Central idea
India’s green transition faces challenges as coal-rich states encounter fiscal implications and regional imbalances. The article emphasizes the need for inclusive development, addressing fiscal concerns, and reviving balanced regional developmentalism to ensure a fair and effective energy transition.
Key issues highlighted in the article
- In August 2023, 5% of grid-connected RE generation came from eight states.
- The Central Electricity Authority’s report projects solar and wind to constitute almost 51% of total generation capacity and nearly 31% of all generated power by 2030.
- The massive RE build-out has mainly benefited western and southern states.
- Research indicates that RE-poor, coal-rich states may face a double hit to state revenues due to declining coal royalties and increasing electricity imports.
- The combined revenue impact could worsen budget deficits of RE-poor power-importing states by almost 8.66% on average.
- Frictions exist between Union and state governments regarding central policies, transmission waivers, and financing struggles in the power sector.
Present Status:
- Recent developments indicate a continued reliance on coal, raising questions about the trajectory of India’s energy transition.
- The dominance of specific states in RE generation highlights regional imbalances.
UPSC mains relevance:
- Ongoing debates on India’s energy transition and challenges in balancing fiscal interests.
- Understanding the role of state finances in achieving national renewable energy goals.
- Familiarity with the potential fiscal impacts of transitioning from coal to renewables in different states.
Key Challenges:
- Declining coal royalties and increasing RE procurement costs pose a fiscal challenge for coal-rich states.
- The combined revenue impact could exacerbate budget deficits of RE-poor states by almost 8.66%, breaching norms established by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budgetary Management Act, 2003.
- Tensions between the Union and states regarding power sector policies, transmission waivers, and centralization of electricity markets.
- The displacement of RE integration costs onto state transmission companies raises concerns.
Relevant Data from Article:
- In August 2023, 92.5% of grid-connected RE generation came from eight states, primarily in the western and southern regions.
- The Central Electricity Authority’s projection expects solar and wind to constitute nearly 51% of total generation capacity by 2030.
Way Forward:
- Revive the philosophy of balanced regional developmentalism, ensuring that RE-poor states have a substantial stake in the energy transition.
- Preferential lending for RE projects in such states by state lenders.
- Reinforce institutions like the Inter-State Council to facilitate greater state participation in federal power negotiations.
- Explicit financial transfers to RE-poor states through the Finance Commission.
- Implement just transition mechanisms for collaborative industrial policies, ensuring a fair distribution of benefits and challenges.
Conclusion:
Ensuring a green transition in India necessitates addressing the fiscal and regional disparities. The revival of balanced regional developmentalism and inclusive policies is crucial to prevent the energy transition from exacerbating existing inequalities. The focus should be on collaborative federalism, just transition mechanisms, and empowering all states to actively participate in and benefit from the ongoing energy transformation.
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Central idea
The article explores the legality of using white phosphorus in armed conflicts, focusing on instances like Israel’s alleged use in Gaza. It delves into the ethical concerns, relevant legal frameworks, and the need for strengthening regulations to prevent harm to civilians and the environment.
Key highlights in the Article:
- Human Rights Watch accused Israel of using white phosphorus munitions in Gaza.
- The 2008-2009 Gaza War witnessed allegations of Israel using white phosphorus in the Gaza Strip.
- The UN Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict condemned IDF’s use of white phosphorus in civilian areas.
- The Israel military, in the case of Yoav Hass and others v. Chief of Staff (2013), agreed to abandon white phosphorus use except in specified situations communicated to the court.
Know about the White Phosphorus (WP):
- Chemical Properties: WP is a chemical substance with phosphorus as its primary component. It has unique properties, including self-ignition in the presence of oxygen.
- Military Applications: Used in incendiary devices like grenades and artillery shells. Creates dense smoke screens for military operations.
- Incendiary Effects: Can cause intense and persistent fires effective against people, equipment, and structures. Poses significant ethical concerns due to its potential for causing severe burns and suffering.
- International Humanitarian Law (IHL): Governed by IHL principles, including distinction, proportionality, and the prohibition of indiscriminate attacks. Use in civilian areas raises concerns about adherence to these principles.
Learn the difference UPSC might trick you in prelims
| Criteria |
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) |
Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) |
| Objective |
Comprehensive elimination of chemical weapons, toxic chemicals, and precursors. |
Restriction of specific conventional weapons causing excessive harm. |
| Coverage |
Covers a broad range of chemical agents used in warfare. |
Addresses particular categories such as incendiary weapons, blinding lasers. |
| Focus |
Prohibits the development, production, and use of chemical weapons. |
Addresses concerns related to specific conventional weapons without complete prohibition. |
| Verification |
Robust verification regime, including inspections and declarations. |
Less extensive verification mechanisms, more targeted to specific weapon categories. |
| Examples |
Prohibition of nerve agents like Sarin and VX. |
Regulations on incendiary weapons like white phosphorus, blinding lasers. |
Legality in its use:
- Not covered by the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) when used as an incendiary weapon, not for chemical warfare. White phosphorus, although a chemical agent and toxic, is not covered by the CWC
- Regulated by Protocol III under the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW). Protocol III under the CCW specifically deals with incendiary weapons. Article 1 of this protocol defines an “incendiary weapon” as a weapon or munition primarily designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to persons through the action of flame, heat, or combination thereof, produced by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on the target.
- Article 1(b)(i) includes an exemption in this classification for munitions that may cause unintended incendiary effects, such as illuminants, tracers, smoke, or signalling systems.
- White phosphorus munitions are primarily intended to produce illuminating and smokescreen effects, with the incendiary aspects being secondary or unintentional. Consequently, incendiary munitions clearly fall within the exceptions outlined in Protocol III’s definition of an “incendiary weapon.”
- When employed as an incendiary weapon and not for chemical warfare, white phosphorus falls under the regulations of Protocol III of the CCW.
- However, Protocol III does not effectively regulate multi-purpose munitions such as those containing white phosphorus, which can cause harm in the same way as the incendiary weapons it defines.
Ongoing Concerns:
- Recent accusations against Israel highlight continued concerns about the use of WP in conflict zones.
- Its effects on civilians and the environment underscore the importance of legal regulations.
- White phosphorus has diverse applications, including creating smoke screens and as an ingredient in incendiary devices.
- Environmental dangers and ethical concerns arise due to its potential to cause severe burns and suffering.
Way Forward:
- Strengthening Protocol III to effectively regulate multi-purpose munitions, including those containing white phosphorus.
- Consideration of legal precedents, such as the Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons and Additional Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions.
- Emphasis on upholding international law, treaties, and protocols to reduce harm to civilians and the environment.
- Strengthening legal frameworks and removing ambiguities would enhance global efforts to curb the misuse of substances like white phosphorus in armed conflicts.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISI7017 (Part 2 / Sec 7) 2023: India's Charging Standard
Mains level: EV infrastructure promotion
Central Idea
- India’s Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) recently approved an innovative charging connector standard, ISI7017 (Part 2 / Sec 7): 2023, designed for light electric vehicles (LEVs) like scooters, bikes, and rickshaws.
Why discuss this?
- This pioneering standard combines alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) charging, making it the world’s first of its kind.
- Much like universal mobile phone charging standards, this initiative aims to enhance interoperability and charging convenience for EV users in India.
ISI7017 (Part 2 / Sec 7) 2023: India’s Charging Standard
- AC and DC Integration: The newly approved standard represents a groundbreaking approach by merging AC and DC charging technologies for LEVs. Unlike existing norms primarily catering to four-wheelers, this standard addresses the unique requirements of two-wheelers and rickshaws.
- Interoperability Advantages: The concept of a combined charging standard offers compelling interoperability benefits, accommodating diverse EV models and charging infrastructure providers. It aligns with global trends that prioritize seamless EV charging experiences.
Need for a National Standard in India
- Diverse Charging Standards: In India, there is currently no mandate for EV manufacturers to adhere to a specific charging connector standard. As a result, companies like Ola Electric, Ather Energy, and Ultraviolette Automotive employ different charging standards for their EVs.
- Challenges of Multiple Standards: The proliferation of unique charging standards among EV manufacturers complicates the establishment of public charging stations, exacerbating range anxiety—an apprehension that EVs may run out of charge with limited charging options.
Global Charging Connector Scenarios
- China’s National Standard: China, the world’s largest electric car market, employs a national standard known as GB/T. Supported by an extensive charging network, this standard has effectively tackled range anxiety concerns.
- United States’ Collaborative Efforts: Although the U.S. lacks a national standard, leading EV manufacturers such as Ford and General Motors (GM) are collaborating to establish the North American Charging Standard (NACS), partly based on Tesla’s technology.
- Europe’s CCS Standard: Europe predominantly relies on the Combined Charging System (CCS) as its charging connector standard, mandated by the European Union (EU). Even Tesla has integrated CCS ports into its European EVs and Superchargers.
- Japan’s CHAdeMO Standard: Japan’s primary charging standard, CHAdeMO, has seen success domestically but is gradually being phased out in North America.
Conclusion
- India’s innovative AC/DC combined charging connector standard for light electric vehicles marks a significant step toward streamlining EV charging infrastructure.
- While the new standard introduces interoperability advantages, addressing the challenge of diverse charging standards across EV manufacturers remains essential.
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Central idea
The article explores the decline in women’s labor force participation rates, particularly among married women in India, emphasizing its economic implications. It discusses key challenges, including societal norms and limited educational opportunities, while highlighting government schemes and proposing solutions for enhancing women’s participation in the labor market.
Relevant Data from the Article:
- World Bank estimates (2022) indicate a global female LFPR of 47.3%, with India experiencing a decline from 28% to 24% between 1990 and 2022.
- Economist Goldin’s analysis reveals a U-shaped pattern in women’s LFPR during economic growth, influenced by factors like income and substitution effects.
- The article emphasizes the pronounced decline (5%) in female LFPR among married women aged 25 to 49 in India from 2004-05 to 2022-23.
Present Status:
- Married women exhibit a significant decrease in LFPR after marriage due to factors such as limited educational attainment, increased family obligations, and societal disapproval of women in the workforce.
- Data analysis from India’s NSSO Periodic Labour Force Survey indicates a substantial drop in LFPR among married women, especially in the age group of 25-29.
Key Challenges:
- Marital status significantly influences women’s labor market outcomes, with married women showing lower LFPR compared to unmarried counterparts.
- Educational achievement plays a role, with less-educated women displaying a higher inclination to participate in the labor force after marriage.
Government Schemes and Initiatives:
- The National Creche Scheme for The Children of Working Mothers is cited as a government initiative to support women’s labor force participation.
- The article stresses the need for enhancing the quality and accessibility of day-care services to act as an incentive for employed women, especially married women.
Way Forward:
- Solutions proposed include improving day-care services and crèches across various socio-economic strata in both the public and private sectors.
- Work settings prioritizing women’s needs, secure transportation options, and the expansion of part-time job possibilities are suggested to enhance women’s participation in the labor market.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the article underscores the economic impact of the decline in married women’s LFPR in India and advocates for targeted initiatives to promote women’s empowerment. It emphasizes the need for comprehensive solutions, including improved day-care services, supportive work environments, and part-time job opportunities, to address the challenges hindering women’s participation in the labor market.
Do follow https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1908961
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: India vs Bharat narrative
Central Idea
- In 2022, the Social Science committee of the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) proposed a shift from ‘India’ to ‘Bharat’ in Social Science textbooks up to Class 12.
- This suggestion has rekindled the age-old discussion about the nation’s name, particularly after the G20 Summit’s reference to the “President of Bharat.”
Bharat’s Historical Roots
- Puranic Literature and Mahabharata: The name ‘Bharat,’ ‘Bharata,’ or ‘Bharatvarsha’ finds its origins in Puranic literature and the epic Mahabharata. It refers to the land between the southern sea and the northern abode of snow.
- King Bharata: Legend has it that King Bharata, an ancient figure, was the ancestor of the Bharatas, a Rig Vedic tribe, making him the forefather of the entire subcontinent’s populace.
India’ and ‘Hindustan’
- Hindustan’s Origins: ‘Hindustan’ likely evolved from ‘Hindu,’ the Persian equivalent of Sanskrit’s ‘Sindhu,’ influenced by the Achaemenid Persian conquest of the Indus valley in the 6th century BCE. The suffix “stan” emerged around the 1st century CE, creating “Hindustan.”
- Greek Influence: The Greeks transliterated ‘Hind’ as ‘Indus,’ and by Alexander the Great’s 3rd-century BC invasion, ‘India’ referred to the region beyond the Indus.
- Mughal Era: In the 16th century, ‘Hindustan’ described the entire Indo-Gangetic plain, encompassing the Mughal emperor’s territories across South Asia.
- British Colonial Impact: British maps in the late 18th century started using ‘India,’ while ‘Hindustan’ lost its association with the whole of South Asia, reflecting evolving perspectives and colonial influence.
Constituent Assembly’s Decision
- Article 1 of the Constitution: Article 1 of the Indian Constitution begins with the phrase, “India, that is, Bharat, shall be a Union of States.”
- Debate and Perspectives: During the Constituent Assembly discussions, there were differing opinions on emphasizing ‘Bharat’ as the primary name for the country.
- Pro-‘Bharat’ Arguments: Some argued that ‘India’ was merely an English translation of ‘Bharat,’ citing the example of the Irish Constitution, where “Eire” is used in the Irish language, with “Ireland” in English.
- Historical and Cultural Significance: Supporters of ‘Bharat’ highlighted the civilizational and cultural connotations it carried, emphasizing the need for a name that befits India’s history and heritage.
- Dr. BR Ambedkar’s Perspective: Ultimately, the formulation ‘India, that is, Bharat,’ was adopted. Dr. BR Ambedkar, Chairman of the Constituent Assembly’s Drafting Committee, downplayed the civilizational debates and emphasized the pressing work ahead.
Conclusion
- The ongoing debate surrounding ‘Bharat’ and ‘India’ reflects the complexities of identity, history, and linguistic heritage in the nation.
- While ‘Bharat’ has deep roots in ancient Indian texts, ‘India’ carries historical and colonial significance.
- The Constituent Assembly’s choice of ‘India, that is, Bharat,’ signifies a delicate balance between honoring heritage and embracing a forward-looking identity for the nation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) have diligently monitored the gender earnings gap in India from April-June 2019 to 2023.
- This latest iteration places a vital spotlight on weekly hours worked, unveiling that the inequity in total earnings may not fully encapsulate the true narrative.
Examining the Gender Earnings Disparities
- Claudia Goldin’s Pioneering Work: Building upon Nobel laureate Claudia Goldin’s research, India’s gender disparities in employment and wages come into focus.
- Earnings Converted to Weekly Figures: Earnings for various worker categories are transformed into weekly earnings.
- Ratio of Weekly Earnings: Table 1 displays the ratio of weekly earnings between men and women at the national level, encompassing rural and urban sectors. A figure above 1 denotes men earning more than women.
- Persistent Gender Gap: Men out-earn women across all forms of work, with the self-employed experiencing the most significant gender gap in 2023, where men earned 2.8 times more than women. In contrast, male regular wage workers earned 24% more, and male casual workers earned 48% more than their female counterparts. The gender earnings gap remains a persistent challenge.
- Changing Trends: Notably, the gender gap has increased for self-employed workers but decreased for regular wage workers, dropping to 24% in 2023 from 34% in 2019.
Analyzing Average Weekly Work Hours
- Incomplete Picture: Disparities in earnings per unit of work are not entirely elucidated by the earnings gap alone. Women consistently work fewer hours than men across all forms of employment, as depicted in Table 2.
- Largest Gap for the Self-Employed: In 2023, men in self-employment worked 50% more hours than women, while the gap was the smallest for regular wage workers (19%).
- Rising Gender Gap in Hours Worked: The gender gap in hours worked has expanded, particularly for self-employed women, indicating an increase in part-time employment among them. Simultaneously, male self-employed workers continue full-time work.
Diving Deeper into Hourly Earnings Gap
- Hourly Earnings Analysis: Calculations of hourly earnings for each worker category reveal the ratio between men and women’s hourly earnings, as presented in Table 3.
- Significant Reduction in Regular Wage Workers’ Gap: In 2023, men in regular wage employment earned 24% more than women over the week but worked 19% longer hours. The hourly earnings gap narrows to approximately 4%, down from 11% in 2019.
- Hourly Earnings Parity in Regular Wage Work: On average, women in regular employment earn less per week but nearly match men when hourly earnings are considered. However, these averages mask nuanced disparities across occupations and industries.
- Higher Inequality in Other Employment Types: Inequality in hourly earnings is more pronounced in other work categories, albeit lower than when assessing total earnings. In 2023, male casual workers earned 23% more per hour than women, a reduction from 33% in 2019. Conversely, the self-employed category witnessed an increase in the hourly earnings gap from 84% in 2019 to 87% in 2023.
Factors Influencing Work Hours
- Beyond Pure Choice: Lower hourly earnings inequality for regular wage workers doesn’t imply women opt for shorter work hours by choice.
- Societal barriers: Barriers, such as societal expectations that women manage domestic and childcare duties, may limit their employment options.
Conclusion
- Addressing both remuneration disparities and disparities in total work hours is crucial.
- Policymakers should target the removal of barriers that curtail women’s working hours.
- This involves workplace interventions like mandating childcare facilities and extended maternity leaves and broader societal transformations that challenge traditional gender norms and share childcare and domestic responsibilities more equitably.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lok Sabha Ethics Committee
Mains level: Various parliamentary committees
Central Idea
- The Lok Sabha Ethics Committee, set up over two decades ago, plays a pivotal role in overseeing the conduct of members and addressing cases of misconduct.
- While it predominantly handles relatively minor offenses, its significance in maintaining ethical standards in Parliament cannot be understated.
History of Ethics Committees
- Origin in 1996: The concept of ethics panels for the two Houses of Parliament was first proposed during a Presiding Officers’ Conference in Delhi in 1996.
- Rajya Sabha’s Pioneering Committee: Vice President K R Narayanan, who served as Rajya Sabha Chairman, established the Ethics Committee for the Upper House on March 4, 1997. It officially commenced its duties in May of the same year.
- Lok Sabha’s Journey: Lok Sabha’s Ethics Committee journey was delayed initially. A study group within the House Committee of Privileges recommended its formation in 1997 after studying legislative ethics practices worldwide. However, it only became a permanent fixture in the Lok Sabha in 2015, following its ad hoc establishment in 2000.
Procedure for Complaints
- Complaint Origins: Any person can file a complaint against a Member of Parliament (MP) through another Lok Sabha MP. The complaint must be accompanied by evidence of alleged misconduct and an affidavit confirming its authenticity. MPs can also lodge complaints without the need for an affidavit.
- Speaker’s Role: The Speaker can refer any complaint against an MP to the Ethics Committee.
- Prima Facie Inquiry: The Committee conducts a preliminary inquiry to determine if a complaint warrants further examination. It proceeds to evaluate and make recommendations after this stage.
- Report Presentation: The Committee presents its findings to the Speaker, who seeks the House’s input on whether to consider the report. A half-hour discussion on the report can also be scheduled.
Privileges Committee Comparison
- Overlapping Responsibilities: The Ethics Committee and the Privileges Committee occasionally deal with similar cases. More serious allegations typically go to the Privileges Committee.
- Privileges Committee’s Mandate: The Privileges Committee safeguards the “freedom, authority, and dignity of Parliament.” It can address breaches of privilege by MPs or non-MPs that undermine the House’s authority and dignity.
- Ethics Committee’s Scope: The Ethics Committee primarily focuses on cases of misconduct involving MPs.
2005 Cash-for-Query Case
- Expulsion of MPs: In 2005, a significant episode unfolded when both Houses expelled 10 Lok Sabha MPs and one Rajya Sabha MP implicated in the cash-for-query scandal. They were accused of accepting money to raise questions in Parliament.
- Bansal Committee’s Report: The Lok Sabha took action based on the report of a special committee led by Chandigarh MP P K Bansal. In contrast, Rajya Sabha entrusted the House Ethics Committee with investigating the matter.
- Evidence in the 2005 Case: Former Lok Sabha Secretary General P D T Achary noted that the 2005 case was backed by substantial evidence from a sting operation. Establishing a money trail could be the challenge in the recent Bengal MP case.
Conclusion
- The Lok Sabha Ethics Committee, although historically ad hoc and relatively recent in its permanent establishment, plays a critical role in upholding the ethical standards of India’s parliamentary members.
- It serves as a guardian of parliamentary ethics, ensuring that members adhere to the highest moral standards while fulfilling their legislative responsibilities.
- The Committee’s work, while often overshadowed, is integral to maintaining the integrity of the Lok Sabha.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISA, Solar Stocktake
Mains level: Solar Energy Transition
Central Idea
- The International Solar Alliance (ISA), a coalition of 116 member nations committed to advancing global solar technology adoption, is set to unveil its inaugural ‘global solar stock-take report.’
- This initiative is inspired by the United Nations’ inaugural ‘Global Stocktake’ event, slated for Dubai later this year.
About International Solar Alliance (ISA)
- The ISA is an alliance of more than 121 countries, most of them being sunshine countries, which lie either completely or partly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
- It is headquartered in Gurugram, India.
- The primary objective of the alliance is to work for efficient exploitation of solar energy to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
- The alliance is a treaty-based inter-governmental organization.
- The initiative was launched by PM Modi at the India Africa Summit and a meeting of member countries ahead of the 2015 UN Climate Change Conference in Paris in November 2015.
ISA’s Solar Stocktake
- First-Ever Report: The ISA’s ‘solar stocktake’ report marks a historic endeavor, with its release scheduled for mid-November.
- Assessing Progress: The report will comprehensively evaluate the strides made by nations in the adoption of solar energy.
- Global Solar Investment: Notably, investments in solar energy have surged, reaching nearly $300 billion in 2020 and approximately $380 billion in 2022. However, there is significant manufacturing concentration in China.
- Diversifying Solar Manufacturing: The ISA aims to explore strategies for diversifying solar manufacturing beyond China.
ISA’s Commitment to Solar Expansion
- Leadership: The ISA, co-led by India and France, is gearing up for its sixth annual meeting, scheduled in Delhi.
- Africa Solar Focus: One of the ISA’s primary objectives is to expand solar installations in Africa. To facilitate this, the Global Solar Facility (GSF) has been established.
- Global Solar Facility (GSF): The GSF consists of three funds: a payment guarantee fund, an insurance fund to mitigate project risks, and an investment fund for technical assistance.
- Expanding to Other Regions: Following its work in Africa, the ISA aims to extend its efforts to West Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
Global Solar Energy Landscape
- Growing Solar Capacity: As of 2022, global solar photovoltaic installations reached 1,133 gigawatts (GW), with an impressive addition of 191 GW in 2022.
- Chinese Dominance: China, despite not being an ISA member, accounts for nearly a quarter of global solar installations, at around 350 GW. The United States, an ISA member, follows with 111 GW. India, also an ISA member, ranks among the top five countries globally, with 62 GW of solar capacity.
Conclusion
- The ISA’s ‘solar stocktake’ report represents a significant milestone in the global push for solar energy adoption.
- As the world grapples with the imperative to transition to renewable energy sources, this initiative offers insights into progress and challenges.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wilkes Land
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Scientists have unveiled a vast ancient landscape buried beneath the continent’s ice sheet, offering a glimpse into a time when it was not a frozen wilderness but a land of rivers and forests teeming with life.
- This discovery, located in East Antarctica’s Wilkes Land region, holds clues to Antarctica’s environmental history and the mysteries of its distant past.
What is Wilkes Land?
- Wilkes Land is a region located in Antarctica, on the eastern side of the continent.
- It is one of the largest unclaimed territories in Antarctica, primarily because it is covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which makes it difficult to access and study.
- It was named after US Navy Officer Charles Wilkes, who led the exploring expedition (1838–1842).
- This expedition was the first to extensively explore and map large parts of the Antarctic coastline, including the area that came to be known as Wilkes Land.
- The East Antarctic Ice Sheet in Wilkes Land, in particular, contains valuable information about the history of climate change and ice sheet dynamics, which are critical for understanding global climate patterns and sea-level rise.
Antarctica’s Geological Journey
- Gondwana Supercontinent: Antarctica was once part of the Gondwana supercontinent, which included modern-day continents like Africa, South America, Australia, and the Indian subcontinent. It later separated due to plate tectonics.
- Evolution of Landscape: Researchers suggest that as Antarctica’s climate warmed, rivers flowed across this newfound landscape toward coastlines formed during continental separation. Subsequent cooling led to glacial erosion, preserving the landscape for millions of years.
About the Under-Glacier Landscape
- Rediscovering Ancient Antarctica: Satellite observations and ice-penetrating radar have unveiled a sprawling ancient landscape beneath Antarctica’s ice sheet.
- Geographic Scope: The discovered landscape spans an area roughly equivalent to Belgium or the U.S. state of Maryland and is situated in East Antarctica’s Wilkes Land region, bordering the Indian Ocean.
- Time Frame: This ancient terrain is estimated to date back to at least 14 million years ago and potentially extend even further, to over 34 million years ago, coinciding with Antarctica’s transition into a frozen continent.
Snapshot of a Different Era
- A Window to the Past: The landscape offers a snapshot of an earlier time when Antarctica enjoyed warmer climates. The specific appearance remains uncertain, but it might have ranged from temperate to even tropical conditions.
- Wildlife Enigma: While it’s likely that this environment supported diverse wildlife, the incomplete fossil record leaves the identity of its inhabitants shrouded in mystery.
Beneath the Ice
- Icy Cover: The ancient landscape lies beneath approximately 2.2 to 3 km of ice, creating an enigmatic world hidden from human view.
- Exploration Challenges: The land beneath Antarctica’s ice remains more enigmatic than the surface of Mars. Researchers propose drilling through the ice to obtain sediment core samples, potentially revealing ancient flora and fauna, much like Greenland samples dating back 2 million years.
How was it identified?
- Scientific Methods: The study employed satellite observations and ice-penetrating radar data gathered from overflight missions.
- Unique Discovery: While previous research uncovered ancient landscapes beneath Antarctica’s ice, this discovery stands out as the first of its kind, shaped by rivers and distinct geological processes.
- Changing Climates: Antarctica’s landscape and climate underwent significant transformations, resembling cold temperate rainforests before cooling to its frozen state.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fertilizer Subsidy
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Union Cabinet has announced revisions to the per-kilogram subsidy rates for nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and sulphur fertilizers under the nutrient-based regime, distinguishing between the October-March and April-September periods.
Subsidy Rate Changes
- Nitrogen (N): The subsidy per kilogram for nitrogen has decreased by 38% between the first half of FY-24 and the October-March period.
- Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus subsidy has been reduced by 49%.
- Potassium (K): Subsidy for potassium has seen an 84% reduction.
- Sulphur (S): Sulphur subsidy has been lowered by 32.5% during the same period.
Why discuss this?
- Fertilizer subsidies have been an integral part of India’s agricultural landscape since the Green Revolution of the 1970s-80s.
- This overview delves into the concept of fertilizer subsidies, their disbursement, and associated challenges.
Understanding Fertilizer Subsidy
- Origins: Fertilizer subsidies emerged during the Green Revolution to boost agricultural productivity.
- Subsidized Pricing: Fertilizer subsidy entails farmers purchasing fertilizers at prices below the Maximum Retail Price (MRP), often lower than market rates.
- Determining Subsidy Rates: Subsidy rates are influenced by the average price of imported fertilizer over the preceding six months.
Recipient and Payment of Subsidy
- Beneficiary: While fertilizer companies receive the subsidy, it ultimately benefits farmers who procure fertilizers at rates lower than market prices.
- Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT): Since March 2018, the government introduced a DBT system, where subsidy payments to companies occur post-actual sales to farmers via retailers.
- Retailer’s Role: Each of India’s 2.3 lakh retailers is equipped with a point-of-sale (PoS) machine linked to the Department of Fertilizers’ e-Urvarak DBT portal.
- Neem-Coated Urea Illustration: Neem-coated urea serves as an example. The government fixes its MRP at Rs. 5,922.22 per tonne, while domestic production costs about Rs. 17,000 per tonne. The variance is covered by the central government through subsidy disbursement.
Non-Urea Fertilizers
- Decontrolled Pricing: Non-urea fertilizers have pricing determined by companies rather than government intervention.
- Two Categories: These non-urea fertilizers are categorized into DAP (Diammonium Phosphate) and MOP (Muriate of Phosphate).
- Flat Subsidy: The government provides a uniform per-tonne subsidy to maintain soil nutrition levels and ensure the affordability of other fertilizers.
Challenges Associated with Fertilizer Subsidies
- Low Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE): Indian soil exhibits low NUE, primarily found in Urea, leading to excessive use and groundwater pollution.
- Groundwater Contamination: Excessive fertilizer application contributes to groundwater contamination.
- Overuse: Urea applied to the soil results in losses as NH3 (Ammonia) and Nitrogen Oxides, surpassing WHO-prescribed limits, particularly in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
- Health Impacts: Nitrate-contaminated water poses health risks, including “blue baby syndrome” in humans.
Conclusion
- Fertilizer subsidies are a crucial aspect of Indian agriculture, aiding farmers by reducing the cost of essential inputs.
- However, challenges such as overuse, groundwater pollution, and health concerns warrant a comprehensive approach to ensure sustainable and responsible fertilizer usage in the country.
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