Teja Chilli
Mains level: Not Much
The burgeoning demand for the popular Teja variety of red chilli, famous for its culinary, medicinal and other wide-ranging uses, in the export market is proving to be a boon for the Telangana Agriculture Market.
Teja Chilli
- Teja or S17 is one of the hottest varieties of red chillies produced in India. (GI tag not accorded yet.)
- The chilli is known and liked across the country for its fierce hot flavor and rich aroma.
- Southern India is the main region of Teja or S17 red chilli production.
- It has a capsaicin content of 0.50-0.70% making it more pungent and spicy.
- The huge demand for Oleoresin, a natural chilli extract, is mainly driving the export of Teja variety to various spice processing industries in several Asian countries.
Where it is produced?
- Khammam district is the largest producer of Teja variety of red chilli.
- It is the leading exporter of the pungent fruit.
- The Mudigonda-based Oleoresin extraction firm of a Chinese company is engaged in export of the by product to its clients.
Trade significance of this chilli
- Teja variety of red chilli is being exported to China, Bangladesh and a few other south Asian countries from Khammam mainly through the Chennai port.
- The export of Teja variety of red chilli is expected to grow from the present ₹2000 crore per annum to ₹2500 crore next year.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hybrid Rocket
Mains level: India's success in rocketry
India’s first hybrid sounding rocket by private players was launched by some students from Pattipulam village off Tamil Nadu coast.
About APJ Abdul Kalam SLV
- Martin Foundation in association with Dr APJ Abdul Kalam International Foundation and Space Zone India successfully completed the project known as Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Satellite Launch Vehicle Mission 2023.
- The student team included 200 from the fishermen community in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, 100 students from tribal communities across India, and 60 from Tamil Nadu.
What is a Hybrid Rocket?
- A hybrid rocket is a type of rocket engine that combines features of both liquid-fueled and solid-fueled rockets. In a hybrid rocket, a solid fuel is burned in combination with a liquid or gaseous oxidizer to produce thrust.
- The solid fuel in a hybrid rocket is typically made of a polymer, such as hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), which is cast into a cylindrical shape and placed inside the rocket motor.
- The oxidizer, which is typically nitrous oxide (N2O), is stored in a separate tank and fed into the combustion chamber of the rocket motor.
How does it work?
- When the oxidizer is introduced into the combustion chamber, it reacts with the solid fuel, producing a hot gas that is expelled through a nozzle at the end of the rocket.
- The combustion process can be controlled by adjusting the flow rate of the oxidizer, making hybrid rockets more controllable than solid rockets.
Benefits offered over conventional rockets
- Hybrid rockets are generally simpler and less expensive to manufacture than liquid rockets, while providing more control than solid rockets.
- They are also safer than both liquid and solid rockets, since the fuel and oxidizer are stored separately and can be easily shut off in case of an emergency.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Moon dust for sheilding Earth
Mains level: Global Warming
The article introduces the idea of using Moon dust to cool the Earth and explores the feasibility and potential risks associated with the proposal.
Moonlight cooling of Earth
- The idea of using lunar dust to cool the Earth’s temperature is based on a natural phenomenon called “moonlight cooling.”
- When the Moon’s surface reflects the sun’s rays, it cools down rapidly after sunset.
- Scientists believe that a thin layer of lunar dust could be used to create a similar effect on the Earth’s surface.
- The proposal suggests launching a spacecraft to the Moon to collect dust particles, which would then be transported to the Earth’s atmosphere and released.
Feasibility of the move
- This is not a new idea. In fact, it has been proposed before as a way to combat global warming, and several studies have been conducted to explore its feasibility.
- One study published in the journal Earth’s Future estimated that the technique could reduce the Earth’s temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius, which is a significant amount in the context of climate change.
Risks and Drawbacks
- Health concerns: The dust could harm the environment or respiratory health if it is not properly controlled.
- Threats to aviation: The particles are abrasive and could damage aircraft engines or other machinery if they were to fall to the ground.
- Feasibility and cost: Collecting enough dust to make a significant impact on the Earth’s temperature would require a significant investment of resources, including launching multiple spacecraft to the Moon.
Frankenstein’s Monster Analogy
- The article draws a comparison between the proposed use of moon dust and the story of Frankenstein’s monster, in which a scientist creates a monster that ultimately causes destruction and chaos.
- The analogy suggests that the use of moon dust could have unintended consequences that are difficult to predict, and that such large-scale climate interventions should be approached with caution.
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