Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Data related to inequality and poverty
Mains level: Measurement issues regarding poverty lines and consumption expenditure
Why in the News?
The National Sample Survey Organization’s and Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (2022-23) prompted researchers to estimate Poverty and Inequality trends, highlighting data comparability and measurement issues.
Present trends of Poverty and Inequality in Indian Society:
1. Poverty Declined:
- Poverty ratios declined from 29.5% in 2011-12 to 10% in 2022-23 (1.77% points per year) based on the Rangarajan Committee’s poverty lines.
- Poverty ratios declined from 21.9% in 2011-12 to 3% in 2022-23 (1.72% points per year) based on the Tendulkar Committee’s poverty lines. Earlier period estimates showed a decline from 37.2% in 2004-05 to 21.9% in 2011-12 (2.18 percentage points per year).
2. Inequality Declined :
- Subramanian’s estimates indicate the Gini coefficient declined from 0.278 to 0.269 for rural areas and from 0.358 to 0.318 for urban areas between 2011-12 and 2022-23.
- The Gini coefficient measures the inequality among the values of a frequency distribution, such as levels of income.
- Bansal et al show similar trends: Gini coefficient for rural areas declined from 0.284 to 0.266, and for urban areas from 0.363 to 0.315 over the same period. (significant decline in urban inequality compared to rural areas between 2011-12 and 2022-23)
Back2Basics:
Lakdawala Committee (1993):
- It disaggregated poverty lines into state-specific poverty lines.
- Poverty lines: same as Alagh’s committee of 1979. (2400 kcal per capita per day for rural areas and 2100 kcal per capita per day in urban areas.)
- Poverty lines were updated using the Consumer Price Index of Industrial Workers (CPI-IW) in urban areas and the Consumer Price Index of Agricultural Labour (CPI-AL) in rural areas rather than using National Accounts Statistics.
- Estimates of poverty: 54.9% (All India)
Tendulkar Committee (2009):
- Constituted: In 2005
- Submitted report: 2009.
- Recommendations:
- Firstly, the incorporation of private expenditure on health and education while estimating poverty.
- Secondly, to shift away from two separate poverty line baskets (PLBs) (for rural and Urban) towards a uniform all-India PLB.
- Thirdly, to shift away from Uniform Reference Period (URP) based estimates towards Mixed Reference Period (MRP) based estimates.
- Fourthly, A change in the price adjustment procedure to correct spatial (across regions) and temporal (across time) issues with price adjustment.
- It concluded that India’s poverty line was Rs. 446.68 per capita per month in rural areas and Rs. 578.80 per capita per month in urban areas in 2004-05.
- Estimates of poverty: 37.2 % (All India)
C. Rangarajan Committee (2014):
- Constituted: 2012
- Submitted report: 2014.
- Used a method of calculating urban and rural poverty separately (similar to the Lakdawala committee).
- Took into account both food and non-food items of expenditure.
- Used the MMRP method instead of MRP.
- Poverty was estimated on monthly expenditure of a family of five (and not individual as in case of the Tendulkar committee). All three, i.e., Calorie + protein + Fat intake values were taken into account to estimate poverty.
- Estimates of poverty: 29.5%
- Poverty lines: Rural- Rs. 32; Urban- Rs.47
Methods to Estimate Absolute Poverty by NSSO:
Poverty estimation in India is now carried out by NITI Aayog’s task force through the calculation of poverty line based on the data captured by the NSSO under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI). It uses the following 3 methods:
- Uniform Recall (reference) Period (URP): Under URP, consumption data for all items are collected for a 30-day recall period. When URP is applied, the households are surveyed about their consumption in the last 30 days preceding the date of the survey.
- Until 1993-94, the poverty line estimated by NSSO was based on URP.
- Mixed Recall (reference) Period (MRP): MRP takes into account consumption expenditure for five non-food items (clothing, footwear, durable goods, education, and institutional medical expenses) for a 365-day recall period, and consumption data for the remaining items are collected for a 30-day recall period.
- Modified mixed reference period (MMRP): The Rangarajan Committee in its 2014 report recommended MMRP as a more suitable method to measure poverty as compared to URP and MRP methods. The World Bank in 2015 also supported the idea of shifting from MRP to MMRP. Under MMRP there are 3 reference periods as follows:
- The 365-day recall period is used for clothing, footwear, education, institutional medical care, and durable goods.
- The 7-day recall period for edible oil, egg, fish and meat, vegetables, fruits, spices, beverages, refreshments, processed food, paan, tobacco and intoxicants and
- The 30-day recall period for the remaining food items, fuel, and light, miscellaneous
good and services including non-institutional medical, rents, and taxes.
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Measurement issues regarding Poverty Lines and Consumption Expenditure:
- Shift Away from Calorie Norm-based Poverty Line: The Tendulkar Committee recognized the inadequacy of a calorie norm-based poverty line. Instead, the Tendulkar Committee indirectly utilized calorie norms by adopting the urban poverty line based on the Lakdawala Committee’s methodology, which included calorie norms.
- Need for new Consumption Basket: The Rangarajan Group emphasized the need for a new consumption basket that addresses both adequate nourishment and essential non-food items, alongside behaviorally determined non-food expenditure.
- Estimating this new poverty basket required a fresh approach rather than simply updating an old basket with new prices.
- Incomplete Capture of Public Expenditure: Despite efforts to impute values for public expenditure items, the imputation process captured only a fraction of the total public expenditure on subsidized or free items.
- Complexity in Poverty Measurement: There is no universally agreed-upon method for measuring poverty, leading to variability in estimates.
Constitutional provisions related to eliminating inequalities:
i. [Article 38 (2) ]: Obligation of the State ‘to endeavour to eliminate inequalities in status, facilities and opportunities’ amongst individuals and groups of people residing in different areas or engaged in different vocations.
ii. [Article 46]: Obligation of State ‘to promote with special care’ the educational and economic interests of ‘the weaker sections of the people’ (besides Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes).
Conclusion: Given the inadequacy of calorie norm-based poverty lines, as recognized by the Tendulkar Committee, there is a need to adopt more effective and real-time approaches that will consider evolving consumption patterns.
Mains PYQ:
Q “The incidence and intensity of poverty are more important in determining poverty based on income alone”. In this context analyse the latest United Nations Multidimensional Poverty Index Report.(UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About Measles Vaccination
Mains level: Global Immunisation Efforts and Current Observations
Why in the News?
On the occasion of World Immunisation Week observed from 24th to 30th April, the Indian Academy of Paediatrics has launched a campaign to focus on routine immunization as the ‘Birth Right’ of a Child.
About Measles Vaccination
- This vaccine protects against 3 diseases: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR).
- Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends children get two doses of MMR vaccine, starting with the first dose at 12 -15 months of age, and the second dose at 4-6 years of age. Teens and adults should also be up to date on their MMR vaccination.
Indian Government Initiatives:
- World Immunization Week: The Indian Academy of Paediatrics (IAP) launched a campaign during World Immunisation Week (April 24-30) focusing on routine immunization as a fundamental right of every child. IAP urged the government to expedite the introduction of the HPV vaccine and typhoid conjugate vaccine to address significant public health burdens.
- Vaccination made within the country:
- DTP Vaccine: 93% of surviving infants received the third dose of the DTP vaccine.
- Measles Vaccine: 90% of infants received the second dose of the measles vaccine. The measles vaccine has been the most significant in reducing infant mortality, accounting for 60% of lives saved through immunisation since 1974.
- Present issues include inequitable distribution of vaccines, inability to reach 90% coverage, human resource gaps, and financing problems. In 2022, 33 million children missed a measles vaccine dose, with 22 million missing the first dose and 11 million missing the second dose.
Impacts of Immunisation Globally:
- Lives Saved: Immunisation efforts have saved an estimated 154 million lives globally over the past 50 years, equating to six lives every minute of every year.
- Infant Mortality Reduction: 101 million of the lives saved were infants. Vaccination against 14 diseases has reduced infant deaths by 40% globally and by over 50% in Africa.
- Diseases Targeted: Vaccines have contributed to reducing deaths from diseases like Diphtheria, Haemophilus Influenzae Type B, Hepatitis B, Japanese Encephalitis, Measles, Meningitis A, Pertussis, invasive Pneumococcal disease, Polio, Rotavirus, Rubella, Tetanus, Tuberculosis, and Yellow fever.
Conclusion: Immunisation saves lives, reduces infant mortality, and prevents outbreaks by protecting against infectious diseases, ensuring healthier communities, and securing a better future for children worldwide.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines? (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: The Mediation Act, 2023
Mains level: Need to address flaws wrt Mediation Act, 2023
Why in the news?
The Mediation Act, of 2023, formalizes diverse mediation forms, promotes amicable settlements and also addresses the judicial backlog. However, Chief Justice Chandrachud emphasized recently that we need a “mediate, not litigate” directive.
What is Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)?
- ADR refers to the methods of resolving a dispute, which are alternatives for litigation in Courts. Generally, it uses a neutral third party who helps the parties to communicate, discuss the differences, and resolve the dispute (civil disputes).
- The Malimath Committee Report (1989-90) underlined the need for ADR mechanisms as a viable alternative to conventional court litigation.
Important Provisions Related To ADR:
- Section 89 of the Civil Procedure Code, 1908: Provides that opportunity to the people, if it appears to court there exist elements of settlement outside the court then the court formulates the terms of the possible settlement and refer the same for ADRs.
- Legal provisions dealing with the ADR mechanism in India are the Legal Services Authority Act, 1987 (established Lok Adalat System) and the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996.
Significance of ADR:
- Speedy Justice: It is a well-known fact that the present Judicial System is extremely expensive and delaying. ADR methods typically resolve disputes faster than traditional court processes, which is crucial in reducing judicial backlog and providing timely justice.
- Cost-Effectiveness: ADR is generally less expensive than litigation, as it avoids the high costs associated with court fees, prolonged legal procedures, and extensive discovery processes.
- Confidentiality: Unlike public court proceedings, ADR processes are usually private, protecting the confidentiality of the parties and the details of the dispute.
- Preservation of Relationships: ADR methods, particularly mediation and conciliation, emphasize collaborative problem-solving and communication, helping to preserve or even improve relationships between parties.
Key provisions of the Mediation Act, 2023:
- It defines ‘Mediation’ and also expands the scope of mediation to statutorily recognize pre-litigation mediation, online mediation, community mediation and conciliation under the definition.
- Section 5 provides that the disputing parties, before filing any civil or commercial suit in any court, may “voluntarily and with mutual consent” take steps to settle the disputes by pre-litigation mediation.
- It is in line with the international practice of using the terms ‘mediation’ and ‘conciliation’ as declared by the UNCITRAL and as done previously by the Supreme Court of India in many of its judgments (Perry Kansagra vs. Smriti Madan Kansagra, 2019 and Amardeep Singh vs. Harveen Kaur, 2017).
Need to address flaws wrt Mediation Act, 2023:
- Experience Requirement for Mediators: Aspiring mediators must have 15 years of professional experience before qualifying to practice. This requirement might be too stringent and could limit the pool of potential mediators, hindering the growth of mediation as a viable dispute-resolution method.
- Disconnect in Legal Education: The current legal education and practice emphasize advocacy, which contrasts sharply with the neutrality required in mediation. This creates a disconnect as legal professionals need to unlearn and relearn skills when transitioning between roles, making the process inefficient.
How can we foster the next generation of Mediators?
- Integrated Approach: To bridge the gap between advocacy and mediation, there should be continuous, integrated learning. Legal professionals should be trained to switch roles seamlessly, maintaining and enhancing their skills in both areas throughout their careers.
- Innovative Training Methods: Co-mediation pairs novice mediators with experienced counterparts, allowing them to gain practical experience in real mediation sessions.
- Structured Mediation Training: Embedding mediation training within the law school curriculum can ignite early interest and equip students with essential dispute-resolution skills.
- Amendments: Revising the experience requirement to allow younger professionals to become mediators sooner could expand the pool of qualified mediators and accelerate the adoption of mediation practices.
Conclusion: According to CJI an “active effort must be taken by courts to make negotiations and mediation mandatory as part of case management and with adequate cooperation from all stakeholders, ADR can emerge as a tool of social justice in the country.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the major changes brought in the Arbitration and Conciliation Act, of 1966 through the recent ordinance promulgated by the President? How far will it improve India’s dispute resolution mechanism? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Smart Cities Mission
Mains level: Why is the Smart Cities Mission (SCM) considered exclusionary to many?
Why in the news?
The Smart Cities Mission (SCM), a key initiative of the previous NDA-1 government, has received less emphasis in this year’s lineup of electoral pledges and accomplishments.
How are smart cities defined by the government?
- Since 2009, following the significant financial crash, the term ‘Smart City’ has gained widespread usage.
- Urban practitioners have defined smart cities as innovative urban hubs akin to new Silicon Valleys, characterized by robust integration of transportation networks, including airports, highways, and various communication infrastructures, thereby fostering intellectual environments enhanced by advanced information and communication technologies (ICT).
- The Smart Cities Mission is a key urban renewal and retrofitting program launched by the Government of India in 2015 to develop 100 cities across the country, making them citizen-friendly and sustainable.
The Smart Cities Mission (SCM) comprises two primary components:
- Area-Based Development:
This aspect focuses on three components:
- Redevelopment (city renewal): Revitalizing existing urban areas to improve infrastructure, amenities, and quality of life.
- Retrofitting (city improvement): Upgrading infrastructure and services in already developed areas to meet contemporary urban needs and standards.
- Greenfield projects (city extension): Developing new urban areas or expanding existing cities with sustainable and modern infrastructure.
- Pan-City Solutions based on ICT:
This facet involves implementing integrated solutions across various sectors using Information and Communication Technology (ICT). These solutions typically fall under six categories:
- E-governance: Utilizing digital platforms for efficient and transparent governance processes.
- Waste management: Implementing systems for effective waste collection, segregation, and disposal.
- Water management: Enhancing water supply infrastructure and promoting conservation measures.
- Energy management: Implementing energy-efficient technologies and promoting renewable energy sources.
- Urban mobility: Improving transportation systems to enhance connectivity and reduce congestion.
- Skill development: Promoting programs to enhance the skills and employability of the urban workforce.
Why is the Smart Cities Mission (SCM) considered exclusionary to many?
- Limited Geographical Scope: Only a small portion of a city’s area, often not more than 1%, was selected for development under the SCM. For example, in Chandigarh, the funds were concentrated in sector 43, focusing on projects like smart water meters and Wi-Fi zones, leaving other areas untouched.
- Mismatch with Urban Realities: The competitive selection process did not account for the diverse and dynamic nature of urbanization in India. The approach was more suitable for static urban environments found in the West, not the evolving urban landscapes of Indian cities.
- Displacement and Disruption: Implementation of smart city projects often led to the displacement of people living in poorer localities and street vendors.
- Inadequate Funding: The total funding allocated for the SCM was significantly less than the estimated requirement for making Indian cities livable. Reports suggested a capital expenditure need of $1.2 trillion by 2030, while the SCM’s allocation was less than $20 billion over nine years.
Did the SCM override the 74th Constitutional Amendment?
- Reduced Role of Elected Councils: The governance structure under the SCM limited the role of elected municipal councils.This was seen as bypassing the decentralized, participatory governance model envisaged by the 74th Constitutional Amendment, which aimed to empower local urban bodies.
- Top-Down Approach: Critics argued that the SCM’s design was too top-down, not aligning with the bottom-up approach promoted by the 74th Constitutional Amendment.
Way forward:
- Contextual Planning: Develop flexible and adaptive plans that consider the unique and dynamic nature of Indian urbanization, rather than applying a one-size-fits-all model.
- Community Involvement: Engage local communities in the planning process to ensure that projects reflect the needs and realities of different urban areas.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are ‘Smart Cities’? examine their relevance for urban development in India. Will it increase rural-urban differences? Give arguments for ‘Smart Villages’ in the light of PURA and RURBAN Mission. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Semal Trees and its habitat
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Despite its ecological importance, rampant harvesting of Semal Trees for bonfires poses a grave threat to their existence, undermining biodiversity and cultural heritage alike.
About Semal/ Silk Cotton Trees
- The Semal tree, scientifically known as Bombax ceiba, is a deciduous tropical tree.
- It is native to India, South-East Asia, and Northern Australia.
- It can grow up to 60 meters tall. It has a distinctive straight trunk, often with spiky thorns, and a wide, spreading canopy.
- It produces vivid red flowers that are large and attractive, making it quite conspicuous when in bloom.
- The fruit of the Semal tree is a capsule that contains several seeds surrounded by a fibrous, cotton-like substance which is wind-dispersed.
Commercial Uses
- The fibers extracted from the fruit, known as kapok, are used for stuffing pillows, mattresses, and life jackets due to their buoyancy and insulating properties.
- The wood is soft and is often used for making paper, while in rural areas, it is used as fuelwood and for making cheap furniture.
Ecological Significance
- Members of tribal communities consume the tree’s reddish root for food during the monsoons.
- Larvae of the moth Bucculatrix crateracma feed on its leaves.
- The golden-crowned sparrow weaves the lining of its nests with white cotton from its seeds.
Felling of a Semal Tree: Which laws are violated?
- Rajasthan Forest Act 1953: This act prohibits various activities in reserved forests without prior permission. Specifically, it bars any unauthorized person from felling, uprooting, damaging, or otherwise harming trees. Violating these prohibitions can lead to penalties including imprisonment, fines, or both, depending on the severity of the offence. Semal tree is not recorded in the state’s list of ‘rare, threatened, and endangered’ species. (Trees on this list enjoy priority conservation efforts.) (Indian Kanoon)
- Forest (Conservation) Act 1980: This act is more comprehensive at the national level and was enacted to provide for the conservation of forests and to regulate deforestation. It requires that any non-forest use of forest land must have prior approval from the Central Government. This includes clearances for felling trees, which are only granted under specific conditions that ensure the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources. (UNEPLawEnvAssistantPlat)
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PYQ:
[2015] In India, in which one of the following types of forests is teak a dominant tree species?
(a) Tropical moist deciduous forest
(b) Tropical rainforest
(c) Tropical thorn scrub forest
(d) Temperate forest with grasslands |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chabahar Port, Persian Gulf Mapping
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- India and Iran signed a 10-year agreement for the operation of the Chabahar port, marking a significant milestone in their cooperation.
Back2Basics: Chabahar Port
- The port is located in southeastern Iran in the Sistan-Baluchistan province, on the Gulf of Oman and at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz.
- It is called the “Golden Gate” to Central Asian land-locked countries of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
- It serves as Iran’s only oceanic port and consists of two separate ports named Shahid Kalantari and Shahid Beheshti.
- It is only about 170 km west of the Gwadar port if Pakistan.
- The development of Chabahar port was initiated by India with a MoU in 2015 and executed in 2016 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Iran.
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About the Agreement
The contract, signed between Indian Ports Global Ltd. (IPGL) and Port and Maritime Organisation (PMO) of Iran, involves substantial investment and development initiatives.
- IPGL will invest approximately $120 million in equipping the Shahid-Behesti terminal, enhancing the port’s efficiency and capacity.
- India has extended a credit window of $250 million for mutually identified projects aimed at improving Chabahar-related infrastructure, emphasizing its commitment to regional development.
Strategic Importance of Chabahar Port to India
- Chabahar port will boost India’s access to Iran, the key gateway to the International North-South Transport Corridor that has sea, rail and road routes between India, Russia, Iran, Europe and Central Asia.
- Chabahar port will be beneficial to India in countering Chinese presence in the Arabian Sea which China is trying to ensure by helping Pakistan develop the Gwadar port.
- India can bypass Pakistan in transporting goods to Afghanistan.
Economic Significance
- Chabahar Port is at an important point on the Arabian Sea, with easy access from India’s west coast.
- Kandla port in Gujarat is the closest port at 550 nautical miles, while the distance between Chabahar and Mumbai is 786 nautical miles.
- Since 2019, the port has handled more than 80,000 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of container traffic and more than 8 million tonnes of bulk and general cargo.
- The port also offers an alternative route from the Strait of Hormuz for cargo traffic between Central Asian countries and Afghanistan.
PYQ:
[2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?
(a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.
(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.
(c) India will not depend on Pakistan to access Afghanistan and Central Asia.
(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the gas pipeline installation between Iraq and India. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise SHakti and another bilateral exercise between India and France
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The 7th edition of the India-France Joint Military Exercise SHAKTI begins at Umroi, Meghalaya, signalling the start of a biennial training event aimed at enhancing bilateral military cooperation.
About Exercise Shakti
- Shakti Exercise is a joint military exercise between the armies of India and France.
- It is a biennial training event conducted alternatively in India and France
- It started in 2011, and since then, the armies of both countries have undertaken it to promote defence cooperation and interoperability.
- Objectives:
- To bolster joint military capabilities for multi-domain operations in a sub-conventional scenario under Chapter VII of the United Nations Mandate.
- To operate in semi-urban and mountainous terrain, focusing on achieving a high degree of physical fitness and refining tactical drills.
Major Defence Exercise between India and France:
- Garuda: It is the joint air exercise between the Indian Air Force and the French Air and Space Force.
- Varuna: It is the joint naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the French Navy.
- Desert Knight-21: It was a bilateral air exercise conducted by the Indian Air Force and the French Air and Space Force at Air Force Station Jodhpur from January 20-24, 2021. It was unique as it involved the fielding of Rafale aircraft by both sides.
- FRINJEX: It was the maiden joint military exercise between the Indian Army and the French Army conducted at Pangode Military Station, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on March 7-8, 2023.
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Tap to read more about:
Various Defence Exercises in News
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MOW register, ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, and Sahrdayāloka-Locana
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra and Sahrdayaloka-Locana have been included in ‘UNESCO’s Memory of the World Asia-Pacific regional register’.
About UNESCO’s ‘Memory of the World (MOW) Asia-Pacific regional register’
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Details |
| History and Establishment |
Initiated in 1992 by UNESCO.
Asia-Pacific Regional Committee (MOWCAP) was set up in 1998. |
| Parent Organization |
Overseen by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). |
| Objective |
To safeguard, preserve, facilitate access to, and increase awareness of documentary heritage. Focuses specifically on the Asia-Pacific region. |
| Examples of Inscribed Items |
Includes items like Japan’s “Sugihara’s Visas for Life”, Australia’s “Mabo Case Manuscripts”, and Vietnam’s “Ba Chuc Massacre Archives”. |
| Impact and Outreach |
Supports preservation, digitization, accessibility of documents; provides grants and organizes workshops, meetings, and exhibitions to promote knowledge sharing. |
Reference
About the Texts
- Written by Tulsidas in the 16th century, the Ramcharitmanas is an epic poem in Awadhi, a dialect of Hindi, and is a retelling of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.
- It narrates the life of Lord Rama, his virtues, the ideals of Dharma, and his reign during Ram Rajya.
- Hanuman Chalisa is a combination of 40 verses from the same epic.
- The Panchatantra is a collection of ancient Indian animal fables that dates back to at least the 3rd century BCE.
- Originally written in Sanskrit by Vishnu Sharma.
- Its stories are crafted as simple yet vibrant narratives that aim to impart practical life lessons through the interactions of anthropomorphized animals.
- The Sahrdayaloka-Locana is a Sanskrit treatise on poetics written by Jagannatha Paṇḍitaraja in the 17th century.
- It is considered one of the most important works of Sanskrit literary criticism.
- The text discusses the concept of “Sahrdaya“, which refers to a sensitive or discerning reader or critic.
PYQ:
[2016] With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of who among the following?
(a) Shramana
(b) Parivraajaka
(c) Agrahaarika
(d) Maagadha |
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