Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About Generalised System of Preferences (GSP)
Mains level: Trades and Relations; Changing Geopolitics of the World;
Why in the News?
It is widely believed that renewing the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) program would pave the way for comprehensive U.S.-India trade negotiations, potentially elevating the bilateral trade relationship to new heights.
What is the ‘Generalised System of Preferences (GSP)’ Program about?
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- The Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) is a trade initiative by developed countries to aid developing countries.
- Nearly all developed countries have their versions of the GSP, tailored to their economic and policy goals.
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- It involves reducing tariffs on imports from these countries, aiming to stimulate their economic development. (It is not formally part of the World Trade Organization).
- Origin and its Evolution:
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- During the 1960s: The idea of the GSP emerged during the 1960s as part of broader efforts within the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) to help developing countries gain better access to markets in developed countries.
- During 1968: UNCTAD proposed the GSP as a mechanism to offer non-reciprocal, non-discriminatory tariff preferences to developing countries, aiming to promote their economic growth and industrialization.
- During 1974: The US officially established its GSP program under the Trade Act of 1974. This act authorized the U.S. to provide duty-free treatment for selected products imported from designated beneficiary developing countries (BDCs).
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The Significance of Renewing the GSP:
- US Factor: The GSP program is unique because it requires periodic reauthorization by Congress. This program of the U.S. expired in 2020 and has not yet been renewed, despite bipartisan support.
- For Stability in the Market: Renewal is challenging in a polarized political environment but is crucial for maintaining stable market access for developing countries.
- For Diversification: The GSP supports small businesses and women-owned enterprises, encouraging economic empowerment and diversification away from Chinese imports.
- To bring Reform: It will promote labor and environmental reforms and reduce tariff costs for American businesses, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises.
Significance of US – India Trade Relationship:
- Broader the Trade agreement: The U.S. and India have a significant trade relationship, with bilateral trade worth around $200 billion. Renewing the GSP could facilitate further negotiations and potentially lead to a broader trade agreement.
- Need for GSP renewal: Before the GSP expired, the U.S. and India were close to a trade deal covering various sectors including medical devices, agriculture, ethanol, and IT products.
- Despite ongoing trade dialogues, the U.S. is currently not negotiating new Free Trade Agreements (FTAs), making GSP renewal a key tool for enhancing trade relations.
- A renewed GSP could cover multiple areas such as labour rights, environmental laws, and regulatory practices, fostering a more robust and ambitious trade partnership.
- In the Indo-Pacific region.
- It can significantly boost trade and economic cooperation between the two countries.
- It would signal a mutual commitment to deepening their trade relationship and addressing broader economic and regulatory issues.
Way forward:
- Utilize GSP as a Negotiation Tool: Leverage GSP renewal as a platform to initiate broader trade negotiations between the U.S. and India, potentially leading to a more comprehensive trade agreement.
- Focus on Strategic Sectors: Identify and prioritize sectors such as technology, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture where both countries have mutual interests and complementary strengths.
Mains PYQ:
Q “What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem (UPSC IAS/2019)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nuclear treaties and Co-operations; 123 Agreement;
Mains level: Nuclear Cooperation Agreement; Major powers;
Why in the News?
White House National Security Adviser Jake Sullivan will visit Saudi Arabia to discuss a Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, aiming to foster Israeli-Saudi normalization.
What is a Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement?
- A civil nuclear cooperation agreement, often referred to as a “123 Agreement” after Section 123 of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1954, sets the terms under which the United States can engage in significant nuclear cooperation with other countries.
- This includes the transfer of nuclear materials, technology, and information. Such agreements are designed to ensure that the cooperation is for peaceful purposes and to prevent nuclear proliferation.
- They require the partner country to adhere to nine nonproliferation criteria, including physical security measures, safeguards, and a commitment not to use the technology for nuclear weapons development. Additionally, these agreements must be reviewed and approved by the U.S. Congress.
Why does Saudi Arabia want a US nuclear cooperation agreement?
Saudi Arabia’s interest in a Nuclear Cooperation Agreement with the U.S. is driven by two primary motivations:
- Energy Diversification and its Vision 2030: Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s Vision 2030 plan aims to diversify the Saudi economy and reduce its reliance on oil.
- Part of this vision includes developing renewable energy sources, and nuclear energy is seen as a key component.
- Strategic Considerations: There is also speculation that Saudi Arabia seeks to develop nuclear expertise as a hedge against Iran’s nuclear capabilities. The Saudi leadership has indicated that if Iran were to develop nuclear weapons, Saudi Arabia might consider doing the same.
- This potential for nuclear proliferation is a concern for arms control advocates and some U.S. lawmakers.
How would the US benefit from such a deal?
- Strategic Gains: The agreement could be a component of a broader effort to normalize relations between Saudi Arabia and Israel, thereby enhancing regional stability and security. This would bolster U.S. efforts to counter Iranian influence in the Middle East and build a coalition of allies in the region.
- Commercial Opportunities: U.S. nuclear companies could secure lucrative contracts to build and operate nuclear power plants in Saudi Arabia. This would provide a significant boost to the U.S. nuclear industry, which faces competition from Russian and Chinese firms.
- Geopolitical Influence: Strengthening ties with Saudi Arabia would reinforce U.S. influence in the Gulf region at a time when China is seeking to expand its presence. This would help maintain the U.S. strategic foothold in one of the world’s most geopolitically significant areas.
What are some likely hurdles to it?
Several challenges could impede the realization of a U.S.-Saudi nuclear cooperation agreement:
- Gaza Conflict: The ongoing conflict in Gaza, particularly the high Palestinian casualties resulting from Israeli military actions, complicates Saudi willingness to normalize relations with Israel.
- Nonproliferation Concerns: There are substantial concerns about the potential for nuclear proliferation. Ensuring that Saudi Arabia complies with stringent nonproliferation standards and does not pursue nuclear weapons capabilities will be a critical and contentious issue.
- Congressional Approval: Any agreement would need to pass through the U.S. Congress, where it could face opposition from lawmakers worried about proliferation risks and regional security dynamics. Congressional scrutiny could delay or block the agreement.
- Need of high Technical and Operational Details: Negotiating the specifics of nuclear technology transfer, including whether Saudi Arabia would be allowed to enrich uranium on its soil, and ensuring robust safeguards to prevent misuse of nuclear materials, are complex issues that require careful handling.
Way Forward:
- Need for Strict Safeguards: Establish stringent nonproliferation safeguards within the agreement, ensuring that Saudi Arabia adheres to international standards and commits to using nuclear technology solely for peaceful purposes.
- Need Regular Inspections: Implement a robust regime of regular inspections by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to monitor Saudi nuclear facilities and ensure compliance with the agreement.
Mains PYQ:
Q In what ways would the ongoing US-Iran Nuclear Pact Controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to its situation? (15) (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Land and Property rights in India;
Mains level: Judicial Interventions; Judicial Review;
Why in the News?
To protect the rights of village landowners in Haryana, the Supreme Court has permitted a review of a 2022 judgment by Justices Hemant Gupta and V Ramasubramanian that allowed gram panchayats to acquire ‘shamlat deh’ land.
Context:
What is ‘Shamlat deh’?
- It refers to common land in the village, formed by multiple landowners each contributing an equal portion of their holdings to serve the “common purposes” of the village community. It is kept aside for common use in villages, as part of the Punjab Land Revenue Act of 1887.
- Article 31A was inserted by the First Amendment Act of 1951 in the Indian Constitution. It aimed to protect laws related to agrarian reforms and the acquisition of estates.
- According to the Supreme Court (April 2022), such land should be utilized by panchayats only for the needs of villagers. No part of the land can be re-partitioned amongst the proprietors, and such land would not be available for sale.
- A Bench of Justices B R Gavai and Sandeep Mehta reopened the challenge to the 1992 amendment on May 17, 2024, after observing that the 2022 decision disregarded an important and relevant Constitution Bench decision in the case of Bhagat Ram vs State of Punjab (1967).
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Bhagat Ram: Clarifying the Meaning of Land Acquisition under Article 31A:
- In 1967, a five-judge Bench reviewed a land consolidation scheme for the village of Dolike Sunderpur that reserved lands for common purposes and diverted the income to the panchayat.
- Landowners’ Argument: The scheme violated the second provision of Article 31A, which prevents acquiring land below the ceiling limit without compensation at market value.
- State’s Argument: The reservation for the panchayat was not land acquisition since the income would benefit the village.
- Ajit Singh v State of Punjab (1967): Distinguished land acquisition from modification or extinguishment of land rights.
- SC Decision: The panchayat was effectively acquiring land by reserving its income, making the state the beneficiary. The court ruled that the second provision of Article 31A applied. Punjab argued the acquisition predated the 17th amendment, but the SC noted the scheme’s implementation was stayed, hence possession and control had not been transferred.
Does Shamlat Land Belong to the Landowners or the Panchayat?
- In 2003, the Punjab and Haryana High Court reviewed a challenge to the 1992 amendment to the Punjab Act that vested control of ‘shamlat deh’ land in Haryana with the gram panchayat.
- Petitioners’ Argument: The Landowners however argued that the amendment did not allow panchayats to control the land for common purposes without compensation, violating Article 31A.
- High Court Decision: The court distinguished between land reserved for common purposes under the Consolidation Act (vested with the gram panchayat) and land contributed by proprietors but not reserved under the consolidation scheme (which could not vest with the panchayat without compensation).
- The decision relied on the SC’s Bhagat Ram ruling that acquiring land without compensation violates the second proviso of Article 31A.
SC Allows Review of 2022 Judgment:
- The 2022 Supreme Court decision by Justices Gupta and Ramasubramanian overruled the 2003 High Court decision, finding no need for compensation as Article 31 had been omitted. The court ruled that the panchayat merely managed the land on behalf of landholders and that control was vested in the panchayat upon assignment.
- Karnail Singh Review: Justices Gavai and Mehta reopened the challenge, noting the 2022 decision’s cursory reference to Bhagat Ram without addressing why the High Court’s reliance on it was wrong.
- The court found that ignoring a Constitution Bench decision was a manifest error, justifying a review.
- Recalled the 2022 SC decision: The 2022 decision was recalled, and the challenge to the 2003 High Court decision was set to be reheard, starting on August 7, 2024.
Way Forward:
- Need Comprehensive Judicial Reviews: Conduct detailed reviews of prior relevant judgments to provide clear, well-founded reasoning in court decisions.
- Need Clear Compensation Guidelines: Establish explicit guidelines for compensation in land acquisition cases, particularly those involving common land like ‘shamlat deh’, to protect landowners’ rights.
Mains PYQ:
Q The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 has come into effect from Ist January 2014. What are the key issues which would get addressed with the Act in place? What implications would it have on industrialization and agriculture in India? (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glaciers;
Mains level: Climate change; Issue of rise in Temperatures;
Why in the News?
Venezuela has likely become the first country to lose all its glaciers, with its last Humboldt glacier melting faster than anticipated. While scientists projected it to last another decade, its rapid melting exceeded expectations.
Background:
- Venezuela was home to six glaciers about 5,000 meters above sea level in the Andes mountains.
- By 2011, five of them had vanished. Scientists expected the Humboldt glacier to last another decade.
What are glaciers?
- Glaciers are large masses of ice that form on land over long periods through the accumulation and compaction of snow. They flow like slow rivers and typically develop in regions with near-freezing temperatures, significant snowfall, and minimal summer melting.
- According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), they usually exist and form in areas where mean annual temperatures reach near the freezing point; winter precipitation leads to significant snow accumulations; and temperatures throughout the remaining year do not cause the complete loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.
Why are Glaciers disappearing?
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution have released large amounts of GHGs like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
- Heat Trapping: The greenhouse gases act as a blanket, trapping heat in the atmosphere. While they allow sunlight to pass through, they prevent the heat from escaping back into space, leading to a rise in global temperatures.
- The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to the skyrocketing emissions of GHGs in recent decades.
- Consequences of Temperature Rise: The temperature rise has resulted in devastating consequences such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, floods, droughts, and a rise in sea levels.
- Accelerated Melting: Glaciers, like ice cubes exposed to heat, are melting at accelerated rates due to the warmer temperatures caused by global warming.
- Natural Climate Phenomena: Natural climate phenomena like El Nino can exacerbate glacier melting by causing abnormal warming of surface waters, as observed in the case of the Humboldt glacier in Venezuela.
What are the impacts of Glacier Loss?
- Freshwater Source: Glaciers are crucial sources of freshwater, especially during hot and dry periods, providing water for local communities, plants, and animals. Their disappearance would increase dependence on sporadic rainfall for freshwater supply.
- Temperature Regulation: Glacial runoff helps regulate downstream water temperatures, particularly keeping them cooler. This is essential for many aquatic species that require cold water temperatures to survive, impacting the entire ecosystem.
- Ecosystem Impact: Glacier loss directly affects aquatic species, disrupting the food web and potentially leading to declines in biodiversity.
- Contribution to Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers contribute to rising sea levels, although smaller glaciers like Venezuela’s Humboldt glacier may not substantially impact sea levels.
- Cultural Impact: The loss of glaciers has significant cultural implications, particularly for communities where glaciers are part of their cultural identity. Activities such as mountaineering and tourism, which rely on glaciers, would be affected.
- Tourism and Recreation: Glaciers are often major tourist attractions, drawing visitors for activities like mountaineering and sightseeing. The disappearance of glaciers would impact tourism and recreational activities in affected regions.
Way Forward:
- International Cooperation: Foster collaboration among countries to tackle climate change on a global scale. Support international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Protect and Preserve Glacier Areas: Establish and enforce conservation measures to protect glacier regions from further degradation. This can involve creating protected areas, implementing zoning regulations, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.
Mains PYQ:
Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: What is the dependency ratio?
Mains level: What are the opportunities for India?
Why in the News?
In a recent statement, the Finance Minister highlighted the pressing need for sophistication in India’s manufacturing sector to drive economic growth and competitiveness.
- The sophisticated manufacturing sector provides a conducive environment to enhance the efficiency of producing goods and services.
What is the current state of Indian Manufacturing?
- India’s manufacturing sector’s Gross Value Added (GVA) as a percentage of GDP has shown an upward trend (since 2014), currently hovering around 18%. There is a consensus that to compete on a global scale, Indian manufacturing needs to evolve and embrace sophistication in its processes, technologies, and products.
- India’s Dependency Ratio: The dependency ratio is a measure that compares the number of dependents (people who are either too young or too old to work) to the working-age population.
- According to the Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041, when the share of working-age,i.e. 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.
Importance of Sophistication in Manufacturing:
- Leveraging the Demographic Dividend: India’s young population and low dependency ratio offer a significant advantage in terms of labor force and consumption. To capitalize on this demographic dividend, there is a strong focus on ramping up skills in the Indian workforce through initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY).
- Enhancing Productivity and Quality: Embracing sophistication is crucial for enhancing productivity, quality, and competitiveness in the global market. By investing in technology, automation, and research and development, manufacturers can improve efficiency and deliver high-quality products.
- Increasing Share in Global Value Chains: To increase India’s share in global manufacturing and value chains, the government is considering providing policy support. This will help reduce dependence on imports and make India more Self-reliant (Atmanirbhar).
- Attracting Investments: Sophistication in manufacturing can attract significant investments from global companies looking to reduce their dependence on China. According to a Capgemini Research Institute report, 65% of senior executives in the U.S. and Europe plan to increase manufacturing investments significantly in India.
- Unlocking Opportunities in Specific Sectors: Sophistication in manufacturing can help unlock opportunities in sectors such as food spending, financial services, and consumer markets. By 2031, India’s consumer market is projected to double, presenting a $2.9 trillion opportunity.
What are the Challenges hindering the growth of the Sophisticated Manufacturing sector?
- Inadequate infrastructure: Lack of reliable power supply, poor connectivity, and limited access to advanced technologies. Difficulty in obtaining credit, especially for small and medium enterprises (SMEs), to invest in technology upgradation.
- Skill gaps: Shortage of skilled workers trained in modern manufacturing techniques and technologies
- Weak Intellectual Property Rights: Insufficient protection of patents, trademarks, and copyrights, discouraging innovation
- Regulatory hurdles: Complex bureaucratic processes, lack of clarity in policies, and inconsistent implementation
Government Initiatives and Support
- Make in India Initiative: Launched in 2014, the program aims to transform India into a global manufacturing hub by facilitating investment, fostering innovation, building best-in-class infrastructure, and making doing business easier. It focuses on 25 sectors, including automobiles, aviation, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
- National Manufacturing Policy: Introduced in 2011, it aims to increase the share of manufacturing in GDP to 25% and create 100 million jobs by 2022. It focuses on enhancing skill development, promoting innovation, and creating a favorable business environment.
- Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: It provides financial incentives to boost domestic manufacturing and attract investments in key sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, and telecom. It has helped reduce import dependence and increase exports in sectors like telecom and mobile manufacturing
Way Forward:
- Role of Financial Institutions: By providing access to capital, facilitating technology adoption, and offering financial expertise, they can empower manufacturers to invest in sophistication and drive growth.
- Enhanced Strategies: Manufacturers need to prioritize investments in technology, automation, research and development, and skill development to enhance sophistication. Collaborating with financial institutions for tailored financial solutions can help accelerate this transformation.
- Competitive Outlook: As Indian manufacturing embraces sophistication, it is poised to unlock new opportunities, improve competitiveness, and contribute significantly to the country’s economic growth. By aligning with the Finance Minister’s vision, the sector can chart a path towards sustainable success in the global market.
Conclusion: The Finance Minister’s call for sophistication in Indian manufacturing underscores the need for a strategic shift towards innovation, efficiency, and quality. With concerted efforts from stakeholders, including the government, financial institutions, and manufacturers, India can elevate its manufacturing sector to new heights of success and competitiveness.
Mains PYQ:
Q Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes more educated, aware, skilled and creative.” What measures have been taken by the government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable? (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NSG group and NPT
Mains level: Why did India choose to conduct nuclear tests?
Why in the News?
In the year 2024, India’s Pokhran-I have completed 50 years of its tests. The present variation in adopting Nuclear policies (especially Russia and China) around the world, reminds us of the historic Pokhran tests of 1974 by the Indian Government that were held amid secrecy.
Background:
- Post-World War II, new global alliances and alignments emerged amidst the Cold War between the US and USSR.
- The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1968, aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. It defined nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear states, but India objected to its discriminatory nature towards non-nuclear states.
- India refused to sign the NPT due to its failure to address India’s concerns about the discriminatory nature of the treaty, particularly regarding non-nuclear states’ obligations.
Why did India choose to conduct Nuclear Tests?
- India viewed the NPT as discriminatory towards non-nuclear states like itself, leading to its decision to conduct nuclear tests independently.
- Indian scientists, notably Homi J Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, laid the groundwork for nuclear energy in India. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established in 1954.
- Changes in leadership post-1960s, coupled with conflicts with China and Pakistan, influenced India’s decision to pursue nuclear capabilities. China’s nuclear tests in 1964 also played a role.
How did Pokhran-I happen?
- In Secrecy and Uncertainty: India conducted the nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974 without prior announcement, even amidst internal uncertainty among key decision-makers.
- Operation Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the code name of India’s first successful nuclear weapon test on 18 May 1974.
- The test demonstrated India’s nuclear capabilities and its ability to defend itself, though India chose not to weaponize immediately. The choice of Buddha Jayanti for the test date carried symbolic significance.
- By Autonomous Approval: Despite opposition from some advisers, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi gave the go-ahead for the test, signaling India’s resolve.
What was the impact of the Pokhran-I Test?
- Global Criticism: India faced criticism and sanctions from various countries, including the US, following the tests. The US enacted the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act in 1978, halting nuclear assistance to India.
- Despite international criticism, India asserted itself as a nuclear-capable nation, paving the way for future developments like Pokhran-II in 1998.
- Diplomatic Goals: India sought acceptance as a responsible nuclear power and aimed to join international groups like the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), facing resistance from some countries, notably China.
- India’s nuclear tests marked a significant milestone in its defense and foreign policy, shaping its stance on nuclear issues and its position in global nuclear politics.
Way forward for being in the NSG group:
Engage in Diplomatic Outreach:
- Strengthen bilateral relations with NSG member countries.
- Engage in diplomatic dialogue to address concerns and build consensus on India’s membership.
Demonstrate Commitment to Nonproliferation:
- Continue adhering to nonproliferation norms and standards.
- Showcase India’s responsible nuclear behaviour and track record in nuclear security.
Mains PYQ
Q With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (250 Words, 15 Marks) (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wood Age; Schoningen Wooden Artefacts; Prehistory vs. History; Christian Jorgensen Thomsen’s classification
Why in the News?
New research suggests the Stone Age be termed the “Wood Age” due to advanced wooden tools found in Schoningen, Germany.
About Schoningen Wooden Artefacts
- A study of around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
- It reveals that these were not merely “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools” requiring skill, precision, and time to build.
- The tools demonstrated a broad spectrum of wood-working techniques including splitting, scraping or abrasion.
Back2Basics: Periodising Human Prehistory
- Prehistory vs. History: Human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is ‘prehistory,’ studied using archaeological evidence and ethnographic research.
- 19th Century Periodization: Danish archaeologist Christian Jorgensen Thomsen introduced the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age classification based on technological advancements. This classification has been refined to reflect diverse cultural experiences.
The Stone Age Timeline
- Beginning: The Stone Age began when hominids first used stone tools, around 3.4 million years ago in Ethiopia, and lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present).
- Divisions: The Stone Age is divided into:
- Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, ending around 11,650 BP.
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional phase.
- Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning roughly 12,000 BP in West Asia, marked by settled agriculture and domestication of animals.
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Use of Wood: Preservation Bias and Archaeological Evidence
- Stone Tools: Stone tools provide significant insight into the lives and capabilities of early humans. Charles Darwin noted that even the rudest stone tools required a high degree of mental sophistication and physical dexterity.
- Other Materials: Evidence shows the use of bones, antlers, clay, and some metalworking alongside stone tools. However, evidence of woodworking is limited due to wood’s perishable nature.
- Lesser Evidence of Wood: Wood has been recovered from less than 10 of thousands of Lower Palaeolithic sites (up to around 200,000 BP). The earliest wooden dwellings date to only 700,000 BP, much later than the earliest stone tools.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well-known as
(a) ports handling foreign trade
(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms
(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture
(d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Asset Reconstruction Companies, SARFAESI Act, 2002;
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
- After the allegations of ‘unethical practices’ by ARCs, including aiding defaulting promoters, the RBI intervened, with the Deputy Governor urging integrity and ethical conduct in their operations.
The new guidelines laid out by the RBI:
- Enhanced Capital Requirements:
- Minimum Capital Requirement Increase: ARCs are now mandated to maintain a minimum capital requirement of Rs 300 crore, a significant increase from the previous Rs 100 crore stipulation established on October 11, 2022.
- Transition Period for Compliance: Existing ARCs are granted a transition period to reach the revised Net Owned Fund (NOF) threshold of Rs 300 crore by March 31, 2026.
- Interim Requirement: However, by March 31, 2024, ARCs must possess a minimum capital of Rs 200 crore to comply with the new directives.
- Supervisory Actions for Non-Compliance:
- ARCs failing to meet the prescribed capital thresholds will face supervisory action, potentially including restrictions on undertaking additional business until compliance is achieved.
- Expanded Role for Well-Capitalized ARCs:
- Empowerment of Well-Capitalized ARCs: ARCs with a minimum NOF of Rs 1000 crore are empowered to act as resolution applicants in distressed asset scenarios.
- Investment Opportunities: These ARCs are permitted to deploy funds in government securities, scheduled commercial bank deposits, and institutions like SIDBI and NABARD, subject to RBI specifications. Additionally, they can invest in short-term instruments such as money market mutual funds, certificates of deposit, and corporate bonds commercial papers.
- Investment Cap: Investments in short-term instruments are capped at 10% of the NOF to mitigate risk exposure.
About Asset Reconstruction Company (ARC):
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Description |
| About |
ARC is a special financial institution that acquires debtors from banks at a mutually agreed value and attempts to recover the debts or associated securities. |
| Regulation |
- ARCs are registered under the RBI.
- Regulated under the SARFAESI Act, 2002 (Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Securities Interest Act).
(Note: For reading more details on SARFAESI Act you can visit on our article named “RBI asks for SARFAESI Act Compliance” of Sept 2023) |
| Objective |
ARCs take over a portion of the bank’s non-performing assets (NPAs) and engage in asset reconstruction or securitization, aiming to recover the debts. |
| Functions |
- Asset Reconstruction: Acquisition of bank loans or other credit facilities for realization.
- Securitization: Acquisition of financial assets by issuing security receipts.
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| Foreign Investment |
100% FDI allowed in ARCs under the automatic route. |
| Limitiations |
- ARCs are prohibited from undertaking lending activities.
- They can only engage in securitization and reconstruction activities.
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| Working |
- Bank with NPA agrees to sell it to ARC at a mutually agreed value.
- ARC transfers assets to trusts under SARFAESI Act.
- Upfront payment made to bank, rest through Security Receipts.
- Recovery proceeds shared between ARC and bank.
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| Security Receipts |
Issued to Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs) for raising funds to acquire financial assets. |
| Significance |
- Banks can clean up their balance sheets and focus on core banking activities.
- Provides a mechanism for resolution of NPAs and debt recovery
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PYQ:
[2018] With reference to the governance of public sector banking in India, consider the following statements:
- Capital infusion into public sector banks by the Government of India has steadily increased in the last decade.
- To put the public sector banks in order, the merger of associate banks with the parent State Bank of India has been affected.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Baobab Trees and its conservation status
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
A recent study uncovers the origins and evolution of Baobabs, uniquely shaped trees in Madagascar, with species also native to Africa and Australia.
Do you know?
- Mandu, in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, is perhaps the only place in India where baobab trees are found in abundance, with an estimated 1,000 trees in the periphery of the town.
- Madhya Pradesh state government has plans to apply for a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the Khorasani Imli or the fruit of the baobab.
- A Baobab tree near the Golconda Fort in Andhra Pradesh is believed to be more than 400 years old.
- Aside from Mandu, baobab trees have been recorded in Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad) in Uttar Pradesh, Wai in Maharashtra, and some places in Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
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About Baobab Trees
- Baobabs are deciduous trees (that lose their leaves in autumn) belonging to the genus Adansonia. It comprises 8 distinct species:
- Adansonia digitata in continental Africa.
- Adansonia gregorii in Northwestern Australia.
- 6 other species endemic to Madagascar.
- Baobabs are known for:
- Great heights, with some extending up to 50 metres.
- Exceptionally long lifespans, going up to 2,000 years.
- They have trunks with large circumferences; thin, spindly branches.
- Nicknamed “upside down” trees because their tops resemble uprooted plants turned upside down.
Conservation Status:
- ‘Threatened’ with extinction according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
- ‘Least Concern’ category but still faces threats such as residential and commercial development and livestock farming and ranching.
Importance of Conservation:
- The study emphasized the conservation of the baobab as a keystone species:
- Keystone species provide essential resources, such as food or shelter, for a guild of animals.
- In return, these animals provide essential services, such as pollination or diaspore dispersal.
Why Baobab tree is called the “Mother of Forests”?
- They can store large amounts of fresh water in their extraordinary trunks.
- It also allows the baobab tree to produce nutritious fruits even during the driest years.
- This makes them true life savers during times when water is scarce.
- In local cultures, they are revered for multiple uses:
- Edible fruits and seeds.
- Seed oil used for cooking.
- Bark fibre used for clothing.
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PYQ:
[2021] “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees.” This is the most likely description of-
(a) Coniferous forest
(b) Dry deciduous forest
(c) Mangrove forest
(d) Tropical rain forest |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Trends in wheat and Rice production
Mains level: National food security;
Why in the News?
The recent drop in agricultural production due to El-Nino has highlighted once more the critical role Punjab and Haryana play in ensuring India’s food security.
Role of Punjab and Haryana for the Food Security of India:
- Punjab and Haryana are crucial in years with bad monsoons or climate shocks.
- The average per hectare wheat and paddy yields in these states are 4.8 tonnes and 6.5 tonnes, respectively, significantly higher than the all-India averages of 3.5 tonnes and 4.1 tonnes.
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Wheat Production:
- Traditional procurement: Until the mid-2000s, Punjab and Haryana supplied over 90% of the wheat for India’s public distribution system (PDS) and other government programs.
- Impact of the Green Revolution: The spread of high-yielding varieties to other states and the establishment of infrastructure for buying grain at minimum support prices (MSP) reduced Punjab and Haryana’s share to around 65% by the early 2010s.
- In 2019-20 and 2020-21, total wheat procurement reached record levels (39-43.3 million tons), with Punjab and Haryana’s share falling to just over 50%. Madhya Pradesh became the top wheat procurer in 2019-20, surpassing Punjab.
- Climate Shocks: The last three years have seen production setbacks due to climate shocks, including: An unseasonal temperature surge in March 2022. Heavy rain in March 2023 during the grain formation stage.
Recent Climate Impact:
In 2023-24, unusually warm temperatures in November-December impacted wheat yields, especially in central India. The delayed winter, attributed to El Nino, led to premature flowering and shortened the vegetative growth phase.
Regional Impact:
- Madhya Pradesh’s wheat procurement dropped significantly from 12.8-12.9 million tons in 2019-20 and 2020-21 to about 4.6 million tons.
- Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan also saw significant declines from their 2020-21 highs.
- Punjab and Haryana have been less affected due to longer winters and later sowing (early to mid-November).
- Uttar Pradesh and Bihar reported good production due to near-normal March temperatures, but much of their produce was sold to private traders at prices above the MSP.
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Rice production in the states:
- Traditional Procurement: Government rice procurement was historically concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and the Godavari-Krishna and Kaveri delta regions of Andhra Pradesh (AP) and Tamil Nadu (TN).
- Diversification: There has been a diversification in rice procurement, with new states like Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh (UP) becoming significant contributors to the Central pool.
- Change in Procurement Shares: The combined share of Punjab and Haryana in total rice procurement decreased from 43-44% in the early 2000s to an average of 28.8% in the four years ending 2022-23. In the current crop year, this share has risen to around 32.9%, with some procurements still pending in Telangana, AP, and TN.
Impact of Irrigation:
- Farmers in Punjab and Haryana, with assured access to irrigation, did not suffer production losses from last year’s patchy monsoon attributed to El Niño.
- In contrast, states like Telangana saw reduced rabi paddy planting and struggled with irrigation due to depleted groundwater levels.
Policy implications
- NFSA Entitlements: Under the NFSA, about 813.5 million people are entitled to receive 5 kg of wheat or rice per month through the Public Distribution System (PDS) at highly subsidized prices.
- Current Government Policy: Since January 2023, the current government has been providing this grain to all NFSA beneficiaries free of cost.
Way Forward:
- Adoption of Climate-Resilient Varieties: Develop and promote high-yield, climate-resilient wheat varieties that are tolerant to heat, drought, and diseases.
- Efficient Irrigation Systems: Invest in modern irrigation systems such as drip and sprinkler irrigation to ensure efficient water use.
- Invest in Agricultural Research: Increase funding for agricultural research institutions to develop new wheat varieties and innovative farming techniques.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why did the Green Revolution in India virtually by-pass the eastern region despite fertile soil and good availability of water? (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Political Parties and their registration/de-registration in India;
Mains level: Issues related to Political Parties;
Why in the News?
The ECI urges star campaigners to uphold societal harmony, sparking debate on its efficacy in curbing MCC violations and enforcing norms.
Criteria for Registration of Political Parties:
- Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RP Act) outlines the criteria for registering a political party with the Election Commission of India (ECI).
- Any party seeking registration must submit a copy of its memorandum or constitution. This document must declare that the party will faithfully adhere to the Constitution of India.
- Additionally, it must commit to the principles of socialism, secularism, and democracy, and uphold the sovereignty, unity, and integrity of India.
How are political parties registered in India?
- A political party recognized as a ‘National’ or ‘state’ party under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968 (Symbols Order) by the Election Commission of India (ECI) is referred to as a Recognized Political Party (RPP).
- Recognition as a ‘National’ or ‘state’ political party is contingent upon meeting specific criteria, such as winning a requisite number of seats or obtaining a required percentage of votes in a general election to the Lok Sabha or State Assembly.
- Currently, there are 6 National political parties and 61 state political parties that have been granted recognition. Recognized parties benefit from additional privileges, including the reservation of a symbol during elections and the designation of forty ‘star campaigners’.
- Registered political parties enjoy the following legal benefits:
- Tax exemption for donations received under Section 13A of the Income Tax Act, 1961.
- Common symbol for contesting general elections to the Lok Sabha/State Assemblies
- Twenty ‘star campaigners’ during the election campaign. As per the ECI, there are 2,790 active registered political parties in India.
What are the issues related Criteria for Deregistration?
- Misuse of Privileges: Non-contesting RUPPs raise concerns about potential misuse of benefits like income tax exemption and donations for purposes such as money laundering.
- Absence of De-registration Powers: The Representation of the People Act (RP Act) does not explicitly empower the Election Commission of India (ECI) to de-register political parties for failure to contest elections, conduct inner-party elections, or submit required returns.
- Legal Limitations: The Supreme Court ruling in “Indian National Congress versus Institute of Social Welfare & Ors (2002)” affirmed that the ECI lacks the authority to de-register political parties under the RP Act, except under extraordinary circumstances such as fraudulent registration or cessation of allegiance to the Constitution.
- Violations of Model Code of Conduct (MCC): Recognised political parties have been found guilty of breaching the MCC, which prohibits the exploitation of caste and communal sentiments for electoral gain, as well as voter bribery and intimidation.
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What needs to be done? (Way Forward)
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) has proposed amendments to the law in its 2016 memorandum for electoral reforms, aiming to grant the ECI the authority to deregister political parties.
- The Law Commission’s 255th report on ‘Electoral reforms’ in 2015 also advocated for amendments allowing the de-registration of a political party if it abstains from contesting elections for 10 consecutive years. These recommendations should be put into effect.
- Paragraph 16A of the Symbols order grants the ECI the power to suspend or revoke the recognition of a recognized political party if it fails to adhere to the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) or comply with lawful directives from the Commission.
- Although this provision has been utilized only once, as seen in the temporary suspension of the National People’s Party’s recognition in 2015 for non-compliance with ECI directives, stricter enforcement of this measure would foster adherence to the MCC.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct.(UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hysterectomy Among Women;
Mains level: Health and disease Issues; Hysterectomy Among Women;
Why in the News?
According to the recent report published in Women’s Reproductive Health under the title ‘Reported Reasons for Undergoing Hysterectomy Among Women Aged 45 Years and Above‘, it was seen that data is lacking on women’s health conditions; thus the true magnitude is never known, impeding funding and escaping the attention of policymakers.
What is Hysterectomy?
- A hysterectomy is surgery to remove the uterus. After a hysterectomy, you will not menstruate (have periods) or be able to get pregnant.
- Uterus removal is a common treatment for a variety of conditions that affect a woman’s reproductive organs.
Key highlights of the Report:
Reasons for Undertaking Hysterectomy:
- Medical Conditions: Common medical reasons such as fibroids, excessive bleeding, prolapse, endometriosis, and cancer.
- Socioeconomic Factors: Influence of sociodemographic factors like age, education, income, and access to healthcare services.
- Cultural and Regional Differences: Variations in hysterectomy rates and reasons across different regions and cultural contexts within India.
Frequency of Hysterectomy:
- Global Context: Hysterectomy is one of the most frequently performed surgeries among women worldwide.
- Prevalence in India: The countrywide hysterectomy prevalence rate is 11.5%. The highest prevalence is reported in the southern (18.2%) and western (12.7%) regions of India.
- According to the NFHS-5 (2019-2021), 3.3% of women aged 15–49 underwent hysterectomy, a slight increase from 3.2% in NFHS-4. Alarmingly, 50% of women who underwent hysterectomy did so before the age of 35.
- Regional Variations: Andhra Pradesh has the highest prevalence rate at 63 per 1,000 women, followed by Telangana (55 per 1,000), Karnataka (29 per 1,000), and Punjab (23 per 1,000).
- Sociodemographic Factors: Higher risk of hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.
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Most Cited Reasons for Hysterectomy:
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- Heavy Menstrual Bleeding or Pain: Cited by 32.1% of women as the reason for undergoing hysterectomy.
- Fibroids or Cysts: Cited by 24.2% of women as the reason for the surgery.
- Uterine Prolapse: Cited by 16.3% of women.
- Less Frequently Reported Reasons:
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- Cancer: Among the least reported reasons for undergoing a hysterectomy.
- Severe Post-Partum Hemorrhage is also among the least reported reasons.
- Sociodemographic Factors:
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- Higher risk of undergoing hysterectomy among women from the OBC category, the richest wealth quintile, those with lower education levels, those who married at a younger age, and those with three or more children.
What are the Ministerial guidelines?
- Hysterectomy is a major surgery with a long recovery time and should be considered only after less invasive treatments have been tried.
- The government emphasizes on attempting nonsurgical alternatives in elective cases before opting for a hysterectomy.
Way Forward:
- Healthcare Providers: Train healthcare providers about the potential overuse of hysterectomy and emphasize the importance of considering nonsurgical alternatives.
- Public Awareness: Launch awareness campaigns to educate women about gynecological health, the implications of hysterectomy, and available alternatives.
Mains PYQ:
Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Udagai, Reign of Raja Raja I (Rajaraja Chola) and his achievements
Why in the news?
- The southern part of India historically ruled by the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings, was known for its great literature, art, culture, and temple architecture.
- It also witnessed fierce battles among these kingdoms led by Raja Raja I.
Who was Raja Raja I?
- His reign marked a golden era for the Chola Empire through extensive military conquests, administrative reforms, and cultural patronage.
- Ponniyin Selvan (The Son of Ponni) is a Tamil language historical fiction novel with the story of the early days of Prince Raja Raja I (also called Arulmozhivarman).
Here are detailed facts and key events from the reign of Raja Raja I:
Background and Ascension to the Throne:
- Full Name: Arulmozhivarman, popularly known as Raja Raja Chola I.
- Reign:
- He reigned from 985 AD to 1014 AD, taking the throne following the death of his father Sundara Chola.
- He was succeeded by Rajendra I.
Military Conquests:
Raja Raja I embarked on several military campaigns that significantly expanded the Chola Empire.
- He conquered parts of what is now Tamil Nadu, northern parts of Sri Lanka, and the Maldives, consolidating the Chola influence across the region.
- His most notable military achievement was the conquest of the ancient Chera capital of Mahodayapuram and the invasion of Sri Lanka, where he captured the northern half of the island.
- Nagapattinam Port was his major naval base.
- His success allowed his son Rajendra Chola to lead the Chola invasion of Srivijaya (Sumatra) and Kadaram (Malaysia).
Administrative Reforms:
- He streamlined the administrative structure of the empire with precise revenue collection and management systems.
- He implemented a well-organized provincial administration with efficient governance, dividing his empire into various provinces under the control of local governors.
Cultural Contributions and Temple Building:
Raja Raja I was a great patron of the arts and architecture. Under his reign, Chola architecture and Tamil literature flourished.
- Construction of the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur (Dravidian style).
- Completed in 1010 AD
- He also supported the revival of Hinduism and promoted Shaivism, actively endowing temples and supporting the livelihood of the temple priests. He called himself ‘Shivapada Shekhara’.
- He also allowed for the flourishing of other religious practices for example Vaishnavism and Buddhism.
Trade and Diplomacy:
- His reign saw an increase in trade and diplomatic contacts with far-off kingdoms, including those in Southeast Asia.
- The Chola navy played a crucial role in protecting and enhancing trade routes in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
- To promote trade, Rajaraja sent the first Chola mission to China.
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About the Battle of Udagai/Udayagiri
- It occurred in 1003 CE between the Cholas and the Cheras at Udagai, now known as Udayagiri in Kalkulam taluk of Kanniyakumari district, during the reign of Raja Raja I, the greatest of Chola kings.
- It was the bloodiest war in medieval Indian history, where the Cholas plundered Udagai and returned to their headquarters in Thanjavur with tonnes of gold and the best elephants.
- The battle began with the conquest of Kanthalur Salai in the Chera Kingdom.
- The Chola army was led by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra.
Evidence from Epigraphy
- The Discovery of a Chola period epigraphy near Chengam suggests that Salai was an army training centre run by the Cheras.
- The training centre was a challenge to the Cholas.
- The battle marked the end of the relationship between the Cholas and the Cheras, which had been established through marriages.
Aftermath of the War
- The battles terminated the relationship between the Cholas and Cheras during the reign of Rajendra Chola.
- In 1004 CE, Raja Raja celebrated his birthday grandly in the Chera kingdom, renaming the village Muttam as Mummudi Chola Nalloor.
- He granted the temple at Thirunanthikarai for a seven-day celebration of his birthday.
- Subsequently, he returned to Thanjavur with gold, elephants, and cattle.
- Kamban Manian, a Chola general, brought a Shiva idol made of emerald to Thirupazhanam near Thanjavur, though it is no longer found there.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following events in the history of India:
- Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja.
- Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I.
- Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I.
- Pala dynasty founded by Gopala.
What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
(a) 2 – 1 – 4 – 3
(b) 3 – 1 – 4 – 2
(c) 2 – 4 – 1 – 3
(d) 3 – 4 – 1 – 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sperm Whales, Project CETI
Why in the news?
- A recent study has uncovered the intricate structure of their communication system, which appears to possess a “phonetic alphabet,” offering new insights into the depth of their social interactions.
- Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales, utilize a diverse array of vocalizations to communicate, including bursts of clicking noises known as ‘codas’.
About Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus)).
- Sperm whales, the largest toothed whales
- It has a series of vertical creases or wrinkles on its body and a small, inconspicuous dorsal fin located near the rear of its back.
- The sperm whale uses ‘echolocation’ to navigate and locate prey during these deep dives.
- Prey: Sperm whales primarily feed on squid (including the giant squid) sharks and deep-sea fish.
- Habitat: Sperm whales are found in deep oceanic waters worldwide, from the equator to the edges of the pack ice in the Arctic and Antarctic.
- Behavior: Known for their exceptional diving capabilities, sperm whales can dive to depths of over 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) and stay submerged for up to 90 minutes. They are social animals, typically found in groups called ‘pods’, which can contain up to twenty individuals.
- Conservation Status: Listed as ‘VULNERABLE’ by the IUCN.
- Threats cause: Collisions with ships, entanglement in fishing gear, and noise pollution.
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Insights from the Study:
- Expressivity: The study, which utilized data from Project CETI demonstrated that sperm whale calls exhibit a broader range of expressivity than previously recognized, hinting at a nuanced mode of communication.
- Social Dynamics: Like all marine mammals, sperm whales rely heavily on vocalizations as an integral aspect of their social interactions.
- Contextual Analysis: The next phase of research aims to decipher the behavioural context surrounding sperm whale vocalizations, shedding light on their potential meanings.
About Project CETI (Cetacean Translation Initiative)
- Project CETI is a non-profit, interdisciplinary scientific and conservation initiative on a mission to listen to and translate the communication of sperm whales off the island of Dominica in the Eastern Caribbean.
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PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following animals
- Sea cow
- Sea horse
- Sea lion
Which of the above is/are mammal/mammals?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 300A, 44th Constitutional Amendment, Right to Property
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Supreme Court’s ruling safeguards landowners from arbitrary government acquisition, emphasizing adherence to Article 300A, ensuring the constitutional right to property and sub-rights compliance.
Procedural Sub-Rights under Right to Property
These seven rights are foundational components of a law that is in tune with Article 300A, and the absence of one of these or some of them would render the law susceptible to challenge:
- Right to Notice: Individuals must be informed about the intention to acquire their property.
- Right to Be Heard: Affected individuals have the right to voice objections.
- Right to a Reasoned Decision: The government must justify the acquisition with a reasoned decision.
- Public Purpose Justification: Acquisitions must serve a demonstrable public purpose.
- Right of Restitution or Fair Compensation: Landowners are entitled to fair compensation for their property.
- Right to An Efficient and Expeditious Process: Acquisition procedures should be efficient and adhere to set timelines.
- Right of Conclusion: The process concludes with the physical transfer of property; failure to take possession renders the acquisition incomplete.
Back2Basics: Right to Property in India
- The Right to Property was initially a fundamental right under the Constitution of India, included in Part III (Articles 19 and 31).
- Through the 44th Amendment Act of 1978, this right was removed from the list of fundamental rights. It was reclassified as a constitutional right under Article 300A.
About Article 300A:
- Article 300A was introduced to the Constitution, stating that “No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law.”
- Legal Framework: This implies that the government can still acquire private property, but this acquisition must be done through a law that justifies the acquisition and provides for fair compensation to the affected parties.
Current Legal Status
- Not a Fundamental Right: The Right to Property is no longer a fundamental right, which means it cannot be directly enforced through the Supreme Court or High Court under Article 32 or Article 226. However, it remains a constitutional right.
- Protection under Law: Any person deprived of his property under any state enactment can approach a High Court challenging the legality of the act under Article 300A.
- Legal Recourse: Affected individuals have the right to legal recourse if they believe that the acquisition was not justified or that the compensation was inadequate.
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Recent Judgment: Human Rights
- Case Background: The judgment supported a Calcutta High Court decision that dismissed an appeal by the Kolkata Municipal Corporation regarding the acquisition of private land.
- Court’s Order: The Corporation was ordered to compensate with ₹5 lakh for costs within 60 days.
- Human Rights Perspective: The right to property is not only protected as a constitutional right but has also been recognized as a human right by a “Bench of Justices P.S. Narasimha and Aravind Kumar”.
Legal Interpretations and Clarifications
- Justice Narasimha clarified that the phrase ‘authority of law’ in Article 300A extends beyond the state’s power of eminent domain.
- It necessitates a proper legal framework for property acquisition.
- The ruling underscored that mere possession of eminent domain power and the provision of compensation do not justify compulsory acquisition if due processes are not followed.
PYQ:
[2021] What is the position of the Right to Property in India?
(a) Legal right available to citizens only
(b) Legal right available to any person
(c) Fundamental Right available to citizens only
(d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change; Heat Waves;
Mains level: Impacts of Climate change;
Why in the News?
According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), heatwave conditions are affecting either the smaller regions or the larger geographical areas in India at every 26 days of the month.
What are the Heat Waves?
- The “World Meteorological Organization” defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
- If the maximum temperature of any place continues to be more than 45 Degree Celsius consecutively for two days, it is called a heat wave condition.
Heatwaves in India:
- Regional Observations: A place with a normal temperature of 40°C in summer is not experiencing a heatwave at 42-43°C, but another location with a normal temperature of 27-28°C is in a heatwave at 35°C.
- Heatwaves are common in northern, central, and eastern India during summer. Heatwaves are becoming more frequent, intense, and prolonged due to climate change.
- In February 2023 (winter month for India), several regions experienced heatwaves with maximum temperatures 5 to 11 degrees higher than normal. (with a mean temperature 1.36°C higher than normal)
- Predictions and Records: The outlook for heatwaves this year is grim, with predictions of prolonged heatwaves lasting 10 to 20 days in some areas, compared to the usual 4 to 8 days.
- In April 2023, Odisha experienced an 18-day heatwave, the second-longest in the state’s history.
- Gangetic West Bengal recorded the highest number of heatwave days in any month over the last 15 years. Eastern India recorded its warmest April ever.
- Upcoming Heatwave: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) forecasted a fresh spell of heatwaves starting over northwest India.
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Impact of Heatwaves:
- Impact on Resource Availability:
- Water Resources: It exacerbates water scarcity by drying up of water bodies, reducing water availability for agriculture and domestic use, and increasing competition for resources. This can lead to conflicts over water, affect irrigation practices, and impact water-dependent industries.
- Energy Resources: It increases electricity demand for cooling purposes, leading to strain on power grids and potential blackouts. This can disrupt economic activities, affect productivity, and impact vulnerable populations.
- Impact on Health:
- Prolonged exposure to heat can lead to Dehydration and Cardiovascular and Respiratory diseases.
- Rapid rises in heat gain can compromise the body’s ability to regulate temperature and can result in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia.
- Health Ministry reported 264 heat-related deaths in the first six months of 2023. NCRB reported 730 heat-related deaths in the same year.
However, data collected and maintained by IMD and NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) showed a sharp decline in heat-related deaths ever since state governments and district administrations began implementing heat action plans.
Mitigation of Heatwaves:
- Need to establish an Early Warning System: The Inter-Agency Coordination needs to alert residents on predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear to individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.
- Increase Public Awareness and Community Outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how to protect against the extreme heat – wave through social media and advertisements. Additionally, the government needs to aware the general public through Television programs the Do’s and Dont’s for heat-related illnesses.
Conclusion: Need to improve collaboration with Non-governmental organizations and Civil society organizations to improve public spaces wherever necessary, improve water delivery systems in public areas, and other innovative measures to tackle heatwave conditions.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Migration Pattern;
Mains level: Internal security issues; Changing Migration Pattern in India;
Why in the News?
The report by the Geneva-based Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) termed it the highest number of displacements in India triggered due to the conflict and violence in India since 2018.
Key highlights on Internal Displacement in India (2009-2023):
- The above image shows the Internally Displaced People (IDP) currently living in India.
- This term focuses on the individuals who have been displaced till the end of every year. At the end of 2023, there were 0.61 million such persons in India.
- Globally, India was among the top five countries with the highest number of new internal displacements in 2022 due to disasters, with 2.5 million displacements.
- Causes:
- Natural: In 2023, India experienced over half a million internal displacements due to floods, storms, earthquakes, and other disasters.
- Artificial: Over the past five years (2009-2023), the number of internally displaced people resulting from regional conflict and land disputes has increased by 22.6 million, with the two biggest increases in 2022 and 2023.
- Over 1/3rd of the displacements took place within Manipur, with almost a fifth moving to the neighboring state of Mizoram and smaller numbers to Nagaland and Assam.
Regional Scenario (2009-2023):
- In 2023, conflict and violence triggered 69,000 displacements in South Asia, with Manipur violence alone accounting for 67,000, the highest number since 2018.
- The violence erupted after a ‘Tribal Solidarity March’ was organized in Manipur’s hill districts to protest against the Meitei community’s demand for Scheduled Tribe (ST) status.
- This led to ethnic clashes between the Meitei and Kuki communities even in bordering areas of Myanmar and Bangladesh.
Global Scenario (2009-2023):
- The number of IDPs has grown by 50% in the last five years. The report said that 68.3 million people worldwide were displaced by conflict and violence as of 2023.
- By the end of 2022, at least 8.7 million people in 88 countries and territories were internally displaced by disasters, with India being one of them.
- Conflicts in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Palestine accounted for nearly two-thirds of new conflict movements in 2023
- 3.4 million new movements in the Gaza Strip in the last quarter of 2023, leaving 1.7 million internally displaced by the end of the year.
Way Forward:
- Dialogue and Mediation: Facilitate dialogue between conflicting communities, such as the Meitei and Kuki, to address underlying issues like land disputes.
- Legal Framework: Strengthen legal frameworks to protect minority rights and address grievances that may lead to violence.
- Peacebuilding Initiatives: Implement peacebuilding programs that promote social cohesion and understanding among different ethnic and community groups.
Mains PYQ:
Q How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar? (UPSC IAS/2013)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Local Governance; Delhi Pollution;
Mains level: Delhi Pollution and Local Governance; Solid Waste Management;
Why in the News?
On May 13, the Supreme Court stated that addressing the “horrible” issue of 3,800 metric tonnes of untreated Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) accumulating daily in the national capital requires moving beyond party politics.
What is the status of Delhi’s SWM system?
- Population Growth and Waste Generation:
- According to the 2011 Census Data, New Delhi’s population was approximately 1.7 crore. However, this Population is expected to increase to around 2.32 crore.
- This increase will lead to a significant rise in waste generation, estimated at approximately 13,000 tonnes per day (TPD), which equates to roughly 1,400 truckloads daily.
- Presently, this daily waste generation accumulates to about 42 lakh tonnes per annum. The population is anticipated to reach 2.85 crore by 2031 due to which the waste generation could increase to 17,000 TPD.
- Waste Collection: Around 90% of the waste generated in the city is collected by three municipal corporations:
- Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD)
- Delhi Cantonment Board
- New Delhi Municipal Corporation
- Waste Composition is of major types – Biodegradable Wet Waste (50-55%), Non-Biodegradable Dry Waste (around 35%), and Inert Waste (10% that does not decompose). The total collective capacity of these facilities is about 9,200 tonnes per day (TPD).
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Issue of Unprocessed Waste Disposal:
- The Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) is disposing of 3,800 TPD of unprocessed waste in landfills.
- Designated Landfills (Gazipur, Bhalswa, and Okhla) are filled with unprocessed wet and dry waste, leading to significant environmental issues such as methane gas emissions, leachate production, and landfill fires.
- The landfills have accumulated a total of 2.58 crore tonnes of legacy waste, covering 200 acres of land.
What are the challenges faced by MCD?
- Lack of Waste Segregation at Source: Many households and commercial establishments do not segregate waste. Unprocessed mixed waste enters landfills as a result.
- Land Availability for Waste Processing Plants: Waste processing plants require large land parcels (30-40 acres each). Securing such large tracts of land is challenging in Delhi.
- Public Awareness and Practices: There is a lack of public awareness regarding proper waste management practices. This leads to littering and improper disposal habits. MCD’s focus shifts to clearing open points rather than processing wet waste.
- Inadequate Waste Collection Services: Some areas suffer from irregular waste collection services. This contributes to waste buildup and increased littering.
- Illegal Dumping: Waste is often illegally dumped in open areas and water bodies. This increases the pressure on the MCD and requires additional resources for cleanup.
What efforts need to be made by MCD?
- Need for a Decentralized Approach: Given the challenges of identifying large land parcels, Delhi will need to partner with its neighboring States to set up a few of these composting plants.
- Additionally, the market for organic compost produced from wet waste lies in the neighboring States of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
- Need to work on Biodegradable Wet Waste: The design capacity for wet waste processing should be 9,000 TPD. This would require at least 18 composting or biogas plants (assuming each plant has a capacity of 500 TPD).
- Significant efforts will be needed to identify land, establish composting facilities, and ensure their proper operation to prevent biodegradable waste from reaching landfills.
- Need to work on Non-Biodegradable Dry Waste: Approximately 2% of dry waste is recyclable and should be sent to recycling facilities. The remaining 33% of non-recyclable dry waste (plastics, paper, textile waste) can be used as RDF for power generation in waste-to-energy projects.
- Coordination Among Stakeholders: Improved coordination between various Municipal Corporations to streamline waste collection and segregation processes by collaborating with private companies and non-governmental organizations is needed to enhance waste segregation and processing efforts.
Conclusion: Already, Biomining Initiative was launched in 2019 by the MCD to reduce the amount of waste. The COVID-19 pandemic interrupted these efforts. Originally planned for completion by 2024, now expected to take an additional two to three years.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the impediments in disposing the huge quantities of discarded solid wastes which are continuously being generated? How do we remove safely the toxic wastes that have been accumulating in our habitable environment? (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sangam Digital Twin Initiative, Digital Twin Technology
Why in the news?
The Department of Telecommunications (DoT) has unveiled the selected participants for Stage I of the ‘Sangam: Digital Twin with AI-Driven Insights Initiative’.
What is Digital Twin Technology?
- A digital twin is a digital representation of a physical object, person, or process, contextualized in a digital version of its environment.
- Digital twins can help an organization simulate real-time situations and their outcomes, ultimately allowing it to make better decisions.
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About Sangam: Digital Twin Initiative
- Launched in February 2024, it aligns with the past decade’s technological advancements in communication, computation, and sensing, in line with the vision for 2047.
- Department of Telecommunications (DoT) will begin this with a campaign to engage potential participants, including industry experts, academia, and other relevant stakeholders to spread awareness and interest wide.
- It is a Two-stage Initiative: It will be distributed in two stages, and conducted in one of India’s major cities.
- First Stage: An exploratory phase focusing on clarifying horizons and creative exploration to unleash potential.
- Second Stage: A practical demonstration of specific use cases, generating a future blueprint for collaboration and scaling successful strategies in future infrastructure projects.
- Objectives:
- To demonstrate practical implementation of innovative infrastructure planning solutions.
- To develop a Model Framework for facilitating faster and more effective collaboration.
- To provide a future blueprint for scaling and replicating successful strategies in future infrastructure projects.
Features: It represents a collaborative leap towards reshaping infrastructure planning and design.
- It integrates 5G, IoT, AI, AR/VR, AI native 6G, Digital Twin, and next-gen computational technologies, fostering collaboration among public entities, infrastructure planners, tech giants, startups, and academia.
- Sangam brings all stakeholders together, aiming to translate innovative ideas into tangible solutions, bridging the gap between conceptualization and realization, and paving the way for groundbreaking infrastructure advancements.
PYQ:
[2020] In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of:
(a) Digital security infrastructure
(b) Food security infrastructure
(c) Health care and education infrastructure
(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GRAP and its implementation, AQI;
Why in the News?
- Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) registered at 243, falling under the ‘Poor’ category, as reported by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
- In response to this, the Sub-Committee under the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR & Adjoining Areas (CAQM) convened to assess the situation and strategize under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP).
About Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)
- The GRAP was conceived as a response to the alarming findings of a WHO study in 2014, which ranked Delhi as the most polluted city globally.
- It is a framework designed to combat air pollution in the Delhi-NCR region.
- The Supreme Court (M. C. Mehta vs. Union of India Case, 2016) approved GRAP after multiple expert consultations.
- First GRAP was notified in January 2017 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
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Implementation of GRAP:
- The Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR & Adjoining Areas (CAQM) took over the responsibility of implementing GRAP in 2021.
- Before 2021, the SC appointed Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) would instruct states to enforce GRAP measures.
- The CAQM recommendations depend on the Air Quality Index (AQI) and meteorological predictions provided by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) and the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
Revised measures to implement:
| Air Quality Stage |
AQI Range |
Measures to be implemented |
| Stage I (Poor) |
201-300 |
Enforce NGT/Supreme Court’s order on over-aged diesel/petrol vehicles. |
| Stage II (Very Poor) |
301-400 |
Implement rigorous actions to combat air pollution at identified hotspots. |
| Stage III (Severe) |
401-450 |
Impose strict restrictions on BS III petrol and BS IV diesel vehicles. Suspend physical classes in schools for primary grade children up to Class 5 in certain areas. |
| Stage IV (Severe Plus) |
>450 |
Prohibit the entry of four-wheelers registered outside Delhi, except for electric vehicles, CNG vehicles, and BS-VI diesel vehicles. |
Current Air Quality Scenario: Factors Contributing
- The GRAP sub-committee noted the following natural causes exacerbating dust suspension across the National Capital Region (NCR):
- Fluctuating wind patterns,
- Higher convection rates, and
- Arid weather conditions.
- Additionally, increased instances of agricultural residue burning and forest fires in neighboring states were identified as potential contributors to deteriorating air quality.
Action Plan suggested by GRAP Sub-Committee
- Intensive Drives at Pollution Hotspots: The concerned Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) and NCR committees were tasked with conducting rigorous inspections at major pollution hotspots, prioritizing dust abatement measures.
- Enhanced Dust Control Measures: Measures such as increased deployment of water sprinklers and mechanical road sweeping equipment were recommended to mitigate dust levels.
- Preventing Open Burning: Vigilance against instances of open burning, including municipal solid waste (MSW) and agricultural residue, was emphasized to curb further pollution.
- Strict Enforcement: Dust Control & Management Cells (DCMCs) and enforcement teams were instructed to intensify monitoring and enforcement efforts at construction sites and road projects.
- Inspections and Compliance: Flying Squads of CPCB were directed to conduct thorough inspections and take appropriate action against violators of environmental regulations.
PYQ:
[2016] In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index?
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Nitrogen dioxide
4. Sulphur dioxide
5. Methane
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 |
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