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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

The unseen effects of Climate Change on Mental Health

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: What is schizophrenia?

Mains level: Key concerns on health due to Extreme Heat as per the report

Why in the News? 

Studies show that individuals with schizophrenia are more likely to experience fatal effects from extreme heat compared to those with kidney or heart problems as per Geo Health report.

What is schizophrenia? 

As per the National Institute of Mental Health, Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality, which can be distressing for them and their family and friends.

Effects of Extreme Heat  as per the Geo Health Report:

  • Schizophrenia Heat-Related Deaths: GeoHealth in 2023 revealed that an extreme heat event in British Columbia in 2021 led to more fatalities among individuals with schizophrenia compared to those with kidney and heart diseases.
  • Mental Health Conditions: People with mental health conditions, including schizophrenia, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, were identified as being at higher risk of succumbing to heat-related deaths during extreme heat events.
  • Impact of Extreme Heat Event: British Columbia experienced an eight-day extreme heat event in 2021, with temperatures soaring as high as 40 degrees celsius, significantly above the average temperature of around 20 degrees celsius. The region recorded approximately 740 excess deaths during this heat wave.
    • Researchers analyzed the data based on various medical conditions, including heart disease, schizophrenia, chronic kidney disease, dementia, depression, Parkinson’s disease, and osteoporosis.
  • Higher Risk of Schizophrenia: Contrary to expectations, the study reported a 200% increase in the prevalence of schizophrenia diagnoses during the extreme heat event in 2021 compared to a summer without recorded heat waves.

 Key challenges for treating Schizophrenia:

  • Dysfunction of the Hypothalamus: The dysfunction of the hypothalamus, a structure deep in the brain responsible for maintaining bodily homeostasis, may contribute to increased vulnerability to heat stress among individuals with schizophrenia.
  • Impact of Antipsychotic Medications: Certain antipsychotic medications prescribed for schizophrenia can interfere with the functioning of the hypothalamus, potentially raising body temperature. This side effect, when combined with high ambient temperatures, can lead to fatal outcomes.
  • Psychotic Symptoms and Anosognosia (unable to be aware of the symptoms): Individuals with schizophrenia often experience psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and memory loss. The anosognosia, a condition where individuals are unaware of their illness can further complicate treatment efforts.

Way Forward:

  • Enhanced Monitoring and Support Systems: Implement enhanced monitoring and support systems for individuals with schizophrenia during extreme heat events.
  • Education and Awareness Campaigns: Conduct education and awareness campaigns to inform individuals with schizophrenia and their caregivers about the risks of heat-related distress and the importance of staying cool and hydrated during extreme heat events.
  • Tailored Treatment Plans: Develop tailored treatment plans for individuals with schizophrenia that take into account the potential impact of antipsychotic medications on body temperature regulation.

Mains PYQ 

Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)

With inputs from:

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GH000729

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia#:~:text=What%20is%20schizophrenia%3F,for%20their%20family%20and%20friends

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Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

The government’s new PhD guidelines will make Universities more Elite

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Key Implication of this announcement

Why in the news?

The UGC chairperson announced that students with four-year undergraduate degrees can now appear for the National Eligibility Test (NET), an exam that certifies eligibility for lectureship in colleges and universities in India, and PhD programs.

Key Implication of this Announcement:

  • Lowering of Standards: Allowing students with four-year undergraduate degrees to appear for the National Eligibility Test (NET) and pursue PhD programs without a Master’s degree may lead to concerns about the lowering of academic standards.
  • Quality of Teaching: Concerns arise regarding the quality of teaching in universities and colleges if fresh undergraduate students are recruited to teach other undergraduate students.
  • Impact on University Rankings: The decision may have implications for the rankings and reputation of Indian universities, particularly those with prestigious tags like the Institution of Eminence and high NAAC ratings.
  • Dilutes the perception: Allowing candidates to pursue a PhD in a subject unrelated raises concerns about the diversity and interdisciplinary nature of research.
    • The decision to broaden access to PhD programs may be aimed at dismantling the perception of PhD as an elite qualification.
    • However, critics may argue that diluting the entry requirements for PhD programs could undermine the rigor and prestige associated with earning a doctorate.
  • Impact on Research Culture: Lowering the barriers to entry for PhD programs may have implications for the research culture and scholarly integrity within academic institutions.

Measures to maintain standards for the National Eligibility Test (NET):

  • Retain Postgraduate Degree Requirement: Maintain the requirement of a postgraduate degree for appearing in the NET to ensure that candidates have a solid foundation in their respective fields of study.
  • Reintroduce MPhil Programs: Reinstate MPhil programs to provide an intermediary step between postgraduate and doctoral studies. MPhil programs offer an opportunity for students to further develop their research skills and prepare for doctoral-level research.
  • Enhanced Mentoring and Preparation Period: Implement a structured mentoring program for NET aspirants to help them transition from undergraduate to postgraduate and eventually doctoral-level research.
  • Specialized Entrance Exams for PhD Programs: Instead of eliminating separate entrance exams for PhD programs, consider introducing specialized entrance exams that assess candidates’ research aptitude, subject knowledge, and suitability for doctoral-level research

Way Forward: 

  • Promote Interdisciplinary Research: Encourage interdisciplinary research by providing opportunities for collaboration and exchange across different academic disciplines.
  • Maintain Research Standards: Uphold rigorous standards for doctoral research and teaching positions to ensure the quality and integrity of academic programs. Implement quality assurance mechanisms to monitor and evaluate the standards of the NET and PhD programs.

Mains PYQ: 

Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2015).

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Tax Reforms

An Inheritance Tax will help reduce Inequality

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Inheritance Tax and Land Value Tax (LVT)

Mains level: Taxation system in India;

Why in the news? 

A remark by Chairman of Indian Overseas Congress Sam Pitroda on implementing an inheritance tax as a tool of wealth redistribution has sparked massive debates.

The Negative Impact of Inequality:

  • Growth affected: Inequality harms growth in the medium-to-long run by reducing firm productivity, lowering labor income, and diverting resources away from essential rights like education.
  • Inequal Opportunity: In unequal countries like India, where one is born greatly influences lifetime outcomes, with almost a third of consumption variation being explained by the place of residence (state, city, or village).
  • Concentration of Wealth: The richest 1% holding 40% of India’s wealth underscores the vast wealth disparities that exacerbate inequality.
  • Skewed Distribution of Gains: Research indicates that the gains from India’s growth over the last two decades have disproportionately benefited high-income urban residents, further exacerbating inequality.

What is Inheritance Tax? 

  • An inheritance tax is a tax levied on the assets or wealth passed down from one generation to another upon the death of the owner.
  • Unlike a wealth tax, which is recurring and applied to all physical and financial assets an individual owns, an inheritance tax is a one-time tax specifically targeting intergenerational transfers of wealth.

 

How an Inheritance Tax could help reduce Inequality?

The Constitution mandates equality of status and opportunity, obliging the government to take steps to reduce disparities arising from accidents of birth.

  • Reduction of Wealth Concentration: By taxing large inheritances, an inheritance tax helps to redistribute wealth from the wealthiest individuals and families to the broader society.
  • Encouragement of Productive Investments: Inheritance taxes can encourage wealthy individuals to invest their wealth in productive activities rather than simply passing it down to heirs.
  • Incentive for Innovation: Critics may argue that inheritance taxes disincentivize innovation by reducing the incentive to accumulate wealth to pass on to future generations.
  • Funding for Public Expenditure: Revenue generated from inheritance taxes can be used to fund essential public services and social programs, such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and poverty alleviation initiatives.
  • Historical Effectiveness: Historical examples, such as the estate duty in India between 1953 and 1985. It reduced the top 1% personal wealth share from 16% to 6% between 1966 and 1985.
Another approach is the Land Value Tax (LVT): The Land Value Tax (LVT) is a tax system that levies charges on the unimproved value of land. Unlike traditional property taxes, which take into account both the value of the land and the value of any buildings or improvements on the land, the LVT focuses solely on the value of the land itself.

 

Conclusion: Tackling wealth inequality requires a multifaceted approach that includes measures such as inheritance taxation, wealth taxation, and the Land Value Tax (LVT). These measures not only help to redistribute wealth and promote economic fairness but also contribute to fostering a more inclusive and prosperous society where opportunities are more evenly distributed.

Mains PYQ:

Q Comment on the important changes introduced in respect of the Long term Capital Gains Tax (LCGT) and Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) in the Union Budget for 2018-2019.

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RBI Notifications

CBDC pilot programmes for CPs, CDs likely: RBI

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CBDC, CPs, CDs;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das unveiled plans for a pilot program targeting the wholesale segment of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) focusing on commercial papers (CPs) and certificates of deposits (CDs).

What is Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)?

  • CBDC is a legal tender to be issued by the central bank in digital form; like rupee notes or coins, which are in physical form.
  • It was announced in the Union Budget 2022-23.
  • Subsequently, the Government amended Section 22 of the RBI Act, 1934 through the Finance Bill 2022. [Ref].
  • Working of CBDC:
    • Like fiat currency, it can also be exchanged between people. Simply, put it’s just like rupee (₹) notes but in digital form (e₹). 
    • However, unlike fiat currency that’s usually stored in banks and hence their liability, CBDC is a liability on the RBI’s balance sheet.
    • That’s why one does not necessarily need to have a bank account to own a digital rupee.

 

About Commercial Papers (CPs) and Certificates of Deposits (CDs)

Commercial Papers Certificates of Deposits
Type of Instrument Unsecured promissory note Fixed-income financial instrument
Issuer Large corporations, primary dealers, financial institutions Scheduled Commercial Banks, All-India Financial Institutions
Maturity Period 1 to 364 days 3 months to 1 year (for SCBs), 1 to 3 years (for financial institutions)
Minimum Investment Rs. 5 lakh or multiples thereof Rs. 1 lakh or multiples thereof
Credit Rating Requirement Minimum credit rating required (e.g., A-2) from recognized rating agencies Typically issued by highly rated banks and financial institutions
Collateral Unsecured Not applicable
Purpose Short-term funding for corporations Short to mid-term investment for individuals and institutions
Interest Rate Typically higher than bonds, fluctuates with market conditions Typically fixed, higher than savings accounts, fluctuates with market conditions
Investment Eligibility Individuals, banking companies, corporate bodies (registered or incorporated in India), NRIs, FIIs, etc. Individuals, banking companies, other corporate bodies, NRIs, FIIs, etc.
Issuing and Paying Agent (IPA) Only scheduled banks act as Issuing and Paying Agent Not applicable
Trading Actively traded in Over-the-Counter (OTC) market, reported on Fixed Income Money Market and Derivatives Association of India (FIMMDA) reporting platform Not publicly traded
Dematerialized Holding Can be held in dematerialized form through Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)-approved depositories Can be issued in dematerialized form through SEBI-approved depositories

 

With inputs from: https://www.indiainfoline.com

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:

  1. ‘Commercial Paper’ is a short-term unsecured promissory note.
  2. ‘Certificate of Deposit’ is a long-term instrument issued by the Reserve Bank of India to a corporation.
  3. ‘Call Money’ is a short-term finance used for interbank transaction.
  4. ‘Zero-Coupon Bonds’ are the interest-bearing short-term bonds issued by the Scheduled Commercial Banks to corporations.

Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 2, 3 and 4 only

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Science behind

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: MRI and its working principle

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) revolutionized medical diagnostics, offering non-invasive insights into soft tissues.
  • The pioneering efforts of Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield led to its commercialization, earning them the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2003.

What is MRI?

  • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic procedure used to obtain detailed images of soft tissues within the body.
  • It is particularly valuable for imaging sophisticated structures like the brain, cardiovascular system, spinal cord, joints, muscles, liver, and arteries.
  • MRI is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring various conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders (such as Alzheimer’s and stroke), and cardiovascular diseases.
  • Functional MRI (fMRI) can also assess brain activity by monitoring changes in blood flow.

Working Principle:

  • MRI utilizes the magnetic properties of hydrogen atoms (one proton with one electron around it), which are abundant in water and fat molecules found throughout the body.
  • The MRI machine generates a powerful magnetic field, aligning hydrogen atoms within the body.
  • Radiofrequency pulses are then applied, causing hydrogen atoms to absorb energy and emit signals.
  • These emitted signals are detected by sensors and processed by a computer to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures.

Components of an MRI Machine:

The MRI machine consists:

  • Superconducting Magnet: Large magnet (superconducting magnet) that produces a powerful and stable magnetic field.
  • Gradient Coils: Gradient magnets produce smaller magnetic fields with varying strengths and directions, allowing for precise imaging of specific body areas.
  • Radiofrequency Coils: This emit radiofrequency pulses to excite hydrogen atoms in the body. The frequency of pulse the ‘excess’ atoms have to absorb is called the Larmor frequency.
  • Detectors: It capture emitted signals from hydrogen atoms and convert them into image data for analysis.

Advantages of MRI:

  • High-Resolution Imaging: MRI offers high-resolution imaging with excellent tissue contrast, allowing for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
  • Versatile Viewing Angles: It can visualize structures from various angles without the need for repositioning, providing comprehensive information.
  • Safety and Non-Invasiveness: MRI scans are non-invasive and do not involve ionizing radiation, making them safe for repeated use.
  • Enhanced Image Quality: Contrast agents can enhance image quality by highlighting specific tissues or abnormalities.

Limitations of MRI:

  • High Costs: MRI machines are expensive to purchase and maintain, resulting in high healthcare costs for patients.
  • Requirement for Patient Stillness: Patients undergoing MRI scans must remain still for extended periods to prevent image distortion, which can be challenging for some individuals.
  • Discomfort or Anxiety: The strong magnetic fields and loud noises produced during MRI scans may cause discomfort or anxiety for patients.
  • Limitations with Metallic Implants: Certain metallic implants or objects can interfere with MRI scans, limiting their use in individuals with such implants.

PYQ:

[2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

  1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
  2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
  3. Disease diagnosis
  4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
  5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(c) 2, 4 and 5 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Role of Fusobacterium in Colorectal Cancer

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna)

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • Researchers at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in the US have identified specific subtypes of Fusobacterium nucleatum associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) tumors.
  • These subtypes, particularly Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna), have been found in relatively higher quantities in CRC tumors.

About Fusobacterium nucleatum

  • Fusobacterium nucleatum is a species of bacteria commonly found in the human mouth.
  • It is a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, meaning it does not require oxygen for growth.
  • While typically residing in the oral cavity, it has been associated with various diseases and conditions, including periodontal diseases and colorectal cancer.

Association with Colorectal Cancer (CRC):

  • In cases of colorectal cancer (CRC), Fusobacterium nucleatum has been found within tumors in the gut.
  • Studies have shown that this bacterium can aid cancer cells in evading the immune system and promoting metastasis, or the spread of cancer to other parts of the body.
  • Its presence in CRC tumors has led to investigations into its potential role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer.

Impact:

  • Assisting cancer cells in evading the immune system.
  • Promoting inflammation and creating an environment conducive to tumor growth.
  • Facilitating metastasis by interacting with cancer cells and promoting their spread to other tissues.

PYQ:

[2013] Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as Aflatoxins which are not generally destroyed by normal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by:

(a) Bacteria

(b) Protozoa

(c) Moulds

(d) Viruses

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Mass Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep Sea

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Marine heatwave, Coral Bleaching, Agatti Reef, DHW Indicator

Mains level: NA

The Agatti Reef is experiencing unprecedented mass coral bleaching.
The Agatti Reef is experiencing unprecedented mass coral bleaching.

Why in the news?

Extreme heatwaves along the Indian coast, coupled with marine heatwaves, have triggered Mass Coral Bleaching events in the Lakshadweep Sea.

Heatwaves Toll on Lakshadweep’s Coral:

Researchers from the ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) conducted surveys across various Lakshadweep Islands.

    • The Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator in Lakshadweep has soared above 4 °C-weeks, as per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
      • This elevation in DHW levels poses a substantial risk of coral bleaching, posing a severe threat to the region’s marine ecosystems.
  • Should DHW surpass 12 °C-weeks, it could trigger an unprecedented biodiversity crisis, leading to multispecies mortality.
  • Prolonged marine heatwaves since October 2023 have inflicted substantial stress on the coral reefs, exacerbating bleaching phenomena.
    • A marine heatwave is characterized by seawater temperatures exceeding a seasonally-varying threshold (often the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.
Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator: It is a measurement used to assess the accumulated thermal stress that corals experience over an extended period, which can lead to coral bleaching. This indicator is expressed in °C-weeks, reflecting the exposure of coral reefs to elevated sea surface temperatures.

Lakshadweep’s Coral Treasure: Agatti Reef

  • Agatti Island is part of the Lakshadweep archipelago, situated in the Arabian Sea.
  • The island is surrounded by extensive coral reefs, making it a popular destination for snorkeling and diving enthusiasts.
  • The coral reefs around Agatti Island are composed of various coral species, including branching corals like Acropora, table corals like Acropora Hyacinthus, and massive corals like Porites.
  • These corals form intricate reef structures that provide habitat and food for numerous marine organisms.

What causes Coral Bleaching?

  • When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
  • So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
  • Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.

Back2Basics: Corals

  • Coral are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
  • These polyps have microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues in a mutualistic relationship.
  • The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
  • In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with organic products of photosynthesis, like carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral polyps for synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeletons.
  • Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
  • They are the largest living structures on the planet.
  • Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
  • Coral reefs are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.

Types of Coral

Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals:

  1. Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
  2. Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.

Conditions needed for Corals to Flourish

  • Extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps (not more than 90m below sea level).
  • High mean annual temperature ranging 20-21 degree Celsius.
  • Clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral polyps resulting into their death.
  • Oceanic salinity ranging between 27-30 ppt.
  • Ocean currents and waves, as they bring food supply for the polyps.

 

PYQ:

2014: Which of the following have coral reefs?

  1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
  2. Gulf of Kachchh
  3. Gulf of Mannar
  4. Sunderbans

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

West Nile Fever Outbreak in Kerala 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: West Nile Virus, Its host, Transmission;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

  • The Kerala government disclosed the re-emergence of West Nile fever cases in Thrissur, Malappuram, and Kozhikode districts.
  • West Nile fever was first detected in Kerala in 2011, with a fatal case recorded in 2019 involving a six-year-old from Malappuram.

What is West Nile Fever?

  • West Nile fever is caused by a West Nile Virus (WNV) transmitted through bites from infected Culex mosquitoes.
  • The WNV is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded RNA virus.
  • According to the WHO, it is a member of the flavi-virus genus and belongs to the Japanese Encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae.

How does it spread?

  • It is transmitted by infected mosquitoes between and among humans and animals, including birds, which are the reservoir host of the virus.
  • Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days.
  • The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands.
  • During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness.
  • WNV can also spread through blood transfusion, from an infected mother to her child, or through exposure to the virus in laboratories.
  • It is not known to spread by contact with infected humans or animals.

Symptoms of WNV infection:

  • The disease is asymptomatic in 80% of the infected people.
  • The rest develop what is called the West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease.
  • In these 20% cases, the symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, rash, and swollen glands.

PYQ:

[2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

Back2Basics: Type of Viruses 

Subtypes Description Examples
DNA Viruses Herpesviruses DNA viruses with a complex structure causing various diseases including cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis. HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, EBV
Papillomaviruses DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers. HPV
Adenoviruses DNA viruses causing a wide range of infections in humans. Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
Poxviruses Large, complex DNA viruses responsible for diseases like smallpox. Variola virus (smallpox), Vaccinia virus
RNA Viruses Positive-Sense RNA Viruses RNA viruses with genomes that can directly serve as mRNA, causing diseases like the common cold, Zika, and COVID-19. Picornaviruses, Flaviviruses, Coronaviruses
Negative-Sense RNA Viruses RNA viruses requiring transcription into positive-sense RNA before translation, causing diseases like influenza and rabies. Orthomyxoviruses, Paramyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses
Retroviruses RNA viruses that use reverse transcriptase to integrate their genome into the host cell’s DNA. HIV, HTLV
Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) Viruses RNA viruses with double-stranded RNA genomes causing gastroenteritis and other infections. Reoviruses
Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Ambisense Genome RNA viruses with genomes containing both positive-sense and negative-sense RNA regions. Arenaviruses, Bunyaviruses
Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Segmented Genome RNA viruses with genomes consisting of multiple segments, causing diseases like influenza and hemorrhagic fevers. Orthomyxoviruses, Bunyaviruses
Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Circular Genome Satellite viruses with a circular RNA genome requiring helper viruses for replication. Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV)
Enveloped Viruses Influenza Viruses RNA viruses surrounded by a lipid envelope causing seasonal flu outbreaks. Influenza A, B, C viruses
Herpesviruses Enveloped DNA viruses causing diseases like cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis. HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, CMV
Coronaviruses Enveloped RNA viruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19. SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2
HIV Enveloped retroviruses responsible for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Human immunodeficiency virus
Ebola Virus Enveloped RNA virus causing severe hemorrhagic fever in humans. Ebola virus
Non-enveloped Viruses Adenoviruses DNA viruses lacking a lipid envelope, causing various infections in humans. Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
Papillomaviruses DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers, lacking an envelope. HPV
Noroviruses RNA viruses causing gastroenteritis, lacking an envelope. Norovirus
Rotaviruses RNA viruses causing severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children, lacking an envelope. Rotavirus
Bacteriophages T4 Bacteriophage Viruses that infect bacteria, with a complex structure and lifecycle. T4 bacteriophage
Lambda Phage Temperate bacteriophage capable of lysogenic and lytic cycles in E. coli. Lambda phage

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