Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: FLiRT Covid Variant

Why in the news?

The emergence of new variants KP.2 and KP1.1, known as the FLiRT variants, has raised global concerns.

Despite vaccination efforts, these variants pose challenges, leading to concerns about a potential rise in COVID-19 cases.

What are the FLiRT Variants of COVID-19?

KP.2 and KP1.1, dubbed ‘FLiRT’ variants, are descendants of the Omicron JN.1 which spread globally over the winter last year.

Features and Differences from Other Variants

New Spike Mutations: The FLiRT group includes two specific mutations that are believed to enhance the virus’s ability to infect human cells.
Transmission and Evasion: Preliminary studies suggest that KP.2, the more prevalent of the two, may possess enhanced capabilities to evade immune responses generated by vaccines and previous infections.

Are FLiRT Variants Riskier than JN.1?

Increased Immune Evasion: Research indicates that KP.2 shows a significant ability to escape immunity from both the latest vaccines and previous infections.
Reproduction Number: The reproduction number of KP.2 may be higher than that of JN.1, indicating a potentially greater ability to spread.
No definitive evidence: While there’s no definitive evidence that FLiRT variants cause more severe illness, their ability to circumvent immune defences can lead to more infections and, by extension, potential increases in hospitalizations.

PYQ:

[2022] In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements:

The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Artificial Rain through Cloud Seeding

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Cloud Seeding, Seeding Agents

Why in the news?

The Uttarakhand government faced scrutiny from the Supreme Court following Forest fires that claimed lives in the state.

Justices highlighted the inefficacy of relying solely on cloud-seeding or rain gods to address the crisis.

Case Study: Experimenting Artificial Rain in India

A recent study published in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (BAMS) highlighted the success of a cloud seeding trial in Maharashtra’s Solapur region, which resulted in an 18% increase in rainfall compared to normal patterns.
Scientists from the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology in Pune and other institutes conducted this study.
The experiment targeted warm convective clouds with a height above zero degrees Celsius, releasing calcium chloride particles to stimulate rainfall.
Spanning from 2017 to 2019, the experiment analyzed 276 clouds using advanced tools like automatic rain gauges, radars, radiometers, and aircraft.
Glaciogenic seeding, attempted in clouds containing both ice and water, did not significantly impact rainfall at the seeding location, according to the study’s findings.

About Cloud-Seeding

Cloud seeding is a weather modification technique aimed at altering precipitation patterns by dispersing substances into clouds to stimulate rainfall or snowfall.
It is used to mitigate hail, disperse fog, and either induce precipitation or prevent it from occurring in subsequent days.
It involves the dispersal of substances like silver iodide, potassium iodide, dry ice, and hygroscopic materials such as table salt into the atmosphere.
Techniques include:

Static seeding: promotes ice particle formation in supercooled clouds, and
Dynamic seeding: enhances convective cloud development through the release of latent heat.

Dispersion methods range from aircraft and ground-based generators to newer approaches like drones delivering electric charges or infrared laser pulses.

Limitations: Impact on Environment and Health

Concerns persist regarding the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems, although detailed studies have shown negligible impacts.
The chemicals used, such as silver iodide, may potentially damage the environment and cause health issues like iodine poisoning in high concentrations

PYQ:

[2019] In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere?

(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions

(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones

(d) Reducing the global warming

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Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

The Socio-ecological effects of LPG price hikes

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Government Initiatives and Programmes;

Mains level: Issues related to affordability of LPG gas;

Why in the News?

The ACCESS survey (2014-2015), conducted by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water, found LPG’s cost to be the foremost barrier to its adoption and continued use in rural poor households.

Government Initiatives for LPG Fuel:

Government Initiatives: The Indian government has promoted using LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) as a clean cooking fuel, particularly in rural households.
- These initiatives include the Rajiv Gandhi Gramin LPG Vitrak scheme, the ‘PAHAL’ scheme for direct benefit transfers, and the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY) aimed at providing LPG connections to below-poverty-line households.
Subsidies and Incentives: The government has provided subsidies and incentives to encourage the adoption of LPG without subsidies for the people who can afford it.
- For example, the ‘Give it Up’ program encouraged consumers to voluntarily surrender their LPG subsidies, which were transferred to below-poverty-line households.

Challenges:

Affordability: Despite government efforts, the affordability of LPG remains a challenge for many households, especially those in rural and below-poverty-line communities. Reports indicate that LPG prices in India were among the highest globally around ₹300/litre.
Dependency on Traditional Fuels: Studies, such as the one conducted in the Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal, highlight the continued dependency of local communities on traditional fuelwood for cooking.
Forest Dependency: The persistent use of fuelwood has implications for forest conservation and livelihoods, particularly in regions with degraded forests like Jalpaiguri.

Way Forward:

Need for Comprehensive Solutions: While government initiatives have aimed to promote LPG use, addressing affordability issues and ensuring access to clean cooking fuels for marginalized communities require comprehensive solutions.
Targeted Subsidies: Implement targeted subsidies for LPG cylinders to make them more affordable for rural and below-poverty-line communities. These subsidies can be based on income levels or geographic locations to ensure that those most in need receive assistance.

Mains PYQ:

Q In what way could replacement of price subsidy with direct benefit Transfer (DBT) change the scenario of subsidies in India? Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2015)

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Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

India is now Third-Largest Producer of Solar Power

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Global Rankings; Trends of solar energy production;

Mains level: Factors contributed to India becoming the third-largest producer of solar power in 2023.

Why in the News?

In 2023, India overtook Japan to become the world’s third-highest producer of solar power, according to a report by the International Energy Analytics Agency Ember.

Global Solar Energy Production:

The leading producer of solar power in the world is China which produced 584 BU of solar power in 2024 – more than the next four countries combined (the United States, Japan, Germany and India).
India generated 113 billion units (BU) of solar power in 2023 compared to Japan’s 110 BU.
- The installed solar energy capacity has increased by 30 times in the last 9 years and stands at 81.81 GW as of Mar 2024.
- India’s solar energy potential is estimated to be 748 GWp as estimated by National Institute of Solar Energy (NISE).
Power demand in Japan decreased by 2% (2 BU) in 2023 after rising in 2021 and 2022, thus allowing India to overtake Japan.

Other factors to make India the third-largest Solar power producer in 2023:

Government Initiatives: India has implemented various policies and initiatives to promote renewable energy, particularly solar power.
- The government launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) in 2010, aiming to promote the development and use of solar energy in the country.
- Subsequently, various state-level policies and incentives were introduced to encourage solar power generation.
- For example Gujarat Solar Energy Policy (Target is 36 GW of solar energy by 2036).
Investment and Financing: There has been significant investment in the solar power sector in India, both from domestic and international sources.
- For example PM Surya Ghar, Muft Bijli Yojana, the scheme is projected to entail an investment of ₹75,000 crore.
Favorable Geography: India has abundant sunlight throughout the year, making it well-suited for solar power generation. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year of energy is incident over India’s land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sqm/day.
Increasing Energy Demand: India’s growing population and economy have led to a rising demand for energy. Electricity demand in India rose 7% in 2023 and is likely to average growth of 6% a year through 2026 on higher economic activity, according to the International Energy Agency.
International Collaboration: India has collaborated with various countries and international organizations to leverage expertise, technology transfer, and funding for solar projects. For example International Solar Alliance (ISA).

Way Forward:

Invest in High-Efficiency Panels: Choose solar panels with high-efficiency cells, such as monocrystalline photovoltaic cells, which can convert a greater percentage of sunlight into usable electricity
Use Energy Storage Solutions: Consider integrating energy storage systems, such as batteries, to store excess energy generated during the day and use it at night or during periods of low sunlight, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the solar energy system.

Mains PYQ:

Q Describe the benefits of deriving electric energy from sunlight in contrast to the conventional energy generation. What are the initiatives offered by our government for this purpose? (UPSC IAS/2020)

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Labour, Jobs and Employment – Harmonization of labour laws, gender gap, unemployment, etc.

Unemployment Vs Wages

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues,Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Issues related to Unemployment vs Wages;

Why in the news?

Recently, there have been contentious talks regarding Pakistan’s unemployment being lower than India’s.

According to Keynes, lower wage rate will lead to lower income of workers and thus to lower demand of goods. Lower demand will lower output that in turn will lower employment.

Issues related to Unemployment vs Wages

Questioning on Data Accuracy and Interpretation: There is skepticism about the accuracy of unemployment data, particularly regarding the CMIE Consumer Pyramids Household survey. This raises questions about the basis of claims regarding unemployment rates and the subsequent policy responses.
Labor Force Participation: Concerns are raised about the significant withdrawal of individuals from India’s labor force, indicating potential issues with labor force participation rather than solely unemployment rates.
Youth Unemployment: The high youth unemployment rate of 45% is highlighted as a significant concern, suggesting challenges in integrating young people into the workforce and addressing their employment needs.
Informal Employment: The prevalence of informal employment, such as subsistence agriculture and informal wage employment, is noted as a structural issue in the labor market, potentially impacting wages and job quality.
Wage Levels: Despite low reported unemployment rates, there are concerns about the adequacy of wages, particularly for the poor. This raises questions about the quality of employment and the extent of underemployment or disguised unemployment.
Policy misalignment: Certain policy proposals, such as increasing public sector employment or implementing fiscal job guarantees, are critiqued for potentially misdiagnosing the problem and offering unsustainable solutions that may not address underlying wage issues.

Steps taken by the Government:

Pradhan Mantri Rojgar Protsahan Yojana (PMRPY): This scheme incentivizes employers to generate employment by having the government pay the entire 12% employer’s contribution to the Employees’ Provident Fund and Employees’ Pension Scheme for new employees for the first three years of their employment
Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY): This scheme provides collateral-free loans up to ₹10 lakh to micro and small businesses and individuals to help them set up or expand their enterprises, thereby promoting self-employment.
Aatmanirbhar Bharat Package: This economic stimulus package, announced in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, includes various long-term schemes and policies aimed at making India self-reliant and creating employment opportunities.
Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan: This 125-day campaign was launched to boost employment and livelihood opportunities for migrant workers and others affected in 116 districts across 6 states.
PM GatiShakti: This is a multi-modal connectivity plan that aims to create infrastructure and generate employment opportunities in sectors like roads, railways, airports, ports, and logistics.

Way forward:

Addressing Labor Force Participation: Implement policies aimed at increasing labor force participation, particularly among youth and marginalized groups, by creating more formal employment opportunities.
Improving Informal Employment Conditions: Develop strategies to formalize the informal sector by providing incentives for informal employers to register their businesses, improve working conditions, and ensure compliance with labor laws.
Enhancing Wage Levels: Take steps to improve wage levels, particularly for low-skilled workers engaged in subsistence agriculture, marginal self-employment, and informal wage employment.

Mains PYQ:

Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss.

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Human Development Report by UNDP

Giving primacy to Human Development

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: HDI Index;

Mains level: Key issues related to Human Development;

Why in the News?

Two recent reports reveal some important facets of India’s Development.

The Human Development Report 2023-24, published by the UNDP, takes a comparative perspective and maps the achievements in the area of human development.
A paper published by the World Inequality Lab in March 2024 provides long-term trends in income and wealth inequality in India between 1922 and 2023.

About HDI:

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a measurement system used by the United Nations to evaluate the level of individual human development in each country. It was introduced by the U.N. in 1990.

How is the HDI measured?

The HDI is the geometric mean of the three dimensions above, with indices calculated separately for each country using data on life expectancy, schooling and per capita income. The final result always gives a value between 0 and 1 which defines, according to the UNDP, the four degrees of human development detailed below:

Very high: countries with a HDI above 0.80.
High: countries with a HDI between 0.70 and 0.80.
Medium: countries with a HDI between 0.55 and 0.70. (India is here)
Low: countries with a HDI below 0.55.

India’s poor ranking in HDI:

Regional Trends: India’s HDI ranking has improved marginally over the years, but it still lags behind several countries, including Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and China. In 2022, India ranked 134 out of 193 countries.
Low HDI Value: Despite the incremental improvement in ranking, India’s HDI value remains relatively low. The HDI value increased from 0.633 in 2021 to 0.644 in 2022.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): While India showed improvement in its GII ranking in 2022, moving from 122 out of 191 countries in 2021 to 108 out of 193 countries in 2022, significant gender disparities persist. Notably, India faces one of the largest gender gaps in labor force participation rates, with a substantial difference between men (76.1%) and women (28.3%).
Medium Human Development Categories: India’s HDI ranking places it within the medium human development category alongside countries like Myanmar, Ghana, Kenya, Congo, and Angola.

Key concerns related to Human Development:

Increasing Disparity Between Countries: The report underscores a concerning trend of growing inequality between countries, particularly between those at the upper and lower ends of the Human Development Index (HDI).
Economic Concentration: The concentration of economic power in a few countries is exacerbating global inequality. Nearly 40% of the global trade in goods is controlled by just three or fewer countries
Tech Company Dominance: The dominance of large technology companies further exacerbates inequality, with the market capitalization of the top three companies surpassing the GDP of the majority of countries.

Widening inequality:

Income Disparities in India: The study from the World Inequality Lab reveals stark income disparities in India, with the bottom 50% of the population receiving only 15% of the national income.
- Conversely, the top 1% earns on average 23 times more than the average Indian, and the top 10,000 individuals earn 2,069 times the average Indian.
Reduction of Middle-Class size: During the period from 2014 to 2022, the incomes of the middle 40% of the income distribution have grown slower than the bottom 50%. This trend suggests a potential reduction in the size of the ‘middle class.
High Household Debt and Low Savings: Household debt levels in India have reached a record high of 40% of GDP, while net financial savings have plunged to 5.2% of GDP.

Way Forward:

Promote Inclusive Growth Policies: Implement policies that prioritize inclusive growth, focusing on reducing income disparities, and enhancing access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for all segments of society.
Enhance Social Safety Nets: Strengthen social safety nets to provide support to vulnerable populations, including targeted welfare programs, universal healthcare coverage, and unemployment benefits.

Mains PYQ:

Q Despite the consistent experience of high growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.(UPSC IAS/2019)

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Tiger Conservation Efforts – Project Tiger, etc.

Tiger Translocation in Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor

Places in news Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor, Tadoba-Andhari TR

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Maharashtra’s plan to increase tigers count in Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor by translocating tigers from Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR) (Chandrapur, Maharashtra) underscores the critical role of wildlife corridors in conservation efforts.

About Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR)

Tadoba became one of India’s earliest national parks when it was declared in 1955, alongside Kanha National Park.
The name “Tadoba” is derived from the deity “Tadoba” or “Taru,” worshipped by local Gond Tribals, and “Andhari” refers to the Andhari River flowing through the reserve.
It was later expanded and officially merged with the Andhari Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993 to form the TATR.
TATR is regarded as one of the world’s most preferred destinations for tiger sightings and is a critical part of Project Tiger, aimed at conserving tigers in India.
The reserve has 115 tigers, including 88 within the forest and 27 in the areas immediately surrounding the reserve.

About Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor

The Sahyadri-Konkan corridor (Sahyadri-Radhanagari-Goa-Karnataka), plays a vital role in conserving wildlife, particularly tigers, in the northern Western Ghats region.
It spans throughout the states of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka, specifically through the Western Ghats, one of the world’s eight biodiversity hotspots.
Protected Areas Connected:

Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (includes Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Chandoli National Park) and Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary (Maharashtra);
Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary and Kali Tiger Reserve (includes Anshi National Park and Dandeli WLS) in (Karnataka);
Mollem National Park, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary (Goa).

Fauna: Tiger (Panthera tigris), Indian leopard (Panthera pardus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), and sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), etc.
The Western Ghats, including parts of the corridor, are designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012 due to their outstanding universal value in terms of biodiversity and endemic species.

PYQ:

[2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?

(a) Corbett

(b) Ranthambore

(d) Sunderbans

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

Glyptothorax punyabratai: A New Catfish Species discovered

Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Glyptothorax punyabratai and its natural habitat

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Glyptothorax punyabratai, a new catfish species, has been discovered in the Brahmaputra River drainage in Arunachal Pradesh.

The discovery was made by the ICAR-National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBFGR), Lucknow, and published in the journal Ichthyological Exploration of Freshwaters.

Glyptothorax punyabratai

It was collected from the Tung Stream, a tributary of the Tissa River, within the Brahmaputra River basin.
It has a unique rhomboidal-shaped thoracic adhesive apparatus, which is a specialized structure that helps the fish adhere to surfaces.
The holotype and paratype specimens are housed at the National Fish Museum-cum-Repository of the ICAR-NBFGR, Lucknow.
- This discovery underscores the potential for both utilization and conservation of fish biodiversity in unexplored areas.

PYQ:

[2019] Consider the following pairs

Wildlife		Naturally found in
1.	Blue-finned Mahseer	Cauvery River
2.	Irrawaddy Dolphin	Chambal River
3.	Rusty-spotted Cat	Eastern Ghats

Which of the pairs given correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

Widal Test: Flaws of Typhoid Diagnosis

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Diseases; Widal Test, Salmonella Typhi Bacteria;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Patients with fever in India often undergo testing and treatment for typhoid fever, primarily relying on the Widal test.

The Widal test, though widely used, has several limitations that affect its accuracy and reliability.

Typhoid diagnosis using Widal Test

The Widal test is used primarily to diagnose typhoid fever.
Typhoid fever, caused by Salmonella Typhi and related bacteria, presents with symptoms like high fever, stomach pain, weakness, and gastrointestinal issues.
It detects antibodies in the patient’s blood against the O (somatic) and H (flagellar) antigens of Salmonella Typhi.
Procedure:

The presence of these antibodies is detected through an agglutination reaction.
The test involves serial dilution of the patient’s serum.
The highest dilution at which agglutination occurs indicates the antibody titer, with higher titers suggesting an active infection.

Diagnostic Challenges:

The gold standard for diagnosing typhoid involves isolating the bacteria from blood or bone marrow cultures, which is time-consuming and resource-intensive.
Widal test is commonly used due to its convenience and accessibility. However, the Widal test’s interpretation is complicated by factors like the need for multiple serum samples, variations in cutoff values, and potential cross-reactivity with antibodies from other infections or vaccines.

Challenges with Widal Test:

Impractical: A single positive Widal test does not confirm typhoid.
Complicated result interpretation: High background antibody levels and variability in test cutoff values.
Cross-reactivity with antibodies from other infections and false negatives due to prior antibiotic therapy undermine test reliability.

Consequences of Widal Test Use:

Erroneous results obscure the true burden of typhoid in India, leading to inappropriate treatment and financial strain on patients.
Overuse of antibiotics based on Widal test results contributes to antimicrobial resistance, exacerbating the challenge of treating typhoid.

PYQ:

[2016] Which of the following statements is/are correct?

Viruses can infect

1. Bacteria

2. Fungi

3. Plants

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

CRISPR’s Breakthrough in Treating Blindness

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: LCA, CRISPR Cas9;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Scientists have successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to restore vision in individuals with a rare form of inherited or congenital blindness.

The groundbreaking clinical trial, named “BRILLIANCE,” demonstrated promising results in improving vision and quality of life for participants with Leber congenital amaurosis (LCA), a severe vision disorder.

What is Leber Congenital Amaurosis (LCA)?

LCA is a rare genetic disorder that primarily affects the retina the ‘light-sensitive’ tissue at the back of the eye. It leads to severe visual impairment or blindness at birth or within the first few months of life.
It is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning a child needs to inherit one defective gene from each parent to develop the condition.
There are several genes associated with LCA, with mutations in at least 14 different genes known to cause the disorder.
These genes generally affect the development and function of photoreceptors or the retinal pigment.

Key highlights of the BRILLIANCE trial:

The BRILLIANCE trial involved 12 adults and two children diagnosed with LCA, a condition characterized by early-onset vision loss.
Participants received a single dose of a CRISPR gene therapy called EDIT-101, designed to correct mutations in the CEP290 gene responsible for LCA.
In this case, CRISPR-Cas9 cuts out the faulty DNA segment in the CEP290 gene and replaces it with a healthy DNA sequence, restoring the function of the CEP290 protein crucial for vision.
Out of 14 participants, 11 experienced improved vision without serious side effects.

Back2Basics: CRISPR-Cas9 Gene Editing

CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.
It is a technology that allows geneticists and researchers to edit parts of the genome by altering sections of the DNA sequence.
Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna’s work on CRISPR-Cas9 as a ‘molecular scissor’ earned them the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry.
The system consists of two key components:

Cas9: This is the enzyme that acts like a pair of molecular scissors. It is responsible for cutting the DNA strand at a specific location, allowing for the removal, addition, or alteration of DNA at that site.
Guide RNA (gRNA): This is a piece of RNA that is designed to find and bind to a specific sequence of DNA that matches its code. The gRNA guides the Cas9 enzyme to the exact spot in the genome where an edit is desired.

Mechanism:
- The process begins with the design of a gRNA that matches the DNA sequence where an edit is needed.
- Once inside the cell, the Cas9 enzyme and the gRNA form a complex that can identify and bind to the target DNA sequence.
- The Cas9 then cuts the DNA at this location.
- After the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms can be harnessed to add or remove genetic material, or to make specific changes to the DNA.

PYQ:

[2019] What is Cas9 Protein that is often mentioned in news?

(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Orangutan uses Plant to treat wound

Prelims Only world map | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Orangutan and its natural habitat

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

An orangutan was observed treating a wound with medicine from a tropical plant, showcasing how some animals employ natural remedies to alleviate their ailments.

This behavior, documented in a recent study published in Scientific Reports, represents a novel instance of self-medication among wild animals.

About Orangutans

Orangutans, are distinguished by their vivid red fur, are the largest arboreal mammals and spend the majority of their time in trees and forests.
The name “orangutan” translates to “man of the forest” in Malay.
They possess long, powerful arms and grasping hands and feet that facilitate movement through the branches.
Highly intelligent, these great apes share 96.4% of genetic makeup of modern man.
Orangutans primarily inhabit the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia, specifically on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.
Conservation Status: Critically Endangered (IUCN Red list)

Population: Bornean (Approximately 104,700); Sumatran (Approximately 13,846); Tapanuli (Around 800);

Behavioral Features:
- These apes lead mostly solitary lives in the lowland forests, dining on wild fruits such as lychees, mangosteens, and figs, and drinking water collected in tree cavities.
- Orangutans are mainly frugivorous, they primarily eat fruits, and consume leaves, bark, insects, and occasionally small animals.
- They construct nests in trees with vegetation for sleeping at night and resting during the day.
- And, now they are found treating a wound with medicine from a Tropical plant.

PYQ:

[2013] Consider the following:

Star tortoise
Monitor lizard
Pygmy hog
Spider monkey

Which of the above are naturally found in India?

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3 and 4

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Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

The unseen effects of Climate Change on Mental Health

Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: What is schizophrenia?

Mains level: Key concerns on health due to Extreme Heat as per the report

Why in the News?

Studies show that individuals with schizophrenia are more likely to experience fatal effects from extreme heat compared to those with kidney or heart problems as per Geo Health report.

What is schizophrenia?

As per the National Institute of Mental Health, Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. People with schizophrenia may seem like they have lost touch with reality, which can be distressing for them and their family and friends.

Effects of Extreme Heat as per the Geo Health Report:

Schizophrenia Heat-Related Deaths: GeoHealth in 2023 revealed that an extreme heat event in British Columbia in 2021 led to more fatalities among individuals with schizophrenia compared to those with kidney and heart diseases.
Mental Health Conditions: People with mental health conditions, including schizophrenia, anxiety, and bipolar disorder, were identified as being at higher risk of succumbing to heat-related deaths during extreme heat events.
Impact of Extreme Heat Event: British Columbia experienced an eight-day extreme heat event in 2021, with temperatures soaring as high as 40 degrees celsius, significantly above the average temperature of around 20 degrees celsius. The region recorded approximately 740 excess deaths during this heat wave.
- Researchers analyzed the data based on various medical conditions, including heart disease, schizophrenia, chronic kidney disease, dementia, depression, Parkinson’s disease, and osteoporosis.
Higher Risk of Schizophrenia: Contrary to expectations, the study reported a 200% increase in the prevalence of schizophrenia diagnoses during the extreme heat event in 2021 compared to a summer without recorded heat waves.

Key challenges for treating Schizophrenia:

Dysfunction of the Hypothalamus: The dysfunction of the hypothalamus, a structure deep in the brain responsible for maintaining bodily homeostasis, may contribute to increased vulnerability to heat stress among individuals with schizophrenia.
Impact of Antipsychotic Medications: Certain antipsychotic medications prescribed for schizophrenia can interfere with the functioning of the hypothalamus, potentially raising body temperature. This side effect, when combined with high ambient temperatures, can lead to fatal outcomes.
Psychotic Symptoms and Anosognosia (unable to be aware of the symptoms): Individuals with schizophrenia often experience psychotic symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and memory loss. The anosognosia, a condition where individuals are unaware of their illness can further complicate treatment efforts.

Way Forward:

Enhanced Monitoring and Support Systems: Implement enhanced monitoring and support systems for individuals with schizophrenia during extreme heat events.
Education and Awareness Campaigns: Conduct education and awareness campaigns to inform individuals with schizophrenia and their caregivers about the risks of heat-related distress and the importance of staying cool and hydrated during extreme heat events.
Tailored Treatment Plans: Develop tailored treatment plans for individuals with schizophrenia that take into account the potential impact of antipsychotic medications on body temperature regulation.

Mains PYQ

Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)

With inputs from:

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2022GH000729

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/schizophrenia#:~:text=What%20is%20schizophrenia%3F,for%20their%20family%20and%20friends

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Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

The government’s new PhD guidelines will make Universities more Elite

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NA

Mains level: Key Implication of this announcement

Why in the news?

The UGC chairperson announced that students with four-year undergraduate degrees can now appear for the National Eligibility Test (NET), an exam that certifies eligibility for lectureship in colleges and universities in India, and PhD programs.

Key Implication of this Announcement:

Lowering of Standards: Allowing students with four-year undergraduate degrees to appear for the National Eligibility Test (NET) and pursue PhD programs without a Master’s degree may lead to concerns about the lowering of academic standards.
Quality of Teaching: Concerns arise regarding the quality of teaching in universities and colleges if fresh undergraduate students are recruited to teach other undergraduate students.
Impact on University Rankings: The decision may have implications for the rankings and reputation of Indian universities, particularly those with prestigious tags like the Institution of Eminence and high NAAC ratings.
Dilutes the perception: Allowing candidates to pursue a PhD in a subject unrelated raises concerns about the diversity and interdisciplinary nature of research.
- The decision to broaden access to PhD programs may be aimed at dismantling the perception of PhD as an elite qualification.
- However, critics may argue that diluting the entry requirements for PhD programs could undermine the rigor and prestige associated with earning a doctorate.
Impact on Research Culture: Lowering the barriers to entry for PhD programs may have implications for the research culture and scholarly integrity within academic institutions.

Measures to maintain standards for the National Eligibility Test (NET):

Retain Postgraduate Degree Requirement: Maintain the requirement of a postgraduate degree for appearing in the NET to ensure that candidates have a solid foundation in their respective fields of study.
Reintroduce MPhil Programs: Reinstate MPhil programs to provide an intermediary step between postgraduate and doctoral studies. MPhil programs offer an opportunity for students to further develop their research skills and prepare for doctoral-level research.
Enhanced Mentoring and Preparation Period: Implement a structured mentoring program for NET aspirants to help them transition from undergraduate to postgraduate and eventually doctoral-level research.
Specialized Entrance Exams for PhD Programs: Instead of eliminating separate entrance exams for PhD programs, consider introducing specialized entrance exams that assess candidates’ research aptitude, subject knowledge, and suitability for doctoral-level research

Way Forward:

Promote Interdisciplinary Research: Encourage interdisciplinary research by providing opportunities for collaboration and exchange across different academic disciplines.
Maintain Research Standards: Uphold rigorous standards for doctoral research and teaching positions to ensure the quality and integrity of academic programs. Implement quality assurance mechanisms to monitor and evaluate the standards of the NET and PhD programs.

Mains PYQ:

Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2015).

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Tax Reforms

An Inheritance Tax will help reduce Inequality

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Inheritance Tax and Land Value Tax (LVT)

Mains level: Taxation system in India;

Why in the news?

A remark by Chairman of Indian Overseas Congress Sam Pitroda on implementing an inheritance tax as a tool of wealth redistribution has sparked massive debates.

The Negative Impact of Inequality:

Growth affected: Inequality harms growth in the medium-to-long run by reducing firm productivity, lowering labor income, and diverting resources away from essential rights like education.
Inequal Opportunity: In unequal countries like India, where one is born greatly influences lifetime outcomes, with almost a third of consumption variation being explained by the place of residence (state, city, or village).
Concentration of Wealth: The richest 1% holding 40% of India’s wealth underscores the vast wealth disparities that exacerbate inequality.
Skewed Distribution of Gains: Research indicates that the gains from India’s growth over the last two decades have disproportionately benefited high-income urban residents, further exacerbating inequality.

What is Inheritance Tax?

An inheritance tax is a tax levied on the assets or wealth passed down from one generation to another upon the death of the owner.
Unlike a wealth tax, which is recurring and applied to all physical and financial assets an individual owns, an inheritance tax is a one-time tax specifically targeting intergenerational transfers of wealth.

How an Inheritance Tax could help reduce Inequality?

The Constitution mandates equality of status and opportunity, obliging the government to take steps to reduce disparities arising from accidents of birth.

Reduction of Wealth Concentration: By taxing large inheritances, an inheritance tax helps to redistribute wealth from the wealthiest individuals and families to the broader society.
Encouragement of Productive Investments: Inheritance taxes can encourage wealthy individuals to invest their wealth in productive activities rather than simply passing it down to heirs.
Incentive for Innovation: Critics may argue that inheritance taxes disincentivize innovation by reducing the incentive to accumulate wealth to pass on to future generations.
Funding for Public Expenditure: Revenue generated from inheritance taxes can be used to fund essential public services and social programs, such as education, healthcare, infrastructure, and poverty alleviation initiatives.
Historical Effectiveness: Historical examples, such as the estate duty in India between 1953 and 1985. It reduced the top 1% personal wealth share from 16% to 6% between 1966 and 1985.

Another approach is the Land Value Tax (LVT): The Land Value Tax (LVT) is a tax system that levies charges on the unimproved value of land. Unlike traditional property taxes, which take into account both the value of the land and the value of any buildings or improvements on the land, the LVT focuses solely on the value of the land itself.

Conclusion: Tackling wealth inequality requires a multifaceted approach that includes measures such as inheritance taxation, wealth taxation, and the Land Value Tax (LVT). These measures not only help to redistribute wealth and promote economic fairness but also contribute to fostering a more inclusive and prosperous society where opportunities are more evenly distributed.

Mains PYQ:

Q Comment on the important changes introduced in respect of the Long term Capital Gains Tax (LCGT) and Dividend Distribution Tax (DDT) in the Union Budget for 2018-2019.

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RBI Notifications

CBDC pilot programmes for CPs, CDs likely: RBI

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: CBDC, CPs, CDs;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das unveiled plans for a pilot program targeting the wholesale segment of Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) focusing on commercial papers (CPs) and certificates of deposits (CDs).

What is Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC)?

CBDC is a legal tender to be issued by the central bank in digital form; like rupee notes or coins, which are in physical form.
It was announced in the Union Budget 2022-23.
Subsequently, the Government amended Section 22 of the RBI Act, 1934 through the Finance Bill 2022. [Ref].
Working of CBDC:
- Like fiat currency, it can also be exchanged between people. Simply, put it’s just like rupee (₹) notes but in digital form (e₹).
- However, unlike fiat currency that’s usually stored in banks and hence their liability, CBDC is a liability on the RBI’s balance sheet.
- That’s why one does not necessarily need to have a bank account to own a digital rupee.

About Commercial Papers (CPs) and Certificates of Deposits (CDs)

	Commercial Papers	Certificates of Deposits
Type of Instrument	Unsecured promissory note	Fixed-income financial instrument
Issuer	Large corporations, primary dealers, financial institutions	Scheduled Commercial Banks, All-India Financial Institutions
Maturity Period	1 to 364 days	3 months to 1 year (for SCBs), 1 to 3 years (for financial institutions)
Minimum Investment	Rs. 5 lakh or multiples thereof	Rs. 1 lakh or multiples thereof
Credit Rating Requirement	Minimum credit rating required (e.g., A-2) from recognized rating agencies	Typically issued by highly rated banks and financial institutions
Collateral	Unsecured	Not applicable
Purpose	Short-term funding for corporations	Short to mid-term investment for individuals and institutions
Interest Rate	Typically higher than bonds, fluctuates with market conditions	Typically fixed, higher than savings accounts, fluctuates with market conditions
Investment Eligibility	Individuals, banking companies, corporate bodies (registered or incorporated in India), NRIs, FIIs, etc.	Individuals, banking companies, other corporate bodies, NRIs, FIIs, etc.
Issuing and Paying Agent (IPA)	Only scheduled banks act as Issuing and Paying Agent	Not applicable
Trading	Actively traded in Over-the-Counter (OTC) market, reported on Fixed Income Money Market and Derivatives Association of India (FIMMDA) reporting platform	Not publicly traded
Dematerialized Holding	Can be held in dematerialized form through Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI)-approved depositories	Can be issued in dematerialized form through SEBI-approved depositories

With inputs from: https://www.indiainfoline.com

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:

‘Commercial Paper’ is a short-term unsecured promissory note.
‘Certificate of Deposit’ is a long-term instrument issued by the Reserve Bank of India to a corporation.
‘Call Money’ is a short-term finance used for interbank transaction.
‘Zero-Coupon Bonds’ are the interest-bearing short-term bonds issued by the Scheduled Commercial Banks to corporations.

Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 4 only

(d) 2, 3 and 4 only

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and the Science behind

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: MRI and its working principle

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) revolutionized medical diagnostics, offering non-invasive insights into soft tissues.
The pioneering efforts of Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield led to its commercialization, earning them the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2003.

What is MRI?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic procedure used to obtain detailed images of soft tissues within the body.
It is particularly valuable for imaging sophisticated structures like the brain, cardiovascular system, spinal cord, joints, muscles, liver, and arteries.
MRI is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring various conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders (such as Alzheimer’s and stroke), and cardiovascular diseases.
Functional MRI (fMRI) can also assess brain activity by monitoring changes in blood flow.

Working Principle:

MRI utilizes the magnetic properties of hydrogen atoms (one proton with one electron around it), which are abundant in water and fat molecules found throughout the body.
The MRI machine generates a powerful magnetic field, aligning hydrogen atoms within the body.
Radiofrequency pulses are then applied, causing hydrogen atoms to absorb energy and emit signals.
These emitted signals are detected by sensors and processed by a computer to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures.

Components of an MRI Machine:

The MRI machine consists:

Superconducting Magnet: Large magnet (superconducting magnet) that produces a powerful and stable magnetic field.
Gradient Coils: Gradient magnets produce smaller magnetic fields with varying strengths and directions, allowing for precise imaging of specific body areas.
Radiofrequency Coils: This emit radiofrequency pulses to excite hydrogen atoms in the body. The frequency of pulse the ‘excess’ atoms have to absorb is called the Larmor frequency.
Detectors: It capture emitted signals from hydrogen atoms and convert them into image data for analysis.

Advantages of MRI:

High-Resolution Imaging: MRI offers high-resolution imaging with excellent tissue contrast, allowing for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
Versatile Viewing Angles: It can visualize structures from various angles without the need for repositioning, providing comprehensive information.
Safety and Non-Invasiveness: MRI scans are non-invasive and do not involve ionizing radiation, making them safe for repeated use.
Enhanced Image Quality: Contrast agents can enhance image quality by highlighting specific tissues or abnormalities.

Limitations of MRI:

High Costs: MRI machines are expensive to purchase and maintain, resulting in high healthcare costs for patients.
Requirement for Patient Stillness: Patients undergoing MRI scans must remain still for extended periods to prevent image distortion, which can be challenging for some individuals.
Discomfort or Anxiety: The strong magnetic fields and loud noises produced during MRI scans may cause discomfort or anxiety for patients.
Limitations with Metallic Implants: Certain metallic implants or objects can interfere with MRI scans, limiting their use in individuals with such implants.

PYQ:

[2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
Create meaningful short stories and songs
Disease diagnosis
Text-to-Speech Conversion
Wireless transmission of electrical energy

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

(b) 1, 3 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Role of Fusobacterium in Colorectal Cancer

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna)

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

Researchers at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in the US have identified specific subtypes of Fusobacterium nucleatum associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) tumors.
These subtypes, particularly Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna), have been found in relatively higher quantities in CRC tumors.

About Fusobacterium nucleatum

Fusobacterium nucleatum is a species of bacteria commonly found in the human mouth.
It is a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, meaning it does not require oxygen for growth.
While typically residing in the oral cavity, it has been associated with various diseases and conditions, including periodontal diseases and colorectal cancer.

Association with Colorectal Cancer (CRC):

In cases of colorectal cancer (CRC), Fusobacterium nucleatum has been found within tumors in the gut.
Studies have shown that this bacterium can aid cancer cells in evading the immune system and promoting metastasis, or the spread of cancer to other parts of the body.
Its presence in CRC tumors has led to investigations into its potential role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer.

Impact:

Assisting cancer cells in evading the immune system.
Promoting inflammation and creating an environment conducive to tumor growth.
Facilitating metastasis by interacting with cancer cells and promoting their spread to other tissues.

PYQ:

[2013] Improper handling and storage of cereal grains and oilseeds result in the production of toxins known as Aflatoxins which are not generally destroyed by normal cooking process. Aflatoxins are produced by:

(a) Bacteria

(b) Protozoa

(d) Viruses

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Mass Coral Bleaching in Lakshadweep Sea

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Marine heatwave, Coral Bleaching, Agatti Reef, DHW Indicator

Mains level: NA

The Agatti Reef is experiencing unprecedented mass coral bleaching.

Why in the news?

Extreme heatwaves along the Indian coast, coupled with marine heatwaves, have triggered Mass Coral Bleaching events in the Lakshadweep Sea.

Heatwaves Toll on Lakshadweep’s Coral:

Researchers from the ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) conducted surveys across various Lakshadweep Islands.

- The Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator in Lakshadweep has soared above 4 °C-weeks, as per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
  - This elevation in DHW levels poses a substantial risk of coral bleaching, posing a severe threat to the region’s marine ecosystems.
Should DHW surpass 12 °C-weeks, it could trigger an unprecedented biodiversity crisis, leading to multispecies mortality.

Prolonged marine heatwaves since October 2023 have inflicted substantial stress on the coral reefs, exacerbating bleaching phenomena.
- A marine heatwave is characterized by seawater temperatures exceeding a seasonally-varying threshold (often the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.

Degree Heating Week (DHW) indicator: It is a measurement used to assess the accumulated thermal stress that corals experience over an extended period, which can lead to coral bleaching. This indicator is expressed in °C-weeks, reflecting the exposure of coral reefs to elevated sea surface temperatures.

Lakshadweep’s Coral Treasure: Agatti Reef

Agatti Island is part of the Lakshadweep archipelago, situated in the Arabian Sea.
The island is surrounded by extensive coral reefs, making it a popular destination for snorkeling and diving enthusiasts.
The coral reefs around Agatti Island are composed of various coral species, including branching corals like Acropora, table corals like Acropora Hyacinthus, and massive corals like Porites.
These corals form intricate reef structures that provide habitat and food for numerous marine organisms.

What causes Coral Bleaching?

When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.

Back2Basics: Corals

Coral are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
These polyps have microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues in a mutualistic relationship.
The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with organic products of photosynthesis, like carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral polyps for synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeletons.
Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
They are the largest living structures on the planet.
Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
Coral reefs are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.

Types of Coral

Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals:

Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.

Conditions needed for Corals to Flourish

Extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps (not more than 90m below sea level).
High mean annual temperature ranging 20-21 degree Celsius.
Clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral polyps resulting into their death.
Oceanic salinity ranging between 27-30 ppt.
Ocean currents and waves, as they bring food supply for the polyps.

PYQ:

2014: Which of the following have coral reefs?

Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Gulf of Kachchh
Gulf of Mannar
Sunderbans

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

West Nile Fever Outbreak in Kerala

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: West Nile Virus, Its host, Transmission;

Mains level: NA

Why in the news?

The Kerala government disclosed the re-emergence of West Nile fever cases in Thrissur, Malappuram, and Kozhikode districts.
West Nile fever was first detected in Kerala in 2011, with a fatal case recorded in 2019 involving a six-year-old from Malappuram.

What is West Nile Fever?

West Nile fever is caused by a West Nile Virus (WNV) transmitted through bites from infected Culex mosquitoes.
The WNV is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded RNA virus.
According to the WHO, it is a member of the flavi-virus genus and belongs to the Japanese Encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae.

How does it spread?

It is transmitted by infected mosquitoes between and among humans and animals, including birds, which are the reservoir host of the virus.
Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days.
The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands.
During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness.
WNV can also spread through blood transfusion, from an infected mother to her child, or through exposure to the virus in laboratories.
It is not known to spread by contact with infected humans or animals.

Symptoms of WNV infection:

The disease is asymptomatic in 80% of the infected people.
The rest develop what is called the West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease.
In these 20% cases, the symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, rash, and swollen glands.

PYQ:

[2017] Consider the following statements:

1. In tropical regions, Zika virus disease is transmitted by the same mosquito that transmits dengue.

2. Sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Back2Basics: Type of Viruses

	Subtypes	Description	Examples
DNA Viruses	Herpesviruses	DNA viruses with a complex structure causing various diseases including cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis.	HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, EBV
	Papillomaviruses	DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers.	HPV
	Adenoviruses	DNA viruses causing a wide range of infections in humans.	Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
	Poxviruses	Large, complex DNA viruses responsible for diseases like smallpox.	Variola virus (smallpox), Vaccinia virus
RNA Viruses	Positive-Sense RNA Viruses	RNA viruses with genomes that can directly serve as mRNA, causing diseases like the common cold, Zika, and COVID-19.	Picornaviruses, Flaviviruses, Coronaviruses
	Negative-Sense RNA Viruses	RNA viruses requiring transcription into positive-sense RNA before translation, causing diseases like influenza and rabies.	Orthomyxoviruses, Paramyxoviruses, Rhabdoviruses
	Retroviruses	RNA viruses that use reverse transcriptase to integrate their genome into the host cell’s DNA.	HIV, HTLV
	Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) Viruses	RNA viruses with double-stranded RNA genomes causing gastroenteritis and other infections.	Reoviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Ambisense Genome	RNA viruses with genomes containing both positive-sense and negative-sense RNA regions.	Arenaviruses, Bunyaviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Segmented Genome	RNA viruses with genomes consisting of multiple segments, causing diseases like influenza and hemorrhagic fevers.	Orthomyxoviruses, Bunyaviruses
	Single-Stranded RNA (ssRNA) Viruses with Circular Genome	Satellite viruses with a circular RNA genome requiring helper viruses for replication.	Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV)
Enveloped Viruses	Influenza Viruses	RNA viruses surrounded by a lipid envelope causing seasonal flu outbreaks.	Influenza A, B, C viruses
	Herpesviruses	Enveloped DNA viruses causing diseases like cold sores, chickenpox, and mononucleosis.	HSV-1, HSV-2, VZV, CMV
	Coronaviruses	Enveloped RNA viruses causing diseases like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and COVID-19.	SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2
	HIV	Enveloped retroviruses responsible for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).	Human immunodeficiency virus
	Ebola Virus	Enveloped RNA virus causing severe hemorrhagic fever in humans.	Ebola virus
Non-enveloped Viruses	Adenoviruses	DNA viruses lacking a lipid envelope, causing various infections in humans.	Adenovirus types causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and ocular infections
	Papillomaviruses	DNA viruses associated with warts and certain cancers, lacking an envelope.	HPV
	Noroviruses	RNA viruses causing gastroenteritis, lacking an envelope.	Norovirus
	Rotaviruses	RNA viruses causing severe gastroenteritis in infants and young children, lacking an envelope.	Rotavirus
Bacteriophages	T4 Bacteriophage	Viruses that infect bacteria, with a complex structure and lifecycle.	T4 bacteriophage
Bacteriophages	Lambda Phage	Temperate bacteriophage capable of lysogenic and lytic cycles in E. coli.	Lambda phage

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Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

India press freedom score falls, says Reporters sans Frontieres

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Freedom of Expression; Freedom of Press; World Press Freedom Index

Mains level: Issues with Freedom of Expression in India;

Why in the news?

India’s score in the World Press Freedom Index fell over the last year, from 36.62 to 31.28, according to Reporters Without Borders. In South Asia, India finds itself ranked at 159th, while its neighbor Pakistan stands marginally higher at 152.

Key Highlights of the Report:

Deterioration Since 2014: Press freedom in India has significantly deteriorated since 2014.
Government vs Media Nexus: The government is criticized for maintaining a close relationship with big media families, leading to a lack of independence and critical journalism being labeled as “anti-national and anti-India“.
Self-Censorship: Fear of political backlash has forced journalists to censor themselves, as Modi’s supporters aggressively target critical reporting of the government.
Corporatization of Media: There’s an increasing trend of wealthy businessmen close to Modi owning a majority of mainstream media outlets, which undermines media independence and diversity.
BBC Raids: Recent raids on the BBC offices in India have drawn international criticism and contributed to India’s declining press freedom ranking.
Comparative Analysis: While India’s press freedom declines, neighboring countries like Pakistan and Sri Lanka have improved, although they still lag behind global leaders in press freedom rankings.

India’s Initiative of “Index Monitoring Cell”:

Purpose of the Cell: The Index Monitoring Cell has been set up to work on improving India’s press freedom ranking. It will consist of representatives from various government agencies and credible journalists suggested by the Press Council of India.
Ranking Parameters: The cell will engage with agencies publishing the World Press Freedom Index, like Reporters Without Borders, for a better understanding of the parameters and methodology used for the rankings. This will help formulate an action plan to address the issues identified.
Coordination with State Governments: The cell will coordinate with state governments to appoint nodal officers who can provide regular updates on the state of press freedom and any issues faced by journalists at the local level.
Engagement with Stakeholders: This aims to improve communication and visibility of steps taken to support press freedom and address concerns raised by global media watchdogs.
Reporting Mechanisms: Setting up proper reporting mechanisms is crucial to ensure that the data and information provided to ranking agencies are up-to-date and accurate. This will help in portraying a clearer picture of the press freedom landscape in India.

Conclusion: India needs to enact and strengthen laws to protect the freedom of the Press and ensure journalists’ safety. This includes legislation to prevent harassment, attacks, and threats against journalists, as well as provisions for swift and effective legal recourse in cases of censorship or intimidation.

Mains PYQ

Q What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2014)

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