From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lancet Report;
Mains level: Women Issues in Indian Society; Health Issues;
Why in the news?
Over 30 years, a study examining 20 diseases revealed minimal advancements in narrowing the disparity between genders as per “the Lancet Public Health Journal”.
What does the New Lancet report say?
On Health Disparities: The study highlights that women tend to suffer more from lower back pain, depression, and headaches, while men have shorter life expectancies due to higher rates of road accidents, cardiovascular diseases, and, recently, COVID-19.
On Health Burden: Women spend more time in poor health, while men are more likely to die prematurely from severe conditions.
Overall Global Analysis: The analysis examines differences in the 20 leading causes of illness and death globally, considering all ages and regions.
What Causes the Differences in Diseases Between Women and Men? (Observations)
Biological Factors:
Hormonal Differences: Hormonal fluctuations in women, such as during menstrual cycles, pregnancy, and menopause, can influence susceptibility to certain conditions like migraines, depression, and autoimmune diseases.
Genetic Variations: Variations in genes and genetic predispositions may contribute to differences in disease susceptibility and severity between sexes.
Anatomical Variances: Physiological differences, such as in skeletal structure and hormonal regulation, can affect the manifestation of certain diseases like lower back pain and reproductive disorders.
Societal and Gender Norms:
Healthcare-Seeking: Societal norms and gender roles may influence healthcare-seeking behaviors, with men often less likely to seek medical attention for mental health issues due to perceived notions of masculinity.
Occupational Hazards: Occupational differences between genders can lead to varying exposures to health risks, with certain professions associated with higher rates of injury or exposure to harmful substances.
Socioeconomic Factors: Disparities in socioeconomic status can impact disease prevalence and outcomes differently for women and men.
Healthcare System Bias:
Diagnostic Bias: Gender biases in healthcare may result in underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis of certain conditions in women, leading to delays in treatment and poorer health outcomes.
Treatment Disparities: Differences in treatment approaches and responses may exist between sexes, with women sometimes receiving less aggressive treatment for cardiovascular diseases or being undertreated for pain conditions.
Research Bias: Historically, medical research has often focused on male subjects, leading to a lack of understanding of how diseases manifest and progress differently in women.
No Improvement in Care for Women Over Time
Stable Gender Gap: Despite overall health improvements, the disparity between male and female health conditions remains stable.
Conditions Affecting Women: Conditions like lower back pain and depressive disorders have shown little to no decrease over time compared to male-dominated conditions.
Reproductive Focus: Global health systems have historically focused on women’s reproductive health, neglecting other significant health issues affecting women.
What Needs to Be Done (Way Forward)
Better Data Collection: Governments should consistently collect and categorize health data by sex and gender to better understand and address health disparities.
Targeted Health Interventions: Specific health interventions should be developed and implemented based on detailed sex and gender data.
Increased Funding: More financial resources should be allocated to underfunded conditions that disproportionately affect women, such as mental health.
Addressing Healthcare Bias: Efforts should be made to eliminate biases in healthcare to ensure women receive appropriate and timely treatment for their conditions.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Function of SEBI
Mains level: Market Regulations in India;
Why in the news?
SEBI issued a consultation paper, proposing a framework to enable domestic Mutual Funds (MFs) to invest in their overseas counterparts or Unit Trusts (UTs) that allocate a portion of their assets to Indian securities.
About the Framework for Facilitating Investments by Domestic Mutual Funds (MFs)
Aim: To clarify the process and regulations surrounding such investments to encourage domestic MFs to diversify globally while maintaining limited exposure to Indian securities.
About the Proposals:
On Investment Cap: SEBI proposes that overseas instruments being considered for investment by domestic MFs must not have more than 20% exposure to Indian securities.
This cap is intended to balance facilitating global investments while preventing excessive exposure to Indian markets.
On Pooling of Contributions: Indian MFs must ensure that all investors of the overseas MF/UT pool their contributions into a single investment vehicle. This ensures fair distribution of gains among investors, proportional to their contributions, without any preferential treatment.
On Autonomous Management: Investments must be made autonomously by the manager of the overseas instrument, without influence from investors or undisclosed parties, to avoid conflicts of interest.
About Transparency and Disclosure: SEBI requires periodic public disclosures of the portfolios of such overseas MF/UTs for transparency.
No Advisory Agreements: SEBI warns against any advisory agreement between the Indian MF and the overseas MF/UT to prevent conflicts of interest and avoid undue advantage.
On Observance Period: If an overseas instrument breaches the 20% limit, the Indian MF scheme will enter a six-month observance period for rebalancing the portfolio.
Further investments will only be allowed when the exposure is below the limit. If not rebalanced within six months, the MF must liquidate its investment in the overseas instrument.
Impacts of the Regulation
Diversification of Opportunities: The framework provides a structured path for Indian MFs to invest in overseas instruments, enhancing diversification opportunities for Indian investors.
Market Transparency: The requirement for periodic public disclosures of portfolios will increase transparency and investor confidence in overseas investments.
Risk Management: The 20% exposure cap and autonomous management of investments help mitigate risks associated with excessive exposure to Indian securities and conflicts of interest.
Compliance Burden: The need to adhere to strict regulations and rebalance portfolios within specified periods may increase the compliance burden on domestic MFs.
Potential for Growth: By facilitating global investments, the framework can potentially attract more investors to Indian mutual funds, contributing to the growth of the mutual fund industry in India.
What are the concerns associated with this framework?
RBI’s Upper Limit: The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) upper limit for overseas investment by mutual funds poses a concern. RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das indicated there are no plans to increase this limit, which means the overall industry limit for overseas investments is already exhausted.
Practical Impact: As the industry limit for overseas investments is effectively exhausted, the changes to regulations may not have an immediate practical impact, limiting the diversification opportunities for Indian investors.
Implementation and Compliance: Ensuring compliance with the 20% exposure cap and other regulations may pose challenges for domestic MFs, requiring careful monitoring and management of their overseas investments.
Conclusion: Need to establish collaborations with global investment firms to gain insights and best practices in managing overseas investments. Learning from established global players can help Indian mutual funds navigate the complexities of international markets more effectively.
Mains PYQ:
Q The product diversification of financial institutions and insurance companies, resulting in overlapping of products and services strengthens the case for the merger of the two regulatory agencies, namely SEBI and IRDA. Justify. (UPSC IAS/2013)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Inequality and Democratic Governance;
Why in the news?
Studies conducted by researchers from “the Paris School of Economics” indicate that inequality in contemporary India surpasses that of colonial times.
How does Inequality harm Democratic processes?
Concentration of Power: Inequality can lead to the concentration of monopoly power among a few capitalists relative to the labor force. This concentration allows dominant business groups to set prices, resulting in lower real wages and reduced purchasing power for the majority.
Impact on Consumption and Welfare: High inequality can negatively impact consumption and welfare due to higher mark-ups and lower real wages.
Lower real wages mean that workers can afford fewer goods, which reduces overall consumption and welfare.
Effect on Democratic Processes: Economic inequality can translate into unequal political power, undermining democratic processes.
Those with significant wealth can have disproportionate influence over political decisions, policies, and elections, leading to governance that favours the wealthy over the general populace.
How Redistribution and Growth Can Work Together
Wealth Taxes and Redistribution: Taxing wealth and redistributing it can enhance economic growth by increasing incomes and consumption among the lower and middle classes, who have a higher propensity to consume.
Multiplier Effect: Redistribution can strengthen the multiplier effect, where an initial increase in investment leads to a greater overall increase in income and consumption. Higher incomes among workers and goods-sellers lead to more purchases, driving further economic activity and growth.
Investment and Profit Expectations: Investment is driven by future profit expectations rather than past wealth. Therefore, taxing wealth does not necessarily reduce investment.
Creation of New Entrepreneurs: Redistribution can support the emergence of new entrepreneurs by providing financial resources and reducing dependence on wage employment. This can foster innovation and competition, further contributing to economic growth.
Curtailing Monopolies: Reducing monopolistic power through redistribution and other policy measures can lower prices and increase real wages. Higher real wages boost demand, leading to increased investment and economic expansion.
Conclusion: Addressing inequality through redistribution can promote inclusive growth, empowering marginalized communities and advancing progress towards a more equitable society, essential for fulfilling SDG Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities).
Mains PYQ:
Q How did land reforms in some parts of the country help to improve the socio-economic conditions of marginal and small farmers? (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Women Issues;
Why in the news?
Although women’s representation in the workforce has grown over the years “LinkedIn’s Economic Graph data” indicates that progress has stalled since 2022 and declined in 2024.
What does the data show?
Representation of women in the workforce has increased over the years but progress has stalled since 2022 and declined in 2024. The promotion of women to senior and leadership roles has stagnated in recent years.
Sectors like healthcare, education, administrative, and support services have higher female representation in senior positions, while sectors like manufacturing, construction, oil, and gas have poor representation.
Representation of women in the overall workforce and in senior positions
Entry and career progression of women
Oil, Gas, and Mining: Among the lowest representation of women in leadership roles, at around 11%.
Construction: Very few women are represented, especially in senior roles.
Utilities: Women face significant barriers in advancing to leadership positions.
Wholesale: Low entry and career progression for women.
Manufacturing: Poor representation of women across all positions, including senior roles.
Transportation: Limited career progression opportunities for women.
Real Estate: Few women in leadership positions, with significant entry barriers.
About the accommodation and other services
Representation of women in senior roles within the accommodation and food services sector falls between 15% and 20%.
This sector exhibits a moderate level of female representation compared to other industries.
While not the highest, it surpasses sectors like oil, gas, mining, construction, utilities, wholesale, manufacturing, transportation, and real estate, where women hold just 11%-14% of leadership positions.
The data suggests there’s still room for improvement in increasing the number of women in leadership roles within the accommodation and food services sector.
Efforts to improve gender diversity and inclusion should be continued and perhaps intensified in this sector, aligning with broader industry and societal goals for gender parity in the workforce.
Administrative and support services:
Women hold senior positions in administrative and support services at a rate of 22% to 30%, indicating a moderate level of representation compared to other sectors.
This sector demonstrates a higher level of female representation in leadership roles compared to industries like oil, gas, mining, construction, utilities, wholesale, manufacturing, transportation, and real estate, where women’s leadership roles range from 11% to 14%.
The education sector boasts the highest representation of women in senior positions at 30%, suggesting that sectors like administrative and support services still have room for improvement.
Efforts to promote gender diversity and inclusion within administrative and support services should be sustained, aiming for further increases in the representation of women in leadership roles.
Continued focus on addressing biases, societal norms, and structural barriers is essential to achieving greater gender parity and advancement opportunities for women within this sector.
Way Forward
Efforts by policymakers and business leaders are needed to tackle challenges faced by women in reaching leadership roles, focusing on “women-led development”.
Stricter enforcement of laws such as the Companies Act, 2013, which mandates women directors on company boards. Between April 2018 and December 2023, 507 companies were fined for non-compliance, with 90% being listed companies.
Mains PYQ
Q Micro-Finance as an anti-poverty vaccine, is aimed at asset creation and income security of the rural poor in India”. Evaluate the role of the Self Help Groups in achieving the twin objectives of empowering women in rural India. (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coal Gradation, Coal reserves in India, Imports etc
Why in the News?
A report by the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project suggests Adani Group claimed ‘low grade’ coal imported from Indonesia to be ‘high quality’ coal.
They inflated its value and sold it to Tamil Nadu’s power generation company, TANGEDCO (Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Company).
Coal Gradation in India
These terms are relative and depend on the coal’s Gross Calorific Value (GCV denoted in kilo-calories per kg), which indicates its energy generation potential. Higher GCV denotes better quality coal.
High-Grade (GCV > 7,000 kcal/kg) to
Low-Grade (GCV 2,200-2,500 kcal/kg).
Overall there are 17 grades of coal according to the Coal Ministry‘s classification.
Characteristics of Indian Coal:
Historically, Indian coal is high in ash content and low in calorific value compared to imports.
Higher ash content leads to increased emissions of particulate matter and pollutants.
Clean Coal Technologies:
Coal Washing: On-site processes such as coal washing are employed to reduce ash and moisture content, thereby improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental impact.
Coal Gasification: Another approach is coal gasification, where coal is converted into syngas through an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC). This process enhances efficiency and reduces emissions compared to traditional coal-burning methods.
Coal Reserves in India
India boasts the fourth-largest coal reserves globally, totaling nearly 319.02 billion tonnes.
Geological Distribution: These reserves are primarily located in:
Older Gondwana Formations: in Peninsular India, about 250 million years old.
Younger Tertiary Formations: in the North-Eastern region, 15 to 60 million years old.
Gondwana coal constitutes 99% of India’s coal production.
The top 5 States in terms of total coal reserves in India are: Jharkhand > Odisha > Chhattisgarh > West Bengal > Madhya Pradesh.
Types of Coal found:
Anthracite: This highest-grade coal contains 80-95% carbon and is found in smaller quantities in regions of Jammu and Kashmir.
Bituminous: A medium-grade coal with 60 to 80% carbon content, it is abundant in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh.
Lignite: The lowest-grade coal, with 40 to 55% carbon content, is found in regions of Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Jammu & Kashmir.
Status of Coal in India
In the fiscal year 2023-24, India’s coal production peaked at 997 million tonnes, primarily sourced from state-owned Coal India Ltd and its subsidiaries. Coking coal accounted for 58 million tonnes.
During the first quarter of 2024, renewable energy constituted 71.5% of India’s unprecedented 13.6 GW power generation capacity addition, signalling a notable departure from reliance on coal.
Coal Import Trends:
Reduction in Share: The share of coal imports in India’s total coal consumption decreased to 21% from April 2023 to January 2024, down from 22.48% in the corresponding period of the previous year.
Blending and Power Plant Imports: While there was a significant reduction of 36.69% in coal imports for blending by thermal power plants, imports by coal-based power plants surged by 94.21% during the same period.
Reasons for Coal Imports:
Quality Constraints: The scarcity of good quality coking coal, essential for steelmaking, necessitates coal imports to meet industrial demands.
Rising Energy Demand: Coal remains a vital component of India’s energy mix, prompting the need for imports to fulfil growing energy requirements.
Infrastructure Challenges: Challenges such as geological constraints, land acquisition issues, and environmental regulations impede domestic coal production
Quality and Cost Considerations: Importing coal can offer cost advantages and access to better-quality coal compared to domestic sources
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following statements:
Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment
High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mangroves in India
Why in the News?
The International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN) has listed mangroves in coastal regions spanning Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka and Maldives as ‘critically endangered’ in its first global assessment of mangrove ecosystems.
Red List of Mangrove Ecosystems: Study by IUCN
Global assessment reveals a 50% risk of mangrove ecosystem collapse. Without further conservation, by 2050, 7,065 sq km more mangroves will be lost, and 23,672 sq km submerged.
If we let this happen, the world is at risk of losing:
1.8B tonnes of carbon stored, costing society $336B (based on the social cost of carbon). Protects 2.1M lives and $36B worth of property from coastal flooding..
Sea-level rise is the main threat affecting mangrove ecosystems.
25% of the global mangrove area is predicted to be submerged in the next 50 Years.
1/3 of the world’s mangrove ecosystem provinces will be severely affected by sea-level rise.
Tamil Nadu’s Efforts for Mangroves Conservation
The Tamil Nadu Forest Department has doubled mangrove cover from 23 sq km in 2001 to 45 sq km in 2021, as per the Indian State of Forest Report.
Mangrove restoration projects have been undertaken across Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Cuddalore, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, Thiruvallur, and Villupuram districts, with plans for an additional 15 sq km restoration under the Tamil Nadu Coastal Restoration Mission funded by the World Bank.
Tamil Nadu’s TN-SHORE initiative, launched in January 2024, aims to address environmental challenges along the coastline. With Rs 1,675 crore funding, including 70% from the World Bank, it focuses on blue carbon sequestration.
Back2Basics: Mangroves
Mangroves constitute a group of trees and shrubs inhabiting the coastal intertidal zone.
They are found globally in tropical and subtropical regions, typically between latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
Mangroves are predominantly located in tropical regions due to their intolerance to the extreme cold conditions prevalent in temperate zones.
Features of Mangroves:
Adaptation to waterlogged and anoxic soil: Mangroves possess unique characteristics allowing them to survive in waterlogged and oxygen-deficient environments.
Halophytes: Mangrove species have the ability to filter out up to 90% of the salt from seawater as it enters their roots, with some species also excreting salt through glands in their leaves.
Water retention capacity: Thick succulent leaves store fresh water, while a waxy coating on some species’ leaves minimizes evaporation.
Pneumatophores: Certain mangroves develop pencil-like roots that emerge from the ground to absorb oxygen from the air, aiding in coping with tidal flooding.
Prop roots: Many mangrove trees possess dense aerial roots descending from their trunks and branches, which stabilize and support them against waves and tides.
Lenticellated bark: Oxygen enters mangroves through lenticels, small breathing pores in the bark and roots, enabling them to adapt to low oxygen conditions.
Viviparity: Seed pods germinate while still on the tree, facilitating immediate root growth upon dropping.
Mangroves in India:
According to the India State of Forest Report 2021, mangrove cover in India comprises 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
West Bengal has the highest percentage of area under total mangrove cover among states and union territories, followed by Gujarat and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Sundarbans, characterized by the dominant mangrove species sundari (Heritiera fomes), is the largest continuous mangrove forest globally.
Various mangrove areas in India are protected within reserves and sanctuaries such as the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, Bhitarkanika, Coringa, Nelapattu, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuaries, Pirotan National Park, among others.
PYQ:
[2011] The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge against coastal calamities. How do mangroves function as a safety hedge?
(a) The mangrove swamps separate the human settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which people neither live nor venture out
(b) The mangroves provide both food and medicines which people are in need of after any natural disaster
(c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense canopies and serve as an excellent shelter during a cyclone or tsunami
(d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by storms and tides because of their extensive roots.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Frequent Volcanic eruptions this year, Sundhnuksgigar and other Volcanoes Why in the News?
Why in the News?
Southwest Iceland witnessed the eruption of the Sundhnuksgigar volcano, triggering evacuations in the nearby areas.
About Sundhnuksgigar Volcano
Sundhnuksgigar is a row of craters just outside the town of Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula
It is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent boundary where the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates are moving apart.
What is a Volcano?
A volcano is a fissure or vent in the Earth’s crust through which gases, molten rock materials (lava), ash, steam, sulphur dioxide etc., are expelled during an eruption.
These openings occur where the rock layers in the Earth’s crust are relatively weak.
Volcanic activity is categorized as an endogenic process, originating from within the Earth.
Depending on the explosivity of the volcano, various extrusive and intrusive landforms can be formed.
Different types of volcanoes can be classified based on the frequency of eruption and the nature of the eruption:
1. Frequency of eruption:
Active volcanoes: Frequent eruptions in Pacific Ring of Fire: New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, western Americas. Linked to plate tectonics, like Kilauea and Santa Maria. High seismicity, volcanic activity.
Dormant Volcanoes: These are not currently erupting but have the potential to erupt again in the future. An example is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the highest mountain in Africa.
Extinct or inactive volcanoes: These have not erupted in the distant geological past. Dhinodhar Hill in Gujarat is an example.
2. Nature of Eruption:
Shield Volcanoes: Largest and least explosive volcanoes, formed from basalt lava. Often low in explosivity, except when water interacts. Hawaiian volcanoes exemplify this..
Composite Volcanoes: Volcanoes with cooler, thicker lava, built up through explosive eruptions. Layer ash, pyroclastic material, and lava flow. Examples: Mayon, Fuji, Rainier.
Calderas: The most explosive volcanoes, prone to collapsing inward during eruptions rather than building upwards. The resulting depressions are called calderas.
Flood Basalt Provinces: These volcanoes erupt highly fluid lava that travels long distances, covering vast areas with thick basalt flows.
Reasons for Iceland’s Volcanism
Tectonic Activity: Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American plates diverge. This creates volcanic rift zones where magma rises to the surface, leading to eruptions.
Hotspots: Additionally, Iceland is positioned over a hotspot, contributing to heightened volcanic activity. Hotspots are areas where magma from the mantle rises towards the surface, fueling eruptions.
Subglacial Volcanism: Iceland’s volcanic activity is not limited to the surface; some eruptions occur beneath glaciers, leading to explosive interactions between lava and ice. These subglacial eruptions can produce powerful steam explosions, ash clouds, and catastrophic floods known as jokulhlaup.
PYQ:
[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on the regional environment.
[2013] Consider the following:
Electromagnetic radiation
Geothermal energy
Gravitational force
Plate movements
Rotation of the earth
Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy, JWST
Why in the News?
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched by NASA, has unveiled a groundbreaking find It has captured imagery of the universe’s earliest-known galaxy, revealing unexpected brightness and size given its formation during the universe’s infancy.
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST) and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
It will be a large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, as well as its specialized instruments optimized for infrared observations.
Key Objectives:
JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.
About JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy
Named JADES-GS-z14-0, this galaxy was formed approximately 290 million years after the Big Bang.
Spanning about 1,700 light-yearsacross, it consists of a mass equivalent to 500 million stars akin to our Sun.
Despite its ancient age, the galaxy is actively generating stars at a rapid pace, producing around 20 new stars annually.
Scientific Insights:
Historical Context: Previously, the earliest-known galaxy was dated to approximately 320 million years post-Big Bang, indicating the significance of this new discovery.
Luminosity Theories: While hypotheses suggest various explanations for the galaxy’s luminosity, including supermassive black holes or unusually bright stars, further research is required to validate these theories.
PYQ:
[2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?
Detection of microwaves in space
Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
Movement of asteroids in space
Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
