Month: April 2024

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

Sympathetic Solar Flares

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Sympathetic Solar Flares, Coronal Mass Ejections (CME), Solar Cycle

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

A rare celestial event unfolded as four solar flares called as Sympathetic Solar Flares simultaneously, signaling the onset of the Sun’s dynamic 11-year solar cycle.

What is a Solar Cycle?

  • Given the Sun’s dynamic nature, electrically charged gases on its surface generate powerful magnetic fields, known as magnetic fields.
  • These magnetic fields undergo stretching, twisting, and tangling due to the constant movement of gases on the Sun’s surface, resulting in solar activity.
  • Scientists monitor solar cycles using sunspots. Solar activity fluctuates throughout the solar cycle, which typically spans about 11 years. 
  • The onset of a solar cycle typically features minimal sunspot activity, termed as a solar minimum.
  • For instance, the last Solar Cycle 25 commenced in December 2019, characterized by a low number of sunspots.

What are Sympathetic Solar Flares?

  • Sympathetic solar flares are solar eruptions that occur in close temporal and spatial proximity to another solar flare or eruption.
  • These events are believed to be interconnected through magnetic fields or other physical processes occurring on the Sun.
  • When a solar flare or eruption happens on the Sun, it releases a burst of electromagnetic radiation and charged particles into space.
  • In some cases, the energy released during these events can cause disturbances in the Sun’s magnetic field.
  • These disturbances can trigger the occurrence of additional flares loop or eruptions in nearby regions of the Sun’s surface.
  • This event follows coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and intense plasma bursts.

Implications for Earth

  • Potential impacts include disruptions to power grids, interference with communication networks, and increased radiation exposure for astronauts and aircraft passengers.
  • Solar storms can lead to spectacular natural light shows known as auroras, which are typically visible near the Earth’s magnetic poles.

PYQ:

[2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs:

(a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat

(b) the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation

(c) all the solar radiations

(d) the infrared part of the solar radiation

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Unveiling the Link between Fairness Creams and Nephrotic Syndrome

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Mercury Poisoning, Membranous Nephropathy, Minamata Convention.

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • Researchers from Kerala reported 15 cases of Membranous Nephropathy (MN) linked to the regular application of fairness creams.
  • These creams contained high levels of mercury, sometimes exceeding the safe limit by 10,000 times.

Mercury Contamination in Hair Cream

  • Blood and urine screenings of affected individuals unveiled alarmingly high levels of mercury, a well-known toxic element.
  • The fairness creams contained mercury levels up to 10,000 times above the permissible limit of 1 ppm under Minamata Convention (2013).
  • Most cases were PLA2R (phospholipase A2 receptor) negative, indicating a different cause.
  • Cases of MN linked to Neural epidermal growth factor-like protein 1 (NELL-1) have been identified.
  • NELL-1 has been associated with MN caused by traditional medicines containing high mercury levels.

Understanding Membranous Nephropathy

  • Membranous Nephropathy (MN) is a nephrotic syndrome, characterized by excessive protein leakage into urine, eventually leading to kidney failure. Symptoms such as fatigue, edema, and proteinuria were found to have a history of regular fairness cream usage.

Impact of Mercury:

  • Mercury in fairness creams inhibits melanin formation, resulting in lighter skin. Consumers perceive higher mercury levels as more effective for skin whitening.
  • Mercury, a potent heavy metal found in these creams, penetrates the body through various channels, including sweat glands and hair follicles, causing systemic toxicity.
  • Chronic exposure to mercury can result in kidney damage, neurological disorders, and a myriad of other health complications.

Back2Basics: Minamata Convention on Mercury

  • The Minamata Convention on Mercury is devised to safeguard human health and the environment from the detrimental impacts of mercury and its derivatives.
  • Its name derives from the Japanese bay where, during the mid-20th century, industrial wastewater tainted with mercury inflicted severe health damage upon thousands of individuals, leading to what is now recognized as “Minamata disease.”
  • Signed in 2013 and enforced in 2017, it operates as a United Nations treaty under the purview of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
  • Countries ratifying the Convention are legally obliged under international law to implement these regulations.
  • 128 countries are signatories, with 119 of them having ratified it; India became a party by ratifying it in 2018.

Activities covered by the Convention:

  • The Convention encompasses all phases of the mercury life cycle, aiming to regulate and diminish mercury usage across various products, processes, and industries.
  • This encompasses regulations about:
    • Mercury mining involves bans on new mines and the gradual phase-out of existing ones.
    • Gradual reduction and elimination of mercury utilization in numerous products and procedures.
    • Control measures address emissions into the atmosphere and release into soil and water bodies.
    • Oversight of the informal artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector.
    • Management of interim mercury storage and its disposal once classified as waste, as well as remediation of mercury-contaminated sites and associated health issues.

 

PYQ:

[2010] Indiscriminate disposal of used fluorescent electric lamps causes mercury pollution in the environment. Why is mercury used in the manufacture of these lamps?

(a) A mercury coating on the inside of the lamp makes the light bright white

(b) When the lamp is switched on, the mercury in the lamp causes the emission of ultra-violet radiations

(c) When the lamp is switched on, it is the mercury which converts the ultra-violet energy into visible light

(d) None of the statement given above is correct about the use of mercury in the manufacture of fluorescent lamps

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Corruption Challenges – Lokpal, POCA, etc

Why Centre filed an application to modify 2G spectrum scam judgement

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Spectrum

Mains level: What is the 2G scam case?

Why in the news? 

Attorney General R Venkataramani, on April 22, mentioned an application filed by the Centre to modify the Supreme Court’s 2012 judgement in the 2G spectrum scam case.

What is the 2G scam case?

  • In 2008, under then Telecom Minister A Raja, the Department of Telecommunications (DoT) issued 2G spectrum licenses to specific telecom operators on a first-cum-first-serve basis.
  • In 2009 ,the Central Vigilance Commission directed the CBI to investigate claims that there were illegalities in the allocation of licenses, following which the CBI filed a first information report against unknown officers of the DoT, private persons and companies.
  • In the meantime, the Centre for Public Interest Litigation and Subramanian Swamy filed petitions at the Supreme Court alleging a Rs 70,000 crore scam in the grant of telecom licenses in 2008.
  • In 2010, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) filed a report claiming that the allocation had caused a loss of Rs 1.76 lakh crores to the public exchequer. Raja resigned shortly after.
  • In 2011 the CBI filed its first chargesheet, in which Raja was an accused.
  • In February 2012, the Supreme Court cancelled the 122 licenses granted during Raja’s tenure. The court found that Raja had allocated licenses in 2008 based on 2001 prices in order to benefit specific private telecom operators.

Why is the Centre seeking a modification of the apex court’s decision?

  • Need for Non-commercial Use: The Centre highlights that spectrum allocation is essential not only for commercial telecommunication services but also for public interest functions such as security, safety, and disaster preparedness. These functions may not always align with the profit-oriented nature of auction processes.
  • Situational Preferences: The Centre argues that there are situations where auctions are not technically or economically preferred or optimal. This could include scenarios where there is a one-time or sporadic use of spectrum, which may not justify the complexities and costs associated with conducting auctions.
  • Court’s Clarification on Auctions: The Centre refers to the Supreme Court’s clarification in September 2012, stating that the auction method prescribed in 2012 was not a constitutional principle and not an absolute or blanket statement applicable across all natural resources. The Court expressed respect for the executive’s discretion in such matters.
  • Seeking Clarity for Administrative Process: In light of the Court’s clarification, the Centre seeks clarity on whether it can allocate 2G spectrum in the future through an administrative process if determined through due process and in accordance with the law. This indicates a desire for flexibility in spectrum allocation methods based on situational considerations and public interest needs.

Conclusion: 

Need to implement transparent processes for the allocation of public resources such as spectrum. Clearly outline the criteria, procedures, and timelines for allocation, and ensure that these are accessible to all stakeholders.Establish independent oversight bodies or regulatory agencies to monitor and audit the allocation process.

Mains PYQ:

Q What is mean by public interest? What are the principles and procedures to be followed by the civil servants in public interest? (UPSC IAS/2018)

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RBI Notifications

RBI’s latest recommendations to regulate payment aggregators in offline spaces | Explained

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Payment aggregators

Mains level: What exactly are the norms about?

Why in the news?

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has floated two consultation papers seeking enhanced regulation of payment aggregators carrying out face-to-face transactions. It also seeks to strengthen the ecosystem’s safety.

What is Payment Aggregators?

  • A payment aggregator is a payment solution or a platform provider that aggregates various payment modes such cards, UPI, net-banking, wallets and alternate credit products by partnering with various processing entities such as acquiring banks, direct banks (in case of net banking) and issuers of wallets and alt credit products on to a single platform.

What exactly are the norms about?  

  • Extension to Offline Transactions: The existing guidelines for payment aggregators cover their activities in e-commerce and online platforms. The latest draft proposes extending these regulations to offline spaces, including proximity or face-to-face transactions.
  • Convergence on Standards: The proposed norms aim to achieve convergence on standards of data collection and storage across online and offline transactions handled by payment aggregators.
  • Elaborate Guidelines: The proposed norms are detailed and comprehensive, reflecting lessons learned from incidents such as the Paytm Payments Bank crisis.
  • Strengthening Ecosystem: RBI’s objective seems to be strengthening the payment aggregator ecosystem against opacity and ensuring compliance with regulatory standards.
  • Penalties for Non-Compliance: The Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND) imposed penalties on Paytm Payments Bank for engaging in illegal activities and failing to adhere to regulatory requirements, indicating strict consequences for non-compliance with the proposed norms.

Is registration with the RBI being made compulsory?  

The primary focus of this guidlines is on non-bank PAs and within them, the offline extensions.

  • PA based on Bank: Banks providing physical PA services as part of their normal banking relationship would not require any separate authorisation from the RBI. They are only expected to comply with the revised instructions within three months after they are issued.
  • PA without Banking: Non-banking entities providing PA services at the point of sale (PoS), that is, offline, would have to inform RBI within 60 days (after the circular is issued), about their intent to seek authorisation.

Does it talk about provisions for sustainability?  

  • Minimum net worth aims to ensure the sustainability of non-banking entities: While the proposed norms primarily focus on regulatory compliance and financial stability, the requirement for a minimum net worth aims to ensure the sustainability of non-banking entities providing proximity/face-to-face transaction services. This is because entities with a stronger financial base are better positioned to weather economic challenges and uncertainties, thus promoting sustainability in the long run.
  • Risk-Based Payments: Payment aggregators are required to assign risk-based payments to merchants, focusing on sustainability. This involves assessing the risk associated with each merchant and adjusting payment terms accordingly.

What about KYC requirements?  

  • Extended Scope of KYC: The proposed regulations aim to extend the scope of Know Your Customer (KYC) requirements for merchants onboarded by payment aggregators. While KYC is already mandatory, the regulations seek to make the provisions more nuanced.
  • Document Verification for Medium Merchants: Medium merchants, with a higher annual turnover threshold, must undergo additional document verification. Payment aggregators are expected to verify one official document each of the proprietor, beneficial owner or attorney holder, and the stated business.
  • Ongoing Compliance Monitoring: Payment aggregators must ensure that transactions undertaken by their merchants are in line with their business profiles. This involves ongoing monitoring to ensure compliance with KYC requirements and business activities.

Conclusion: 

The proposed norms aim to achieve convergence on standards of data collection and storage across both online and offline transactions handled by payment aggregators. This helps in streamlining regulatory requirements and ensuring consistency in data management practices.

Mains PYQ 

Q  How can the Digital India program help farmers to improve farm productivity and income? What step has the government taken in this regard? (UPSC IAS/2015)

With Inputs from:

https://www.thehindu.com/business/rbi-clampdown-on-lenders-could-moderate-credit-growth-in-2024-25/article67994838.ece

https://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/rbi-to-introduce-offline-erupee-transactions-soon-shaktikanta-das/article67824286.ece

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Judicial Appointments Conundrum Post-NJAC Verdict

SC declines plea against Collegium system to protect public’s best interest

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Registrar of supreme court

Mains level: Collegium system

Why in the news? 

The petition, filed by advocate Mathews Nedumpara, seeks a revival of the NJAC. SC Registrar says the issue is already settled, and a repeat litigation is a “needless waste of judicial time and energy”

What is the Registrar of supreme court?

  • The registrar is a chief executive officer of a judicial forum. They are in charge of the entire registry of the department.

What is NJAC (National Judicial Appointments Commission)? 

  • In August 2014, Parliament passed the Constitution (99th Amendment) Act, 2014 along with the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, 2014, providing for the creation of an independent commission to appoint judges to the Supreme Court and high courts.
  • In 2015, Supreme Court struck down the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) and the 99th Amendment

Actually, Collegium system is used for the appointment of SC Judges 

First Judges Case (1981): 

  • Also known as S.P. Gupta case (December 30, 1981), the Supreme Court held that consultation does not mean concurrence and it only implies exchange of views
  • It declared that the “primacy” of the Chief Justice of India (CJI)s recommendation on judicial appointments and transfers can be refused for “cogent reasons.”
  • The ruling gave the Executive primacy over the Judiciary in judicial appointments.

Second Judges Case (1993):

  • SC reversed its earlier ruling and changed the meaning of the word consultation to concurrence.
  • Hence, it ruled that the advice tendered by the Chief Justice of India is binding on the President in the matters of appointment of the judges of the Supreme Court.
  • But, the Chief Justice would tender his advice on the matter after consulting two of his senior most colleagues (this was considered as Collegium)
  • The collegium can veto the government if the names are sent back by the latter for reconsideration.
  • The basic tenet behind the collegium system is that the judiciary should have primacy over the government in matters of appointments and transfers in order to remain independent.
  • The opinions of each member of the Collegium and other judges consulted should be made in writing and form part of the file on the candidate sent to the government.
  • Thus, the executive element in the appointment process was reduced to a minimum.
  • If the CJI had consulted non-judges, he should make a memorandum containing the substance of consultation, which would also be part of the file. After the receipt of the Collegium recommendation, the Law Minister would forward it to the Prime Minister, who would advise the President in the matter of appointment.

Third Judges Case (1998):

  • SC on President’s reference expanded the Collegium to a five-member body, comprising the CJI and four of his senior-most colleagues while HC collegium is led by its Chief Justice and four other senior most judges of that court.
  • Names recommended for appointment by a HC collegium reaches the government only after approval by the CJI and the SC collegium.

Conclusion: 

The primary argument against the NJAC was that it could potentially undermine judicial independence by giving the executive a significant role in judicial appointments. Any alternative system, including a revised version of the NJAC, would need to ensure that judicial independence is safeguarded.

Mains PYQ 

Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.

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Minority Issues – SC, ST, Dalits, OBC, Reservations, etc.

Madras High Court Ruling on Waqf Properties

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Doctrine of Repugnancy; Sachar Committee, Article 254, Waqf

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • The Madras High Court ruled the Tamil Nadu Public Premises (Eviction of Unauthorised Occupants) Amendment Act of 2010 as repugnant and unconstitutional.
  • The amendment conferred authority on the Tamil Nadu Waqf Board CEO to order evictions, contradicting with the Central legislation, the Waqf Act of 1995.

Madras HC Verdict:

  • Parliament’s 2013 amendment to Waqf Act prevails over Tamil Nadu’s legislation.
  • It already provides uniform and effective mechanisms for possession recovery.

Arguments made by TN:

  • Lawyers argue 2010 amendment exercised power under Concurrent List, required Presidential assent.
  • State law and Central law cannot co-exist, Parliament’s 2013 amendment prevails.
  • Original provisions of Waqf Act not sufficient to deal with encroachments.
  • Tamil Nadu enacted 2010 amendment based on Sachar Committee recommendation.

Sachar Committee:

A seven-member high-level committee headed by former Chief Justice of Delhi High Court Rajinder Sachar to study the social, economic, and educational condition of Muslims in March 2005.

 

What is Doctrine of Repugnancy?

  • The doctrine of repugnancy arises when two laws conflict and produce different outcomes when applied to the same situation.
  • It occurs when the provisions of two laws are so contradictory that complying with one law would mean violating the other.
  • Article 254 of the Indian Constitution establishes the Doctrine of Repugnancy in India, providing a framework for resolving conflicts between Central and State laws.
  • It resolves conflicts between Central and State laws.

Key Provisions of Article 254:

1.    Article 254(1):

  • Declares that if a law passed by a State Legislature contradicts a law passed by Parliament, the State law will be deemed void.
  • The law enacted by Parliament will take precedence over the State law.

2.    Article 254(2):

  • Allows States to enforce legislation that contradicts Parliament’s laws if they receive assent from the President.

 

PYQ:

[2016]  The Parliament of India acquires the power to legislate on any item in the State List in the national interest if a resolution to that effect is passed by the:

(a) Lok Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership

(b) Lok Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its total membership

(c) Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership

(d) Rajya Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its members present and voting

Back2Basics: What is Waqf property and what does the Waqf Act state?

Details
Enactment
  • Enacted by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1954 to centralize Waqf properties.
  • Led to the formation of the Central Waqf Council in 1964.
  • Amended in 1995 under the Congress government of PV Narasimha Rao, granting extensive powers to Waqf Boards.
Key Provisions
  • Section 3(R) of the 1995 amendment designates properties as Waqf if deemed sacred, religious, or charitable according to Muslim law.
  • Article 40 mandates the Waqf Surveyor and Board to determine property ownership.
  • 2013 amendments require State Waqf Boards to appoint Survey Commissioners to manage properties and settle disputes.
Legal Status Property declared as Waqf cannot be contested in court; appeals must be made to the Waqf Board.
Chairmanship
  • Union Minority Welfare Minister serves as ex-officio chairman of the Central Waqf Council.
  • State Waqf Boards consist of seven Muslim members.

Waqf Property
Details
Definition
  • Property donated for charitable purposes in the name of Allah.
  • Donated by individuals for public benefit; no individual ownership rights.
Donation Criteria Must be donated by Muslims above the age of 18.
Ownership
  • Upon donation, property becomes Allah’s possession;
  • Family members have no claim after donor’s demise.
Types Includes movable or immovable property donated for charitable purposes.
Management Overseen by the Waqf Board, responsible for legal matters and property administration.
Total Properties
  • Over 8,65,646 properties registered with the Waqf Board in India.
  • Estimated to cover 8 lakh acres of land with a market value of approximately Rs 1.20 lakh crore.
  • State-wide Share:
  1. West Bengal: More than 80,000 properties registered.
  2. Punjab: 70,994 properties under Waqf Board.
  3. Tamil Nadu: 65,945 properties managed.
  4. Karnataka: 61,195 properties overseen.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Icequakes on Ross Ice Shelf

Prelims Onlyworld map | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Ross Ice Shelf, Whillans Ice Stream

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • Scientists found out that the huge Ross Ice Shelf, almost as big as France, moves forward a few centimetres daily.
  • This happens because of the Whillans Ice Stream, a fast-moving river of ice that sometimes gets stuck and then suddenly moves forward.

About Ross Ice Shelf

  • Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica roughly the size of France.
  • It was discovered by Sir James Clark Ross on 28 January 1841.
  • The shelf spans an area of roughly 500,809 square kilometers, about the size of France or the Yukon Territory in Canada.
  • It is several hundred meters thick. In the shelf’s southern reaches, nearest the True South Pole, the ice can be as thick as 750m.
  • The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long, and between 15 and 50 meters high above the water surface. However, 90% of the floating ice is below the water surface.
  • It is fed primarily by giant glaciers, or ice streams, that transport ice down to it from the high polar ice sheet of East and West Antarctica.
  • Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand.
  • It floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the east of the Ross Sea.

Spotlight: Icequakes on Ross Ice Shelf

  • Influence of Ice Stream: Most glaciers move slowly, but the Whillans Ice Stream stops and starts suddenly. This might happen because there isn’t enough water below to help it move smoothly.
  • Sudden Movements: These sudden movements, like tiny earthquakes, push against the Ross Ice Shelf.
  • Threat to Stability: Even though these daily shifts aren’t caused by humans, they could make the Ross Ice Shelf weaker over time. Ice shelves slow down the flow of ice into the ocean.
  • Retreat of Glacier: If the Ross Ice Shelf gets weaker or breaks, it could speed up melting and raise sea levels.

PYQ:

[2013] On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the largest proportion

(a) Is found in the atmosphere as moisture and clouds

(b) Is found in freshwater lakes and rivers

(c) Exists as groundwater

(d) Exists as soil moisture

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Wetland Conservation

In the news: Pulicat Wetland

Places in newsPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Pulicat Wetland and its topography; Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • Settlement of claims for local communities within Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary boundary raises concerns.
  • State government plans to denotify a significant portion of the sanctuary and Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) for industrial park development.

About Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary

  • Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary is the second-largest bird sanctuary in India.
  • It cuts across Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.
  • The sanctuary is situated along the coast of the Bay of Bengal covering an area of 759 square kilometers.
  • The sanctuary is bordered by the Arani River at its southern tip, the Kalangi River from the Northwest, and the Swarnamukhi River at the northern end.
  • Pulicat Lake runs parallel to the Bay of Bengal and has a sand bar, making it a lagoon of its own kind.
  • Sriharikota, renowned as India’s rocket launch pad and home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.
  • The sanctuary includes 16 island villages and 30 villages adjoining the lake, whose inhabitants depend on the lake for their livelihood.
  • Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary hosts a large number of migratory birds during winter, including gulls, terns, plovers, shanks, curlews, and storks.
  • It is a habitat for a variety of bird species such as flamingos, pelicans, storks, herons, and ducks.

What are the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)?

  •  Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
  • The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
  • They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.

 How are they demarcated?

  • The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does NOT mention the word “Eco-Sensitive Zones”.
  • However, Section 3(2)(v) of the Act, says that Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall be carried out or shall not, subject to certain safeguards.
  • Besides Rule 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of certain considerations.
  • The same criteria have been used by the government to declare No Development Zones (NDZs).

Defining its boundaries

  • An ESZ could go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area as provided in the Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002.
  • Moreover, in the case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are beyond 10 km width, these should be included in the ESZs.
  • Further, even in the context of a particular Protected Area, the distribution of an area of ESZ and the extent of regulation may not be uniform all around and it could be of variable width and extent.

 

PYQ:

 [2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only.

2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.

3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(c) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1 and 3 only

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4) Meeting in Ottawa

IOCR | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • The fourth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4) is happening in Ottawa, Canada.
  • The goal is to finalize a global agreement on plastic pollution by November this year.

What is the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC)?

  • INC is a committee that aims to develop a legally binding international instrument to end plastic pollution by 2025, as mandated by United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) Resolution 5/14.
  • It began working in November 2022 at Punta del Este, Uruguay (INC-1).
    • The second meeting (INC-2) took place in May-June, 2023 at Paris, France.
    • The INC-3 met in Nairobi in December 2023.
  • INC is scheduled to complete its work by the end of 2024.

Key Points from INC-4:

  • Previous meetings (INC-1, INC-2, INC-3) paved the way for this one.
  • They’re focusing on cutting out unnecessary plastic use while still using it for important things like renewable energy.

Future Prospects:

  • INC-5 will happen in Busan, South Korea, and it’s meant to finalize everything.
  • After that, leaders from different countries will sign the agreement.

 

PYQ:

[2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’

(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level

(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.

(d) Both A and B

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Coal and Mining Sector

[pib]  Role of the Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO)

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CCO and its Functions

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

The Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO) recently held inspections of Coal Mines to ensure the accuracy of Coal class and grade declarations.

Coal Sector in Indian Economy:

  • The Indian coal sector is one of the 8 core sectors contributing heavily to the economic development of India.
  • In India, there are 4 grades of coal available: Lignite, Bituminous, Sub-Bituminous, and Anthracite, and out of which Anthracite is the highest grade of coal.
  • More than 70% of Coal reserves in India are mainly found in the South-Central region i.e. in Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand.
  • India is the second-largest producer of Anthracite globally after China.
  • The mining sector accounts for more than 2% contribution to the total GDP of India.
  • India, had a global share of Coal production nearly 9%.
  • India’s share of coal in major imports in FY 2023 was estimated at 8%.
  • India exports coking coal to neighboring countries, including Nepal, Bangladesh, and Bhutan.

About Coal Controller’s Organisation (CCO)

  • The CCO was established in 1975 under the Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Act, 1974.
  • It operates under the Ministry of Coal.
  • It is headquartered in Kolkata and field offices at Dhanbad, Ranchi, Bilaspur, Nagpur, Sambalpur, Kothagudem, and Asansol.

Functions of CCO

  • Regulatory Oversight: Regulates coal industry activities, ensuring compliance with laws and policies.
  • Inspections: It conducts inspections of collieries to ensure the accuracy of coal class and grade declarations under the Colliery Control Rules, 2004 (Amended in 2021).
  • Quality Control: Establishes and enforces standards for coal quality through testing and inspection.
  • Grading and Classification: Categorizes coal into grades based on quality and intended use.
  • Licensing and Permissions: Issues licenses and permits to coal producers, traders, and consumers.
  • Data Collection and Analysis: Collects and analyzes data on coal production, consumption, and market trends.
  • Research and Development: Conducts or sponsors R&D to improve mining techniques and coal quality.
  • Conservation and Sustainability: Formulates policies for coal resource conservation and sustainable development.
  • Enforcement and Compliance: Ensures compliance with coal-related regulations through inspections and enforcement actions.

Grades of Coal in India

The gradation of coal is based on-

  1. Non-Coking Coal: Based on Gross Calorific Value (GCV).
  2. Coking Coal: Ash Content
  3. Semi Coking /Weakly Coking Coal: Ash plus Moisture Content

What is Coke?

  • Coke is a solid carbonaceous material derived from heating coal in the absence of air.
  • It is a porous, hard, black substance with a high carbon content and few impurities.
  • Coke is primarily used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in the process of smelting iron ore to produce steel in a blast furnace.

Types of Coal based on Coking ability

  1. Non-Coking Coal: Non-coking coal, also known as thermal coal, is coal that does not have the ability to undergo conversion into coke when heated in the absence of air. It is primarily used for power generation in thermal power plants, as well as for other industrial applications such as cement production and heating.
  2. Coking Coal: Coking coal, also known as metallurgical coal, is a type of coal that possesses the necessary properties to undergo conversion into coke when heated in the absence of air. Coking coal is characterized by its high carbon content, low ash content, and ability to form a strong, porous coke when heated.
  3. Semi Coking / Weakly Coking Coal: Semi-coking or weakly coking coal is a coal type that falls between non-coking coal and coking coal in terms of its properties. While it does not fully qualify as coking coal due to certain limitations in its coking properties, it exhibits some degree of coking ability when heated.

 

PYQ:

[2022] In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller’s Organization (CCO)?

  1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India.
  2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks.
  3. It hears any objection to the Government’s notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas.
  4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3

(b) 3 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 2 only

(d) 1, 2 and 4

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Air Pollution

On the National Clean Air Programme | Explained

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

Mains level: Key features of NCAP

Why in the news? 

When the Indian government launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, it’s target was to cut the concentration of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) by 20-30% by 2024, from 2017 levels. This was later revised to 40% by 2026.

What is the NCAP?

  • The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched in India in January 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
  • The NCAP aims to achieve reductions in PM10 levels through various measures.

What is PM10? 

  • PM 10, also known as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometers.
  • PM 10 particles can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and prolonged exposure to high levels of PM 10 can lead to serious health problems, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease, and even premature death.

Key features of NCAP (Note: asked in UPSC 2020 mains)

  • Target: Achieving 20% to 30% reduction target in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations by 2024, where 2017 is kept as the base year for the comparison of concentration. But it has been revised to 40% by 2026.
  • Cities based on air quality:Identification of 122 non-attainment cities across the country based on the 2014-2018 Air Quality data.
  • City specific plans: Preparation of city-specific action plans, including measures to strengthen the monitoring network, reduce vehicular/industrial emissions, and increase public awareness.
  • Coordination between centre, state and local: Facilitating collaborative, multi-scale, and cross-sectoral coordination between the relevant central ministries, state governments, and local bodies.
  • Right mix with exixting policies: Establishing a right mix with the existing policies and programs, including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other government initiatives related to climate change.
  • Changes as per additional scientific information: Constant change, activity, and progress to get evolved based on the additional scientific and technical information as they emerge.
  • Monitoring station: Increasing the number of monitoring stations in the country, including rural monitoring stations, technology support, and data analysis.
  • Awareness and capicity building: Emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives, including public awareness campaigns, training programs, and research and development activities.

 Challenges related to NCAP 

  • Lack of fund Utilization: On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized so far, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent 0% and 1% of their NCAP funds, respectively.
  • Implementation Delays: Delays in implementing CAAPs are attributed to various factors, including bureaucratic hurdles such as delays in approvals from competent authorities and the absence of standard operating procedures.
  • Technical Challenges: Technical challenges, such as defining technical specifications for tendering processes and procuring necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, contribute to implementation delays.

How scientific tool can help?

  • Emissions Inventory (EI): EIs provide crucial insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, aiding in forecasting future emissions and shaping targeted pollution control strategies. 
  • Source Apportionment (SA) Studies: SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
  • Role of Air Quality (AQ) Modelling: AQ modelling helps in understanding pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
  • Role of EI, SA and AQ: Combining EI, SA studies, and AQ modelling allows for a comprehensive understanding of pollution sources, their contributions, and dispersion patterns.

Conclusion: 

Implement stricter monitoring mechanisms to ensure timely and efficient fund utilization. Regular audits and reviews can help identify underutilization and take corrective actions promptly.

Mains PYQ

Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)

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The Crisis In The Middle East

Tensions grow in West Asia, a heavily militarised region

ExplainedIOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Map of West Asia

Mains level: Reason behind the west Asia is a heavily militarised region

Why in the news? 

According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute’s ‘Trends in International Arms Transfers 2023’, four of the top 10 largest importers of arms last year were from West Asia, with the U.S. being the main supplier

SIPRI Report: Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023

  • India’s Arms Imports: Increased by 4.7% compared to 2014-18.
  • European Arms Imports: Saw a staggering 94% increase between 2014-18 and 2019-23, likely influenced by the Russia-Ukraine conflict.
  • Russia-India Arms Trade: Russia remained India’s largest arms supplier, accounting for 36% of total imports.
  • Top Global Importers: India, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar emerged as the top three importers globally.
  • Ukraine’s Arms Imports: Became the fourth largest arms importer during the specified period.
  • China-Pakistan Arms Trade: Pakistan, the fifth largest arms importer, obtained 82% of its arms from China.
  • France’s Arms Exports: Emerged as the world’s second-largest arms supplier, after the United States.
  • French Arms Exports to India: India was highlighted as the largest single recipient of French arms exports.

 

West Asia has largest expenditure in Defence as per GDP %

Reason behind the west Asia is heavily militarised region:

  • Regional Conflicts and Tensions: The region is characterized by ongoing conflicts and tensions, such as those in Yemen and Syria, leading countries to seek advanced weaponry to address security challenges
  • Oil Boom: The oil boom in West Asia has led to increased military spending as countries seek to protect their oil resources and maintain regional stability
  • Internal Factors: The presence of Western arms and personnel in some Persian Gulf countries has contributed to internal resurgences, leading states to invest in military capabilities for self-defense
  • Diversification of Arms Suppliers: West Asian states have adopted the principle of diversifying sources of arms supply, leading to a broader range of arms imports from various suppliers globally
  • Client-Supplier Relationship: The relationship between client states and arms suppliers is often favorable to the recipient, with the recipient receiving the arms they wish and the supplier bowing to their demands
  • Regional Disputes and Border Skirmishes: Border disputes, threats, and wars have made it imperative for West Asian states to resort to modern and efficient national defense systems like conflict between Iran and Israel

Conclusion: 

Encourage diplomatic efforts to resolve regional conflicts and tensions through dialogue and negotiation, aiming to reduce the need for excessive military spending. Advocate for the establishment of regional arms control agreements to limit the proliferation of weapons and promote stability in the West Asia region.

Mains PYQ 

Q How will I2U2 (India, Israel, UAE and USA) grouping transform India’s position in global politics?

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Swachh Bharat Mission

The reality of the Swachh Bharat Mission

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Agricultural subsidies; Policies and Programs by government;

Mains level: Key challenges related to Swachh Bharat Mission

Why in the news? 

India was ranked right at the bottom of 180 countries in the Environment Performance Index (EPI) in 2022. The EPI ranks countries on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality.

Swachh Bharat Abhiyan

  • It is also known as the Clean India Mission, is a significant campaign initiated by the Government of India on October 2, 2014,
  • It is primarily aimed at eliminating open defecation, improving solid waste management, and promoting cleanliness across the country.

Key challenges related to Swachh Bharat Mission

  • Poor Quality of Infrastructure: Reports suggest inadequate construction quality of toilets under the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), raising questions about the effectiveness of the initiative.
  • Inadequate Access to Sanitation Facilities: Despite government claims, communities in slums and peri-urban areas still lack access to public toilets, contributing to sanitation challenges.
  • Lack of Waste Treatment: Toilet construction in rural areas is not linked to waste treatment, leading to improper disposal of faecal sludge and environmental contamination.
  • Ineffective Waste Management Technologies: Large, capital-intensive waste management technologies have failed to meet expectations, resulting in health crises and the need for additional resources to fix them.
  • Privatization of Public Health Services: The outsourcing of sanitation work to private contractors, often employing subjugated communities, has led to the privatization of public health services and perpetuated caste discrimination.
  • Insufficient Human Resources: Shortage of sanitation inspectors and inadequacy in recruitment efforts hinder effective monitoring and management of sanitation programs at the local level.

Way forward

  • Enhanced Quality Assurance: Implement stricter quality control measures to ensure the construction of toilets meets prescribed standards. Regular inspections and audits can help identify and rectify any construction deficiencies.
  • Targeted Infrastructure Development: Prioritize the construction of public toilets in slums and peri-urban areas to improve access to sanitation facilities for marginalized communities.
  • Integrated Waste Management: Integrate toilet construction with waste treatment facilities in rural areas to ensure proper disposal of faecal sludge.

Mains PYQ 

Q What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC IAS/2018)

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

95Mat5 Antibody: Revolutionizing Snakebite Treatment

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: 95Mat5 Antibody

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

After multiple rounds of screening, researchers have identified an antibody, 95Mat5 that showed promising results in making a potent antidote against various snake venoms.

What is 95Mat5?

  • 95Mat5 is a universal antivenom developed to neutralize the toxins present in snake venoms.
  • Development Process:
  1. The scientists first synthesized variants of a toxin called long-chain 3FTxs (3FTx-L), which are found in the venoms of various snakes, including cobras, kraits, mambas, and monocled cobras.
  2. They then screened billions of human antibodies expressed on the surface of yeast cells to find antibodies that bound best to the synthesized toxins.
  3. After multiple rounds of screening, they identified a shortlist of antibodies that broadly reacted with most of the 3FTx variants used in the study.
  4. The selected antibodies were further tested in vitro in human cells to determine which ones could best neutralize the toxins.

Mechanism of Action

  • 95Mat5 specifically targets α-neurotoxins, which are a specific class of 3FTxs that prevent nerve and muscle cells from responding to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in carrying messages from neurons to muscles.
  • By binding to the toxins, 95Mat5 prevents toxins from interacting with the receptors in human nerve and muscle cells, thereby blocking their ability to induce paralysis and other deadly effects.
  • In animal experiments, 95Mat5 demonstrated efficacy in neutralizing the toxins present in the venoms of various snake species, protecting the animals from death.

Global Impact of Snakebites

  • Venomous snakebites claim over 100,000 lives annually, with around 400,000 individuals suffering permanent disability.
  • Low and middle-income countries, especially India and Africa, bear the brunt of this burden.
    • India alone witnessing an average of 58,000 deaths each year.
  • In 2017, the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared snakebite envenoming as a highest priority Neglected Tropical Disease, shedding light on a long-hidden health crisis.

 

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements:

  1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.
  2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of human body.
  3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.
  4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only

(c) 1, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Digital India Initiatives

[pib] India showcases CPGRAMS at 3rd Biennial Pan-Commonwealth Meeting in London

IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Commonwealth of Nations, CPGRAMS

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

India’s Centralised Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) received global recognition during the 3rd Biennial Pan-Commonwealth Heads in London.

What is CPGRAMS?

  • The primary objective of CPGRAMS is to provide citizens with a user-friendly mechanism to register complaints or grievances related to various government departments and agencies.
  • It is an online platform available to the citizens 24×7 to lodge their grievances to the public authorities on any subject related to service delivery.
  • It was created in June 2007 by the Department of Administrative Reforms & Public Grievances.
  • It has been designed in-house by the National Informatics Centre team.
  • Prime Minister is the supreme head of the CPGRAMS.

Key functions of CPGRAMS include:

  • Grievance Lodging and Tracking: Citizens can lodge grievances online and track their progress using a unique registration number generated by the system.
  • Role-Based Access: Every Ministry and state have role-based access to this system, ensuring that grievances are forwarded to the concerned Ministries or Government Departments.
  • Appeal Facility: CPGRAMS provides an appeal facility to the citizens if they are not satisfied with the resolution by the Grievance Officer.
  • Feedback Mechanism: After the closure of grievance, if the complainant is not satisfied with the resolution, they can provide feedback. If the rating is ‘Poor’, the option to file an appeal is enabled. The status of the Appeal can also be tracked by the petitioner with the grievance registration number.

Issues that are NOT taken up under CPGRAMS:

  • Subjudice cases or any matter concerning judgment given by any court.
  • Personal and Family disputes.
  • Right to Information (RTI) Queries.
  • Anything that impacts upon territorial integrity of the country or friendly relations with other countries.
  • Grievances of Government employees concerning their service matters including disciplinary proceedings etc because there is already a mechanism for addressing these issues.

What is the Commonwealth of Nations?

  • The Commonwealth of Nations is an intergovernmental organization of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire.
  • It dates back to the first half of the 20th century with the decolonization of the British Empire through increased self-governance of its territories.
  • It was originally created as the British Commonwealth of Nations through the Balfour Declaration at the 1926 Imperial Conference.
  • It was formalized by the UK through the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
  • The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of the Commonwealth.
    • Membership: Based on free and equal voluntary cooperation.

History of its creation

  • The Commonwealth was created in the early 1900s when nations that were formerly a part of the British Empire began to secede.
  • India is one of the founding members of the modern Commonwealth.
  • India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, played a key role in the creation of the modern Commonwealth in 1949, Indian policy-makers over the years have considered it as a relic of empire and steeped in colonial legacy.

Working of Commonwealth

  • Commonwealth members have no legal obligations to one another.
  • Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, human rights and the rule of law.

Actual functioning: Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM)

  • CHOGM which takes place every two years is a platform for all Commonwealth leaders to meet and discuss issues about the Commonwealth.
  • The motto behind the meeting is to reaffirm common values, address the shared global challenges and agree on how to work to create a better future.

 

PYQ:

[2012] With reference to consumers rights/privileges under the provisions of law in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Consumers are empowered to take samples for food testing.

2. When a consumer files a complaint in any consumer forum, no fee is required to be paid.

3. In case of death of a consumer, his/her legal heir can file a complaint in the consumer forum on his/her behalf.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

[2016] The plan of Sir Stafford Cripps envisaged that after the Second World War,

(a) India should be granted complete independence

(b) India should be partitioned into two before granting independence

(c) India should be made a republic with the condition that it will join the Commonwealth

(d) India should be given Dominion status

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Minimum Support Prices for Agricultural Produce

PREMIUM – Subsidies – Good or Bad for India?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues,Major Crops & Cropping Patterns,PDS, Buffer Stock & Food Security
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Agricultural subsidies; Policies and Programs by government;

Mains level: Issue of Subsidies in India; Policies and Programs by Government;

Why in the News? 

Issues have been raised by the World Trade Organization (WTO) concerning Agricultural Subsidies in India. Major subsidies in India are on fertilizer, power, credit, output, seed, and export products.

What is Subsidy?

  • The term subsidy refers to financial assistance in the form of discounts or monetary grants by the Central government to public entities or private institutions. 
  • The objective is to make the products offered by these institutions affordable for public consumption. 
  • The subsidized products are necessary for the larger public good and are a means of supporting the community’s welfare.

 

Historical Background

  • Post-Independence Era (1947 onwards): The government introduced various subsidies to promote industrialization, agriculture, and social welfare, aiming to reduce poverty and achieve self-sufficiency in key sectors.
  • Green Revolution (1960s): During the 1960s and 1970s, Subsidies on fertilizers, seeds, and credit were provided to farmers to encourage the adoption of new agricultural technologies and boost food production.
  • Liberalization Reforms (1991):  While liberalization led to a reduction in some subsidies and a shift towards market-oriented policies, the government continued to provide support to sectors deemed crucial for social welfare and economic development.

Types of Subsidies:

  • Food subsidy: The food subsidy’s main objective is to provide essential eatables to a large section of the population living below the poverty line in India. 
    • The major food items supplied to the BPL families (by PDS system) vary as per the region, it includes – Wheat, Rice, Sugar, Milk, Cooking oil, and more.
  • Education subsidy: The Central government extends the education subsidy to eligible students to pursue higher technical and professional education.
  • Export subsidy: To make exports attractive and lend support to the companies, the government offers export subsidies. 
  • Fertilizer subsidy: The fertilizer is provided at a fixed MRP that is below the actual price; the government pays the difference between the actual coat and the MRP.

(Note: There are various types of subsidies but UPSC usually asks for Agriculture subsidies) 

Subsidies in Agriculture:

Direct Subsidies: 

  • Credit Subsidies: Subsidized credit programs offer farmers loans at lower interest rates or with relaxed repayment terms to finance agricultural activities, such as purchasing inputs, machinery, or land.
    • Ex-The Government of India provides interest subvention of 2% and Prompt Repayment Incentive of 3% to the farmers, thus making the credit available at a very subsidized rate of 4% per annum as per Kisan Credit Card.
  • Direct Income Transfers: Governments provide direct cash transfers or income support schemes to farmers to supplement their incomes, improve their financial stability, and alleviate rural poverty. Ex-PM Kisan Samman Nidhi Scheme under which support of Rs.6000/- per year 

Indirect Subsidies 

  • Fertilizer Subsidies: Governments often provide subsidies on fertilizers to reduce the cost burden on farmers and promote fertilizer use, which enhances crop productivity. Ex- the Union Budget for the fiscal year 2024-25 (FY25) allocated ₹1.64 trillion for fertilizer subsidy.
  • Seed Subsidies: Subsidies on quality seeds help farmers access improved varieties that are disease-resistant, drought-tolerant or have higher yields. Ex- the government provides a subsidy of Rs. 1000/- per quintal or 50% of the cost.
  • Water Subsidies: Subsidized irrigation infrastructure and water supply schemes aim to improve water availability for agricultural purposes, especially in regions facing water scarcity. Ex- Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana.
  • Minimum Support Prices (MSP): Governments guarantee a minimum price for certain crops to protect farmers from market price fluctuations and ensure stable income. Procurement agencies purchase crops from farmers at MSP, often for staples like wheat, rice, and pulses. Ex- the government of India sets the MSP twice a year for 24 commodities (23 crops + 1 sugarcane).
  • Crop Insurance Subsidies: Subsidies are offered on crop insurance premiums to encourage farmers to enroll in crop insurance schemes, which protect them against yield or revenue losses due to adverse weather, pests, or other risks. Ex- Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
  • Subsidized Agricultural Machinery: Governments may subsidize the purchase of farm machinery, equipment, and tools to mechanize agricultural operations, increase efficiency, and reduce labor costs. Ex- Sub-mission On Agriculture Mechanization (SMAM scheme)

Present issues raised by the WTO:

  • Market Distortion: The WTO contends that agricultural subsidies have the potential to disrupt global markets. For instance, subsidies like India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) may result in the undervaluation of Indian agricultural goods on the international stage. 
  • Trade Barriers: Subsidies can create challenges for foreign producers without subsidies to compete effectively in markets where subsidized goods are sold.
  • Overproduction of certain crops: Subsidies can lead to overproduction of certain crops, which can further distort the market and lead to wastage.
  • Negative Environmental Impact: Overuse of fertilizers and water for irrigation, encouraged by subsidies, can lead to environmental degradation.
  • Inequity: The benefits of subsidies often go to larger farmers rather than small-scale farmers who need them the most.

Limitations Faced by Indian Agriculture:

  • Subsidies on few crops: Subsidies like MSP, which are applicable for only a few crops, have led to cereal-centric agriculture with distorted cropping patterns, as farmers tend to grow only those crops for which they are given subsidies.
  • Benefiting only wealthy Farmers: As per the Economic Survey 2018, wealthy farmers benefited over small farmers from the farm subsidies. Thus the objective of giving subsidies is not fulfilled. This is the case frequently witnessed in Punjab and Haryana, where affluent farmers enjoy taxpayer money.
  • Fiscal deficit: Also, the subsidies lead to a substantial financial deficit and burden on the financial exchequer.
  • Cause of pollution: Subsidies for agriculture can foster the overloading of croplands, which leads to erosion and compaction of topsoil, pollution from synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and release of greenhouse gases, among other adverse effects.

Way Forward:

  • Diversification of Subsidies: Expand subsidy programs to cover a wider range of crops, including fruits, vegetables, pulses, and other diversified agricultural products, to promote crop diversification and mitigate the cereal-centric focus.
  • Targeted Subsidy Programs: Implement targeted subsidy schemes that prioritize support for small and marginalized farmers, ensuring that subsidies reach those who need them most and reducing the disproportionate benefit to wealthy farmers.
  • Price Stabilization Mechanisms: Develop price stabilization mechanisms beyond MSP, such as futures markets, crop insurance, and warehouse receipt systems, to mitigate price volatility and provide income security to farmers without distorting cropping patterns.

Prelims PYQ

In India, markets in agricultural products are regulated under the (UPSC IAS/2015)

a) Essential Commodities Act, 1955

b) Agricultural Produce Market Committee Act enacted by States

c) Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, 1937

d) Food Products Order, 1956 and Meat and Food Products Order, 1973

Mains PYQ 

Q How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (UPSC IAS/2017) 

Q What are the different types of agriculture subsidies given to farmers at the national and at state levels? Critically analyse the agricultural subsidy regime with reference to the distortions created by it (UPSC IAS/2013)

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

PREMIUM – Travelling the Regions of South America

Prelims Only | | Mains Paper 1: Distribution Of Key Natural Resources Across The World,Geographical Features & Their Location
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Areas in South America;

Mains level: NA

Why in the News?

South America, known for its diverse landscapes and cultures, also harbors several disputed territories, each with its own historical, geopolitical, and economic significance. These disputes often arise from conflicting territorial claims, historical grievances, or resource-rich areas. 

Diverse Landscapes of South America:

  • The Pacific Coastal Strip:
    • Between the ocean and the Andes mountain Range.
    • The coastline of South America is smooth and regular. At the river mouths, some inlets are used as harbors. The southwestern coast of the continent has fiords or deep inlets of the sea.
  • Andes Mountain Range:
    • The Andes stretch through the entire continent, running in the north-south direction from the Isthmus of Panama to the Strait of Magellan. The second-highest mountain system in the world.
    • Mount Aconcagua (an extinct volcano lies in Argentina)
    • Mount Ojas del Salado is the highest active volcano in the world of Argentina.
    • Part of seven countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentina.
    • They form a chain of ranges and knots with enclosed intermontane plateaus namely in Ecuador and Bolivia.
    • Being part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, there are many volcanoes and frequent earthquakes in this region. Mount Cotopaxi and Mount Chimborazo are active volcanic peaks, which is the highest peak in South America.
  • About the Amazon River:
    • It is the world’s largest and second-longest (6,400 km) river in the world after the Nile.
    • Its journey begins high in the Andes Mountains. The river then makes its way east through thousands of miles of rainforests and lowlands until it empties into the Atlantic Ocean on the northeastern coast of Brazil
    • Its watershed spans the countries of Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Bolivia.
    • It has more than 1,100 tributaries, which include the rivers like the Rio Negro, the Madeira River, and the Xingu River, etc.
    • The Amazon Rainforest, which represents about half of the Earth’s remaining rainforest, also constitutes its single largest reserve of biological resources.
    • It is sometimes referred to as the “lungs of the Earth” due to its role in regulating the planet’s oxygen and carbon cycles.

Disputed Areas in South America

Countries Involved Key Points Geographical Features
Gulf of Venezuela Colombia, Venezuela
  • Inlet of the Caribbean Sea is Disputed over islands such as Los Monjes Archipelago due to Fishing rights and potential oil reserves.
  • Interpretation disputes regarding the 1941 Treaty of Delimitation            
  • Recent tensions over maritime confrontations and oil exploration activities.
 Surrounded by coastal mountain ranges with waters fed by several rivers
Essequibo Region Guyana, Venezuela
  • Covers two-thirds of Guyana’s territory Historical grievances claimed by Venezuela.         
  • Recent oil discoveries raising tensions; ICJ case filed by Guyana.
  • Essequibo River flows through this region.
 Diverse landscapes including rainforests, savannahs, and mountains with the Essequibo River
Atacama Desert Peru, Chile
  • Extremely Arid desert region            
  • War of the Pacific led to Chile’s control           
  • Valuable mineral resources contribute to disputes            
  • Bilateral talks and arbitration proposals for settlement
 Bordered by the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean with salt flats, sand dunes, and volcanic formations
Falkland Islands (Malvinas) Argentina, UK
  • Sovereignty disputes since 1833           
  • Economic interests include fisheries, tourism, and potential oil reserves           
  • Diplomatic efforts and UN resolutions for resolution
 Consists of two main islands with rugged coastlines and low mountains
Darien Gap Colombia, Panama
  • Dense jungle terrain separating North and South America            
  • Challenges in illegal immigration discussions            
  • Characterized by dense rainforests, swamps, and mountains
 Part of the Darien National Park with dense rainforests, mangroves, and steep mountain slopes
Arroyo de la Invernada or Rincon de Artigas… Brazil, Uruguay
  • Dispute over the Invernada River region near Masoller            
  • UN does not officially recognize the claim            
  • 237 km2 region with significant natural resources            
  • Efforts to resolve through bilateral talks and international mediation
 Rolling hills, grasslands, and small rivers with the Invernada River
New River Triangle (Tigri Area) Suriname, Guyana
  • Disputed region within the Guiana Highlands            
  • Conflicting claims over territory interpretation of historical treaties and boundaries
 Dense rainforests, mountain ranges, and numerous rivers
Isla Brasilera/Ilha Brasileira Brazil, Uruguay
  • Uruguay claims ownership of Isla Brasilera            
  • Strategically located near the tripoint with Argentina            
  • Efforts to resolve through diplomatic negotiations and legal arguments
 Small island located in the Uruguay River with lush vegetation
Isla Suarez/Ilha de Guajara-mirim Bolivia, Brazil
  • Located in the Rio Mamore as a border between Bolivia and Brazil           
  • Economically dependent on Guajara-Mirim, Brazil            
  • Treaty signed in 1958 maintains the status quo            
  • Challenges of border management in riverine environments
 Riverine island characterized by tropical vegetation and wetlands
Southern Patagonian Ice Field Argentina, Chile
  • Spanning parts of Argentina and Chile            
  • Border demarcation remains undefined in certain areas           
  • Bilateral efforts for resolution include scientific cooperation and mapping projects
 Vast expanse of ice and snow covering rugged mountain ranges and deep valleys
Lithium Triangle  Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile
  • It is characterized by various salt pans or salars, concentrated along the Atacama Desert and adjacent arid regions.
  • The Salar de Atacama in Chile boasts the highest lithium concentration (0.15% by weight) among all brine sources worldwide. 
  • Argentina boasts more than half of the world’s total lithium resources and holds the distinction of having the 2nd-largest lithium resources, the 3rd-largest lithium reserves, and the 4th-largest lithium production in the world.
  • India’s KABIL (Khanij Bidesh India Ltd) has announced an investment of ₹211 crore ($25.712 million) over five years for exploration stage activities in five lithium blocks in the Fiambala area of Argentina.
 Key reserves of Lithium include:

  1. Uyuni (Bolivia): This salt flat is not only the world’s largest salt flat but also contains significant lithium reserves.  
  2. Atacama (Chile): Located in the Atacama Desert, Salar de Atacama is home to one of the largest lithium reserves globally. 
  3. Hombre Muerto (Argentina): This salt flat in northwestern Argentina also hosts lithium extraction operations.

 

Note: Bolivia and Paraguay are land-locked countries in South America

PYQ:

[2013] “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders.”  

The above statement best describes which of the following regions?

(a) African Savannah

(b) Central Asian Steppe

(c) South American Tropical

(d) Siberian Tundra

 

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Housing for all – PMAY, etc.

An overview of the PMAY-U scheme | Explained

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters,Government Scheme/Policies
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Issues related to the PMAY scheme and the reason behind the failure of the PMAY Scheme

Why in the News? 

As the current Union government completes two terms, one of its flagship programs was Housing For All (HfA) by 2022, both in urban and rural areas, planned under the PMAY (Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana) scheme in 2015.

About the PMAY scheme:

The declared objectives of the scheme included rehabilitation of slum dwellers with private developers’ participation; promotion of affordable housing for the weaker sections through Credit Linked Subsidy Schemes (CLSS); affordable housing in partnership with public and private sectors; and subsidy for Beneficiary-led Construction (BLC).

Issues related to the PMAY Scheme:

  • PMAY-U faltering Performance: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U) initiative has been criticized for its faltering performance. Data from the PMAY dashboard suggests a shortfall of around 40 lakh houses from sanctioned and completed segments.
  • ISSR Failure: The in-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR) component, aimed at addressing the largest demand in cities, has been particularly criticized for its failure. Only a small number of houses have been sanctioned under ISSR, falling far short of expectations.
  • The large difference between achievement and need: Despite delivering 80 lakh homes, the PMAY-U program has only addressed about 25.15% of the housing shortage. Even if the remaining sanctioned houses are constructed by the end of 2024, it would only address about 37% of the real need, leaving almost 2.4 crore households without adequate housing.
  • Not fulfilling the promise as per Spending: The housing program, which received significant budgetary allocation (over $29 billion in the last five years), has not been able to fulfill its promise of “Housing for All.” Despite the focus and financial support, the goal remains unfulfilled.

The reason behind the failure of the PMAY Scheme

  • Challenges in Slum Rehabilitation: Despite efforts, some projects aimed at slum rehabilitation have faced issues, such as vertical growth leading to increased utility costs and unsuitable living spaces, as well as difficulties in acquiring land.
  • Neglecting social housing needs: City development plans, including PMAY, are often influenced by consultants favoring capital-intensive solutions, potentially neglecting social housing needs and community involvement.
  • Less central government’s share: The funding structure of PMAY involves significant contributions from beneficiary households and state governments, with the central government’s share being relatively small.
  • Limited Government Role: The architecture of PMAY places limited responsibility on the government, particularly in providing interest subsidies and cost-sharing with beneficiaries, leading to concerns about addressing the needs of the landless and the poor.

Way Forward:

  • Reevaluation of Funding Allocation: The central government should consider increasing its share of funding to ensure adequate resources for housing projects. 
  • Enhanced Focus on Slum Rehabilitation: The government should review and enhance the implementation of the in-situ slum redevelopment (ISSR) component. This may involve better planning, community engagement, and addressing challenges such as land acquisition and vertical growth.
  • Community Participation and Needs Assessment: Incorporating community participation in the planning and implementation of housing projects is crucial 

Mains PYQ 

Q Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional fiancé fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion (UPSC IAS/2016)

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Electric and Hybrid Cars – FAME, National Electric Mobility Mission, etc.

How is India planning to boost EV production?

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia,Indigenization Of Technology
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Features of the policy and concerns by private players

Why in the News? 

The Union government approved a policy to promote India as a manufacturing hub for Electric Vehicles (EVs).

Features of the Electric Vehicles policy:

  • Reduction of Import Duty: Import duty on electric vehicles (EVs) imported as Completely Built Units (CBUs) with a minimum CIF value of $35,000 is reduced from 70%-100% to 15% for five years.  
  • Waiver of Duty: A maximum of 40,000 EV imports in five years, with a duty waiver of ₹6,484 crore or proportional to investment (whichever is lower), requires a minimum $800 million investment.
  • Localization Targets: Manufacturers are required to set up manufacturing facilities in India within three years. They must achieve 25% localization by the third year and 50% localization by the fifth year of incentivized operation.
  • Incentives for Setting Up Manufacturing Facilities: The policy incentivizes manufacturers to establish manufacturing facilities in India by offering reduced import duties and waivers, provided they meet certain investment and localization targets.
  • Encouragement of Global EV Makers: The policy aims to encourage global EV makers like Tesla and Chinese EV maker BYD to enter the Indian market by providing favorable conditions for setting up manufacturing facilities and importing EVs.

Present concerns raised by Private Players in the Market:

  • Impact on Domestic Industry: Tata Motors opposed the reduction of import duties, fearing it would negatively affect the domestic industry. They argued that lowering duties could harm the investment climate.
  • Competitive Disadvantage: Domestic players are concerned that the policy benefits mainly higher-end Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), potentially placing them at a competitive disadvantage in segments below ₹29 lakh.
  • Favoring Global Players: The policy appears to favor global EV players and Indian joint ventures with such players, potentially making it more challenging for purely domestic players to compete effectively.

Conclusion: The government should engage in dialogue with stakeholders, including domestic players like Tata Motors, to address their concerns and seek their input in shaping the policy framework. Need to implement measures to support domestic players, including providing incentives and support for technology development, innovation, and capacity building.

Mains question for practice 

Q Indian Government has recently approved a policy aimed at promoting the country as a manufacturing hub for Electric Vehicles (EVs). Discuss the key features of this policy. Highlight the concerns raised by private players.

Mains PYQ 

Q How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development in India? (UPSC IAS/2019)

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Human Development Report by UNDP

Towards a less poor and more equal country

Explained | | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Income and wealth inequality as per the World Inequality Lab

Why in the news? 

In March, World Inequality Lab, a Global Research Center focused on inequality and public policies, published in a paper titled, ‘Income and Wealth Inequality in India, 1922-2023: The Rise of the Billionaire Raj’. 

Income and wealth inequality as per the World Inequality Lab: 

  • Income Inequality: In 2022-23, the top 1% of Indians received 22.6% of the national income, the highest in a century. The top 0.1% earned nearly 10% of the national income. Wealth inequality was also stark, with the top 1% holding 40.1% of the wealth in 2022-23, the highest since 1961.
  • Wealth Inequality Trends: Wealth concentration increased significantly between 1961 and 2023. The top 10% held 65% of the wealth in 2022-23, up from 45% in 1961. The bottom 50% and middle 40% saw declines in their share of wealth.
  • Comparison with Other Countries: India’s wealth inequality, while not as extreme as in Brazil and South Africa, increased threefold between 1961 and 2023. India’s income inequality is among the highest globally, surpassing South Africa, Brazil, and the U.S.
  • Impact of 1991 Economic Reforms: Inequality increased notably after the 1991 economic reforms in India. Growth in China has been broad-based compared to India, resulting in lesser income inequality despite higher growth rates in China.

Present Dilemma in Human Development:

  • The Human Development Report (HDR) 2023-2024 ranked India 134 out of 193 countries. 
  • India is now the fifth-largest economy but it still ranks lower than Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Bangladesh in human development. Its economic growth has not translated into growth in human development.

Measures to Improve Human Development:

  • Investment in Education: Ensure access to quality education for all, from primary to higher levels. Focus on improving educational infrastructure, teacher training, and curriculum development.
  • Healthcare Access and Quality: Expand access to affordable and quality healthcare services, including preventive, primary, and specialized care. Invest in healthcare infrastructure, medical personnel, and technology.
  • Poverty Reduction: Implement social welfare programs to provide basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing to the disadvantaged. Promote inclusive economic growth to create employment opportunities and increase household incomes.

Conclusion: The Indian government has taken several steps including the creation and organization of women’s self-help groups, sending civil servants to areas with poor levels of human development,  and implementing land reforms. However, a major necessity of raising awareness is through an organic approach.

 

Mains PYQ 

Q Despite the consistent experience of high growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive (UPSC IAS/2019)

 

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