From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: How Does Donanemab Work?
Why in the News?
Donanemab, a new Alzheimer’s disease therapy developed by Eli Lilly, has gained unanimous support from independent scientists advising the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), moving it closer to clinical use.
What is Donanemab?
Donanemab is a monoclonal antibody, which means it is a laboratory-produced molecule designed to function like antibodies in the immune system.
It is specifically developed for individuals in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, including those with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia.
How Does Donanemab Work?
It targets amyloid beta proteins in the brain. Amyloid beta plaques are one of the defining features of Alzheimer’s disease.
Mechanism of Action: The drug binds to amyloid beta plaques and promotes their removal from the brain. This action is intended to slow down the progression of Alzheimer’s disease by reducing the accumulation of these toxic plaques.
How do the benefits of the drug stack up against its risks?
Target Population: The drug is intended for those in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia).
Benefits: Significant clinically meaningful slowing of the disease, allowing patients to retain their functions for a longer time. Phase 3 study shows a 35.1% slowdown in cognitive decline in early Alzheimer’s patients over 76 weeks.
Risks: Main adverse effects include brain swelling (24%) and brain bleeds (19.7%), with most cases being asymptomatic.Three treatment-related deaths reported.Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) like brain bleeds and seizures were mostly non-serious and resolved after discontinuation of therapy.
Risk Management: The key risks can be mitigated through appropriate labeling and clinical monitoring. Further risks will be characterized through post-authorization studies.
Why is a breakthrough of this kind important?
Rising Burden of Alzheimer’s: The global population is ageing, leading to an increased burden of diseases like Alzheimer’s. In India, 5.3 million people are currently living with dementia, expected to rise to 14 million by 2050.
Lack of Effective Treatments: There are limited options for disease-modifying treatments for Alzheimer’s. Innovations like donanemab are crucial for providing new hope and potential therapies.
Economic Considerations: While the drug is expensive, it offers the potential for several more years of quality life for patients.
Why was the approval for the drug delayed?
Additional Data Requirements: The USFDA wanted to understand further the data relating to the therapy, especially regarding the limited dosing protocol used during trials.
Limited Dosing Protocol: During the trial, therapy was stopped in patients who achieved a certain level of amyloid beta plaque clearance, which is a distinguishing feature of donanemab compared to other therapies.
Previous Drug Approval Irregularities: Scrutiny increased after irregularities were found in the approval process of the first drug, aducanumab, which involved close collaboration between the regulator and the drugmaker and approval despite negative trial outcomes. The second drug, lecanemab, also had cautious optimism from doctors due to its demonstrated efficacy with fewer side effects.
Conclusion: Ensure rigorous and transparent review processes for new Alzheimer’s treatments, incorporating comprehensive data analysis and post-authorization studies to monitor long-term safety and efficacy.
Mains PYQ:
Q Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (UPSC IAS/2017)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Current Notified Disasters
Mains level: Why Heatwaves Were Not Included as Notified Disasters?
Why in the news?
The current period of intense heat in several regions has once more sparked debates about the potential inclusion of heatwaves as officially recognized disasters under the Disaster Management (DM) Act of 2005.
What are Notified Disasters?
According to the Disaster Management (DM) Act, 2005, a disaster is defined as a “catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence” arising from natural or man-made causes that result in substantial loss of life, destruction of property, or environmental damage and is beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.
Funds: The DM Act allows states to draw money from the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) and the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for managing these disasters.
Current Notified Disasters: There are currently 12 categories of notified disasters: cyclones, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunamis, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, and frost and cold waves.
Why Heatwaves Were Not Included as Notified Disasters?
Common Occurrence: Heatwaves were historically considered regular events during summer months in many parts of India. They were not seen as exceptional or unusual disasters warranting specific disaster management provisions under the DM Act, 2005.
Perception of Predictability: Unlike sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes or cyclones, heatwaves were perceived as relatively predictable and part of seasonal weather patterns. This perception led to a belief that they could be managed through general public awareness and local interventions rather than formal disaster response mechanisms.
Not fit in definition of Disaster: When the DM Act was formulated, disasters were defined as events that caused substantial loss of life, property, or environmental damage beyond the coping capacity of the affected community. At that time, the impacts of heatwaves were typically viewed as localized health issues rather than widespread disasters.
Lack of Urgency: There was a lack of urgency in recognizing heatwaves as disasters requiring national-level response frameworks. The focus of disaster management efforts initially leaned towards more acute and visible calamities like cyclones, floods, and earthquakes.
Why is the Centre Not Adding Heatwaves as a Notified Disaster Now?
Financial Concerns: One of the primary concerns is the potential financial burden of declaring heat waves as a notified disaster. Under the current provisions, the government is obligated to provide monetary compensation for lives lost during notified disasters, which is set at Rs 4 lakh per victim.
The reluctance of Finance Commissions: Despite requests from various states, the 15th Finance Commission has not recommended adding heatwaves to the list of notified disasters. They argue that the existing categories adequately cover disaster response needs, and they have provided provisions for states to utilize a portion of the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for local disasters like heatwaves.
Conclusion: Engage with the Finance Commission and other relevant bodies to reassess the inclusion of heatwaves as a notified disaster. Highlight the evolving nature of heat waves, their increasing frequency, and the need for dedicated funding and support mechanisms.
Mains PYQ:
Q Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: The Global Gender Gap Report 2024 (By World Economic Forum)
Mains level: Key points related to India as Gender Gap Report 2024
Why in the news?
India’s new cabinet has only 2 women ministers, down from 10 previously. The Global Gender Gap Report 2024 (by the World Economic Forum) ranks India third-lowest in South Asia, highlighting significant gender disparity in leadership and representation.
Comparison of Indian Ranking with Other Countries:
Global Gender Gap Report 2024: India ranked 129th out of 146 economies in the overall gender gap index. Ranked third-lowest among South Asian economies, behind Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan.
Key points as Gender Gap Report 2024:
Economic Participation and Opportunity: 142nd, Health and Survival: 142nd, Educational Attainment: 112th, and Political Empowerment: Best rank (65th), but overall political representation remains low.
Political Empowerment: India performs relatively better on the head-of-state indicator (40.7%). However, women’s representation in ministerial positions (6.9%) and parliament (17.2%) is significantly lower. The region of South Asia shows high political disparity, with Nepal leading in ministerial representation (23.5%).
Educational Attainment: Despite high enrollment rates in primary, secondary, and tertiary education for women, the gap in literacy rate between men and women is significant (17.2 percentage points). India ranks 112th globally in this indicator.
Economic Participation: India has seen improvement in economic participation and opportunity, although it still ranks low (142nd). Challenges remain in bridging gender gaps in earned income, leadership roles, labour force participation, and technical professions.
Major observations around the causes of the Gender Gap
Patriarchal Structures: Patriarchy influences decision-making processes and power dynamics, often marginalising women’s voices and restricting their participation in political, economic, and social spheres.
Gender Bias: Gender bias manifests in various forms, affecting women’s access to resources, healthcare, education, and career advancement opportunities compared to men.
Gender Pay Gap: Women in India typically earn less than men for similar work, reflecting systemic inequalities in pay and compensation.
Occupational Segregation: Women are often concentrated in lower-paying sectors and informal employment, facing barriers to accessing high-paying and leadership roles.
Political Underrepresentation: Low representation of women in decision-making bodies such as parliament and state assemblies hinders legislative reforms and policies that could promote gender equity and address systemic barriers.
Way forward:
Gender Quotas: Implement and enforce quotas for women’s representation in parliament, state assemblies, and ministerial positions. This can be modelled after successful practices in other countries where gender quotas have significantly increased women’s political participation.
Equal Pay Initiatives: Enforce equal pay for equal work through rigorous monitoring and enforcement mechanisms. Encourage transparency in salary structures and promote awareness among employers and employees.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples.(UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mars Craters, IAU
Why in the News?
Scientists from Ahmedabad-based Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) have identified three new craters on Mars, situated in the Tharsis volcanic region around 21.0 S, 209 W.
Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)
The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.
Major Activities and Initiatives
General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.
Membership
IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.
Crater Names and Significance
Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Scientific Importance of Lal Crater
Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.
India’s 2nd Quest for Mars
The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
Other missions to Mars
ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.
PYQ:
[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO
is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nitrous Oxide pollution
Why in the News?
India ranks as the world’s second-largest contributor (after China) to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), accounting for approximately 11% of global man-made emissions in 2020 as per data published in the journal Earth System Science Data.
The top five country emitters by volume of anthropogenic N2O emissions in 2020 were China (16.7%), India (10.9%), the United States (5.7%), Brazil (5.3%), and Russia (4.6%).
AboutNitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless and odourless gas, is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times more powerful than CO2. Despite its small atmospheric fraction, it ranks third in concentration after CO2 and methane (CH4). It’s a crucial target for environmental research and efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.
Sources of Emission:
Natural Sources: N2O is naturally produced in processes such as microbial nitrogen cycling in soil and water bodies, volcanic activity, and biomass burning.
Anthropogenic Activities: Human activities significantly contribute to N2O emissions, with the primary sources being:
Agricultural practices, including the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and animal manure.
Industrial processes such as combustion of fossil fuels and wastewater treatment.
Combustion of biomass and waste.
Use of nitrous oxide in medical and dental procedures (as a sedative) and in food packaging.
Impact on Climate Change:
Greenhouse Gas: N2O is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) much higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Ozone Depletion: In addition to its role in climate change, N2O also contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere, further exacerbating environmental concerns.
Environmental and Health Effects:
Environmental Pollution: N2O emissions can lead to pollution of soil, water bodies, and air, affecting ecosystems and human health.
Health Risks: While N2O is relatively non-toxic at ambient levels, prolonged exposure or high concentrations can pose health risks, including respiratory issues and neurological effects.
Global Nitrous Oxide Emissions
Atmospheric Concentration: The concentration of atmospheric N2O reached 336 parts per billion in 2022, about 25% above pre-industrial levels.
Next to Carbon Emissions: In comparison, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 417 parts per million in 2022.
Persistent Lifespan: Once emitted, N2O stays in the atmosphere for longer than the average human lifespan (117 years), making its climate and ozone impacts long-lived.
Contribution to Climate Change: These emissions are responsible for 6.4% of the effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases and have added about 0.1°C to current global warming.
Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizers: N2O emissions from human activities have increased by 40% in the past four decades, with agricultural production using nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure contributing 74% of total anthropogenic N2O emissions in the last decade.
Call for Action and Future Outlook
Scientists warn that anthropogenic N2O emissions must decline by at least 20% relative to 2019 levels by 2050 to align with net-zero emission pathways consistent with the Paris Agreement.
Nitrogen fertilizers, which are heavily subsidized in India, contribute significantly to N2O emissions. Urgent reforms are needed to promote alternative production systems and mitigate emissions.
India’s Policy Initiatives to Curb Nitrogen Pollution
Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) (2010): This policy encourages the adoption of controlled-release fertilizers to enhance nutrient management efficiency.
Soil Health Cards (2015): Provided to farmers, these cards offer insights into soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer recommendations, promoting balanced nutrient application.
Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards (2016): These stringent regulations for vehicles and industries aim to reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, thereby mitigating air and water pollution.
Nano Urea (2021): Marketed by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Nano Urea is a patented fertilizer approved for commercial use, designed to curb excessive and indiscriminate conventional urea use while boosting crop yields.
PYQ:
[2016] Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture?
(a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms
(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil
(c) Nitrous oxide, which is a greenhouse gas, is not at all released into the atmosphere by crop fields
(d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: N332-GT5, eOD-GT8, HIV-AIDS
Why in the News?
Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.
About HIV/AIDS:
Emergence: The first cases of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) were reported in the early 1980s, primarily among gay men in the United States.
Discovery of HIV: In 1983-1984, scientists identified HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) as the cause of AIDS.
Global Spread: HIV/AIDS quickly became a global pandemic, affecting millions of people worldwide.
Causes:
HIV is transmitted through contact with certain body fluids of an infected person, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Common modes of HIV transmission include unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
Symptoms:
Acute HIV Infection: Many people experience flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes, within 2-4 weeks after infection.
Asymptomatic Stage: After the initial symptoms subside, HIV often enters a latent stage where individuals may not experience any symptoms for years.
Progression to AIDS: Without treatment, HIV gradually weakens the immune system, leading to the development of opportunistic infections and cancers. This advanced stage is known as AIDS and is characterized by severe immune deficiency.
Vaccines Development:
Challenges: Developing an HIV vaccine has been challenging due to the virus’s ability to mutate rapidly and evade the immune system.
Vaccine Candidates: Numerous vaccine candidates have been tested over the years, but none have yet been successful in providing robust protection against HIV infection.
Hope for the Future: Despite setbacks, advances in vaccine development, such as the identification of promising candidates like N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8, offer hope for eventually achieving an effective HIV vaccine.
How B cells and mRNA play distinct roles in the context of HIV infection?
1. B cells (B lymphocytes):
B cells are a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune response.
In HIV infection, B cells participate in the adaptive immune response by producing antibodies specific to HIV antigens.
These antibodies can neutralize HIV particles, tag infected cells for destruction by other immune cells, and contribute to the immune memory against HIV.
2. mRNA (messenger RNA):
mRNA is a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
In the context of HIV, mRNA is involved in the replication process of the virus.
HIV uses its RNA genome to produce viral mRNA, which directs the synthesis of viral proteins necessary for the assembly of new virus particles.
Understanding HIV mRNA is crucial for developing antiviral therapies that target viral replication, such as mRNA-based vaccines or mRNA inhibitors.
N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making
N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.
What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?
In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.
Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines
The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
Germline targeting involves three steps:
Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?
1. Chikungunya
2. Hepatitis B
3. HIV-AIDS
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delos Monuments, World Heritage Sites, Various WHS in India
Why in the News?
Delos, a UNESCO World Heritage site situated close to Mykonos, Greece, played a pivotal role as a sanctuary in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.
Scientists warn that Delos faces imminent destruction within the next 50 years due to rising sea levels caused by climate change.
About Delos
Delos is a small island located in the Aegean Sea, part of the Cyclades archipelago in Greece.
It is considered as the birthplace of Apollo, the god of light, arts, and healing, and his sister Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.
Its ancient ruins date back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
These ruins include temples, houses, sanctuaries, theatres, and other public buildings.
It served as a port and trading hub, connecting the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean with those of the west.
Delos was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990.
Ruins and Monuments:
Some of the most notable ruins and monuments on Delos include the Terrace of the Lions, the Temple of Apollo, the House of the Dolphins, the Theater District, and the Sacred Lake.
About UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS)
Details
Definition
A WHS is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by UNESCO.
Criteria
WHS are designated for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance.
World Heritage Convention
1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage established the framework for preserving the world’s outstanding heritage.
191 State Parties, including India, have ratified the World Heritage Convention.
Number of Sites
There are currently 1,172 World Heritage Sites across 166 countries.
Types of Sites
913 cultural sites
220 natural sites
39 mixed properties
World Heritage Committee
Evaluate nominated sites and inscribe them on the World Heritage List.
Preservation
Member states commit to protecting their World Heritage Sites.
World Heritage Fund
The fund, supported by member contributions, provides assistance for preserving sites.
Selection Criteria
Sites must demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) by meeting criteria defined in the Convention.
Advisory Bodies
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assess nominated sites.
Criteria for Cultural Sites
Six criteria for significance related to human creative genius, cultural interchange, unique testimony, outstanding examples of architecture, tradition, and events.
Criteria for Natural Sites
Four criteria for significance related to natural phenomena, Earth’s evolutionary history, ecological processes, and biological diversity.
Legal Status
Once inscribed, each site remains the property of the state it belongs to, with shared responsibility for its preservation and protection.
Obligations
Member states are obligated to integrate heritage protection into regional planning, report on-site conditions, and preserve sites for future generations.
Enforcement
The Committee may provide assistance, deploy experts, or delist sites in extreme cases of endangerment.
Important Sites in India:
There are 42 World Heritage Sites in India.
Out of these, 34 are cultural, 7 are natural, and 1, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type.
India has the sixth-most sites worldwide.
The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Causes of Exclusion in Higher Education
Why in the news?
Persistent exclusion results in some disciplines becoming a last resort for many students with social sciences increasingly becoming a significant reservoir of the excluded in India.
Causes of Exclusion in Higher Education:
Excessive Competition: Premier institutions have stringent filtering mechanisms due to high demand, which results in significant exclusion of students.
Financial Factors: Private institutions often have high fees not regulated by statutory norms, and public institutions, facing reduced government funding, also increase fees, making education inaccessible for many.
Subject and Course Availability: There is a regional disparity in the availability of courses. Certain regions offer generic courses with outdated syllabi, limiting students’ choices and leading to exclusion.
Surge of Empirical Orientation:
Employability Perception: Courses with empirical and practical applications, like economics, are perceived to offer better employment opportunities compared to more theoretical courses like anthropology or sociology.
Policy Intervention Skills: There is a growing expectation for social science students to develop problem-solving skills similar to those of engineering students, which narrows the focus within social sciences.
Private Universities: The emergence of private universities catering to the affluent has led to a demand for courses that are less popular in public institutions, creating a dichotomy in course preference and quality.
Improving Quality of Higher Education:
Expand Quantity and Improve Quality: Increase the number of seats to accommodate excluded students and ensure concerted efforts towards enhancing the quality of education like entry based on competitive exams.
Enhance Teaching Quality: Prioritize the improvement of teaching methods and the content of courses to make education more relevant and effective for example reviewing and taking feedback on learning experiences from students.
Address Financial Exclusion: Implement measures to reduce financial barriers and prevent the widening of educational inequalities, ensuring that quality education is accessible to a broader demographic. For example, the Government can provide loans or scholarships.
Update Course Content: Regularly revise and update the syllabi to keep pace with societal changes and technological advancements, such as generative artificial intelligence.
Focus on Inclusivity: Ensure that policies and interventions in higher education focus on inclusivity, addressing the needs of diverse student populations and reducing regional disparities in course offerings.
Steps taken by Government
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) Initiatives: The AICTE has undertaken various initiatives to enhance the quality of technical education, such as the establishment of Deen Dayal Upadhyay KAUSHAL Kendras and the introduction of B.Voc degree programs.
University Grants Commission (UGC) Regulations: The UGC has notified regulations to improve the quality of higher education, including those related to recognition, accreditation, minimum qualifications for teachers, curbing ragging, and grievance redressal.
Scholarship and Fellowship Schemes: The UGC has launched various scholarship and fellowship schemes, such as the PG Doctoral Fellowship for SC/ST students, to promote inclusion and equity in higher education.
Conclusion: Efforts to enhance higher education, including expanding access, improving quality, and addressing financial barriers, are crucial for fostering inclusivity and equipping students for India’s future.
Mains PYQ:
Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Grounds of Arrest
Why in the news?
In May 2024, the Supreme Court clearly stated its stance in two important rulings that affect the rights of individuals accused of crimes.
About Supreme Court’s Decision on Detention:
Custody Not Necessary Before Charge Sheet: The Supreme Court ruled that the custody of an accused is not mandatory before filing a charge sheet in certain criminal cases.
Relief for Investigating Agencies: This decision, if adhered to by lower courts, could alleviate pressures on investigating agencies.
Filing of Charge Sheet:Siddharth v. State of Uttar Pradesh and Another (2021)
Non-obligatory Arrest: Section 170 of the CrPC does not require investigating officers (IOs) to arrest every accused at the time of filing the charge sheet.
Acceptance of Charge Sheet: Courts cannot refuse to accept charge sheets solely because the accused is not in custody if the accused has been cooperating and is unlikely to abscond.
Practical Issues: Despite the ruling, IOs face challenges in filing charge sheets due to court practices and logistical constraints, such as the absence of all accused or arbitrary limits on the number of charge sheets accepted daily.
Grounds of Arrest:
1. Pankaj Bansal v. Union of India and Others (2023):
Written Notification Required: Grounds of arrest must be provided in writing to the accused to comply with constitutional and statutory mandates, specifically under Section 19(1) of the PMLA.
2. Prabir Purkayastha v. State (NCT of Delhi):
Application to UAPA: The requirement for written grounds of arrest under PMLA applies equally under UAPA.
Formal vs. Personal Grounds: Differentiates between formal reasons for arrest and personal grounds, necessitating detailed written reasons for arrest.
3. Criminal Procedure Code (CrPC):
Section 50(1) Compliance: Requires that every police officer inform the arrested person of the full particulars of the offence and grounds of arrest.
Arrest Memo: While arrest memos detail charges and are signed by the IO and the accused, there is no legal requirement to provide a copy to the accused.
Recommendation for Amendment: To comply with constitutional rights, it is suggested to amend the law to provide a copy of the arrest memo to the accused, enhancing transparency and legal support.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s decisions regarding the necessity of detention before charge sheet filing and the requirements for informing an accused of the grounds of arrest, highlight the implications for legal and procedural practices in India.
Mains PYQ:
Q Human right activists constantly highlight the fact that the Armed forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 (AFSPA) is a draconian act leading to cases of human right abuses by security forces. What sections of AFSPA are opposed by the activists. Critically evaluate the requirement with reference to the view held by Apex Court. (UPSC IAS/2015)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Specific criteria qualify a State for special category status
Mains level: Special category status benefits to States like Bihar
Why in the News?
Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar has renewed the State’s persistent call for special category status from the Centre, which would boost the State’s share of tax revenues from the Central government.
How does the ‘Special Category’ Status benefit the states like Bihar?
Increased Central Funds: States with special category status receive a higher share of central funds for government schemes, typically 90% from the Centre, compared to 60%-80% for other states.
Tax-Related Concessions: These states enjoy various tax concessions that can attract investments and boost economic development.
Financial Aid for Development: The additional funds can be used to address developmental gaps, improve infrastructure, and support welfare programs.
Criteria for Special Category status:
Geographic Disadvantages: States with challenging terrains such as hilly or difficult terrain.
Low Population Density or High Tribal Population: States with a considerable proportion of tribal population or low population density.
Economic and Social Backwardness: States that are economically and socially disadvantaged.
Strategic Location: States that share international borders or have strategic significance.
Why has Bihar’s demand been a long-standing issue?
Economic Backwardness: Bihar has one of the lowest per capita incomes in India and lags behind in several human development indicators.
Fiscal Challenges: The bifurcation of the state leading to the formation of Jharkhand, frequent natural disasters, and insufficient water resources for irrigation have adversely affected Bihar’s fiscal situation.
Political Reiteration: Successive Bihar governments have continuously demanded special status to help the state’s development.
What are the political implications of granting ‘Special Status’ to Bihar?
Increased Bargaining Power: Granting special status could enhance Bihar’s political leverage with the central government, especially in coalition politics.
Precedent for Other States: Granting special status to Bihar could lead to similar demands from other states, potentially creating financial burdens for the Centre.
Electoral Promises and Alliances: Political parties may use the promise of special status as an electoral tool to gain or maintain power, as seen with the Congress party’s manifesto promise in 2024.
Centre-State Relations: The decision could impact the dynamics of center-state financial relations and influence the federal structure of revenue distribution in India.
Conclusion: The Central government should establish a transparent and well-defined framework for granting special category status, taking into account various economic, geographic, and social parameters. This framework should be periodically reviewed to ensure it remains relevant and fair to all states.
Mains PYQ:
Q To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (UPSC IAS/2016)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impacts of election result
Why in the News?
The outcomes of the June 6-9 European Parliament elections, where approximately 51% of over 370 million eligible voters across 27 EU nations participated, indicated an increase in support for right-wing and far-right parties, resulting in losses for predominantly left-leaning and liberal parties.
What is the European Parliament?
The European Parliament is one of the core institutions of the European Union (EU), where Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by citizens of the 27 member states.
It provides democratic legitimacy to EU activities and consists of 720 seats allocated based on degressive proportionality, meaning smaller states elect more MEPs than their populations would warrant.
Functions of the European Parliament:
The Parliament has three main functions: adopting and amending EU legislation along with the Council of the EU, supervising the functioning of other EU institutions (especially the European Commission), and sharing authority over the EU budget with the Council.
It also ratifies international agreements and plays a crucial role in shaping the EU’s direction on various issues such as climate change, migration, and international relations.
Major Players in the New European Parliament:
MEPs are affiliated with Europe-wide political groups based on commonalities in ideology. Major groups include the European People’s Party (EPP), Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D), Renew Europe, Greens/European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA), European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR), Identity and Democracy (ID), and the Left Group (GUE/NGL).
The EPP and S&D have traditionally been the two major groups, but the Parliament has become more fragmented over time, leading to issue-based coalitions.
In the latest elections, the EPP emerged as the largest group, but right-wing and far-right parties made significant gains.
Impact on EU’s Position on Hot-Button Issues like Immigration:
The European Parliament reflects broader political trends across Europe, with right-wing parties gaining traction from issues such as increased immigration, national identity, and scepticism towards certain EU policies.
This shift towards the Right has pressured many centre-right parties to adopt harder positions on immigration, likely leading to increased support for tighter border controls and stricter immigration and asylum rules.
Impacts of election result:
The election results may influence the EU’s direction on key issues like climate change, migration, and international relations.
The rise of right-wing and far-right parties could lead to shifts in policy priorities and a more conservative stance on certain issues.
In national politics, the results may impact the stability of governments and the position of leaders like Emmanuel Macron, who called for snap polls in response to his party’s poor performance in the European elections.
Conclusion: The European Parliament election results signal a rise in right-wing parties, impacting EU policies on immigration and other key issues. National politics may also face repercussions, affecting leadership stability.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the procedures through which the Presidents of India and France are elected.(UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India’s ministerial portfolio system and its features
Why in the News?
President Droupadi Murmu administered oaths to the Central Council of Ministers (CoM) of the new NDA government, comprising a larger team compared to the previous term.
The Council includes 30 cabinet ministers, five Ministers of State (Independent Charge), and 36 Ministers of State, with the Prime Minister leading the team.
About Central Council of Ministers
The Central CoM is a crucial part of India’s governance system.
Members: It consists of the Prime Minister (Head), Cabinet Ministers, Ministers of State, and Deputy Ministers.
History:
Portfolio System: The system of the CoM finds its roots in the Indian Councils Act of 1861, introduced by Lord Canning going parallel with the British Parliamentary System.
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 74 to 78 in Part V of the Indian Constitution broadly deal with the Central Council of Ministers.
Union Executive: The Union Executive encompasses the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister, Union Council of Ministers, and Attorney General of India, collectively responsible for the country’s administration.
Role of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the head of the Central Council of Ministers, exercising executive authority and decision-making powers on key policy issues and unallocated portfolios.
Responsibilities: Prime Minister Modi oversees critical ministries such as Personnel, Public Grievances, Pensions, Department of Atomic Energy, and Department of Space, while also leading government bodies like the Cabinet Secretariat and NITI Aayog.
Functions and Duties of CoM
1. Policy Formulation and Implementation:
Formulating Policies: The Council of Ministers, particularly the Cabinet, is tasked with formulating policies crucial for the nation’s development and welfare.
Policy Coordination: It ensures coordination among various government departments and agencies for effective policy implementation.
2. Executive Functions:
Real Executive Authority: The Council of Ministers acts as the real executive authority, exercising executive powers on behalf of the President.
Administration: It oversees the day-to-day administration of the country, ensuring the smooth functioning of government affairs.
Emergency Powers: During emergencies, the Council of Ministers advises the President on the exercise of emergency powers and crisis management.
3. Legislative Functions:
Bills and Legislation: Ministers actively participate in the legislative process by introducing bills, piloting them through Parliament, and ensuring their passage.
Policy Advocacy: They advocate for government policies and bills in Parliament, engaging in debates and discussions to garner support.
Budgetary Process: The Council of Ministers prepares and presents the annual budget, guiding fiscal policies and financial allocations.
4. Financial Management:
Budget Preparation: It plays a significant role in preparing the national budget, and outlining revenue and expenditure plans for the fiscal year.
Financial Administration: The Council oversees financial administration, ensuring compliance with budgetary provisions and efficient resource utilization.
Taxation and Fiscal Policy: Ministers propose taxation measures and formulate fiscal policies to promote economic growth and stability.
Who are the Cabinet Ministers?
The Cabinet Ministers are senior members of the Central Council of Ministers who head key government departments or ministries.
Typically, Cabinet Ministers are appointed by the Prime Minister and are part of the Cabinet, which is the core decision-making body in the government.
Each Cabinet Minister typically manages a specific portfolio aligned with the government’s priorities and responsibilities.
Examples: Minister of Finance, Minister of Home Affairs, Minister of Defence, Minister of External Affairs, Minister of Health, Minister of Education, and others.
The term ‘Cabinet’ was inserted in Art. 352 of the Constitution by the 44th Amendment Act 1978.
It did not find a place in the original text of the Constitution.
Difference between Ministers of State (Independent Charge) and Ministers of State:
Ministers of State (Independent Charge)
Ministers of State
Authority
Have independent portfolios
Assist Cabinet Ministers
Reporting Structure
Directly report to PM/President
Report to and assist Cabinet Ministers
Accountability
Fully responsible for their departments
Assist Cabinet Ministers in tasks
Protocol Status
Equivalent to Cabinet Ministers in status
Lower protocol status
Attendance in Cabinet Meetings
May attend if their portfolios are discussed
Not regular attendees
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following statements:
The Council of Ministers in the Centre shall be collectively responsible to the Parliament.
The Union Ministers shall hold the office at the pleasure of the President of India.
The Prime Minister shall communicate to the President about the proposals for legislation.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2007] Assertion (A): The Council of Ministers in the Union of India is collectively responsible both to the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Reason (R): The Members of both the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha are eligible to be the Ministers of the Union Government.
Choose the correct Code:
(a) Both A are R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a correct explanation of A
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quantum Theory and related Researches, National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Why in the News?
The United Nations has designated 2025 as the ‘International Year of Quantum Science and Technology’ to increase public awareness about the significance of quantum science and its applications.
This initiative, led by Mexico and supported by nearly 60 countries, aims to promote activities at all levels to highlight the importance of quantum science and technology worldwide.
International Year of Quantum S&T
Growing Relevance: Quantum science and technologies, especially quantum computing, have gained prominence in public discourse due to their potential transformative impact on various fields.
Anniversary of Heisenberg’s Work: The proclamation coincides with the upcoming centenary of Werner Heisenberg’s groundbreaking paper on quantum mechanics, published in 1925.
Support from International Bodies: The proclamation has received endorsements from various international organisations, including the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
What does one mean by Quantum?
“Quantum” refers to the smallest discrete unit of any physical quantity involved in an interaction according to quantum theory.
In classical physics, many properties, such as energy and momentum, are thought to be continuous and infinitely divisible.
However, in quantum mechanics, certain properties, like energy levels and the behaviour of particles, are quantised, meaning they can only exist in specific discrete amounts or levels.
What is Quantum Theory?
Quantum theory is a fundamental theory in physics that provides a description of the physical properties of nature at the scale of atoms and subatomic particles.
Quantum mechanics differs from classical physics in that energy, momentum, and angular momentum.
Development in Quantum Theory So Far
Planck’s assumption: In 1900, Planck made the assumption that energy was made of individual units or quanta.
Albert Einstein’s theory: In 1905, Albert Einstein theorized that not just the energy, but the radiation itself was quantized in the same manner.
Louis de Broglie theory: In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that there is no fundamental difference in the makeup and behaviour of energy and matter; on the atomic and subatomic level either may behave as if made of either particles or waves. This theory became known as the principle of wave-particle duality: elementary particles of both energy and matter behave, depending on the conditions, like either particles or waves (wave-particle duality).
Heisenberg proposed: In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed that precise, simultaneous measurement of two complementary values – such as the position and momentum of a subatomic particle – is impossible. Contrary to the principles of classical physics, their simultaneous measurement is inescapably flawed; the more precisely one value is measured, the more flawed will be the measurement of the other value. This theory became known as the uncertainty principle, which prompted Albert Einstein’s famous comment, “God does not play dice.”
What is Entanglement?
Entanglement was another of several weird properties exhibited by these tiny particles.
Two particles, having ‘interacted’ with each other at some stage, were found to have got ‘entangled’ in a way that the behaviour of one produced an instantaneous reaction in the other even if the two were no longer connected in any way and were separated by very large distances.
The entanglement property opened up new technological possibilities first time that it was possible to ‘teleport’ the quantum states of a particle to another location without the particle moving anywhere and without a medium.
What is Superposition?
It’s a phenomenon where, a particle exists simultaneously at multiple locations, known as superposition.
The chance of finding the particle at any given place was dictated by probabilistic calculations, and once it was found, or observed, at one location, it ceased to exist at all other places.
What is Quantum Computing?
Quantum computing is a new and super powerful way of doing computer stuff.
Instead of using regular computer bits that are either 0 or 1, quantum computers use special bits called qubits that can be both 0 and 1 at the same time, thanks to a thing called “quantum superposition.”
This allows them to do lots of calculations all at once, making them really fast at solving certain types of problems.
Back2Basics: National Quantum Mission (NQM)
Details
Mission Duration
2023-2031
Implementing Authority
Department of Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science & Technology
India’s Position
Seventh country to have a dedicated quantum mission after the US, Austria, Finland, France, Canada, and China
Focus Areas
Intermediate-scale quantum computers with 50-100 physical qubits in 5 years and 50-1000 physical qubits in 8 years
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Starship space vehicle and its features
Why in the News?
SpaceX’s Starship rocket completed its first fully successful test flight. This test flight brings SpaceX closer to its goal of creating a fully reusable rocket system, a development that could revolutionize space exploration and travel.
What is Starship?
Starship is a two-stage heavy lift-off vehicle designed for crew and cargo transport to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
It stands nearly 120 meters tall, surpassing the Saturn V rocket.
The Super Heavy booster is powered by 33 Raptor engines, generating significant thrust, surpassing existing rocket systems like NASA’s Space Launch System (SLS).
Raptor engine fuel uses a mix of liquid oxygen and liquid methane, enabling efficient propulsion for the rocket.
Cost Reduction and Efficiency with Starship
Starship can carry up to 150 tonnes of payload to low-Earth orbit.
It can be refuelled in space, thereby promising a significant reduction in the cost of space travel.
In-orbit refuelling allows Starship to operate like an aeroplane, reducing downtime between missions and maximizing efficiency.
Starship’s fully reusable design minimizes the need for costly hardware replacement, unlike traditional rocket systems.
Scientific Benefits of Starship
Enhanced Payload Capability: Starship’s capacity for heavy payloads enables the launch of larger space telescopes and equipment for lunar and Martian missions.
Exploration Potential: Scientists can deploy larger and more sophisticated instruments, such as drilling rigs, to explore the Moon and Mars in unprecedented detail.
Sample Return Missions: Starship’s capability to return to Earth facilitates the retrieval of valuable samples from other planets, aiding in scientific research and understanding.
PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Optical Atomic Clock and Classical Atomic Clock; Difference between them.
Why in the News?
Atomic clocks power GPS systems, guiding us in navigation, emergencies, and military operations.
Scientists are developing optical atomic clocks to enhance timekeeping accuracy for Navies.
What are Atomic Clocks?
Atomic clocks are accurate timekeeping devices that use the vibrations of atoms as a precise measure of time.
They rely on the natural oscillations of atoms, usually Caesium or Rubidium atoms, which are extremely stable and predictable.
This stability allows atomic clocks to keep time with extraordinary accuracy, often losing or gaining less than a second over millions of years.
However they are big, need a lot of power, and are expensive, so they’re mostly used in big research places.
Working Principle:
Use of Stable Atoms: Atomic clocks use stable atoms like Cs-133 to keep time really accurate.
Atom Energy Levels: Atoms have energy levels like steps on a ladder, and they move between these levels when they’re excited.
Creating Resonance: Cesium atomic clocks make caesium atoms vibrate by using microwave radiation at a certain frequency.
Defining Time: One second is how long it takes for caesium atoms to vibrate a certain number of times, which sets the standard for time.
Accuracy Control: Atomic clocks keep themselves accurate by constantly adjusting to make sure they’re vibrating at the right rate.
Portable Optical Atomic Clocks for Maritime Use
New portable optical atomic clocks for ships are more accurate and durable, making them suitable for use at sea.
These clocks are the best at sea, which is a big deal for keeping time on ships.
How Optical Atomic Clocks Are Different?
Use of Laser: Optical atomic clocks are even more accurate because they use lasers instead of microwaves.
Operating Frequency: They work at higher frequencies, which means they can measure smaller time intervals more precisely.
Narrow Linewidths: Optical atomic clocks are really stable because they have a narrow range of frequencies, which helps them stay accurate.
Testing and Applications of Portable Optical Atomic Clocks
Initial Testing: Scientists tested the new clocks and found they were really stable and accurate, which is a big deal for keeping time.
Comparative Performance: These new clocks worked better than old ones, showing they could change how we keep time.
Sea Trials: Tests at sea showed the clocks worked well even on a moving ship, proving they could be used for navigation and other important tasks.
Do you know?
Three rubidium atomic clocks and six hydrogen maser clocks onboard the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) had failed.
The failed satellite, IRNSS-1A, is still being used for messaging activities, and the data from other operational satellites will be used to maintain the system’s functionality.
PYQ:
[2018] Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation?
[2018] With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements:
IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits.
IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders.
India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) None
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
Mains level: New Elements in the ITLOS Advisory Opinion on Climate Change
Why in the news?
On May 21, 2024, ITLOS issued an advisory opinion for COSIS, clarifying UNCLOS obligations for climate change mitigation and marine pollution control.”
About International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) is an independent judicial body established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) to adjudicate disputes arising out of the interpretation and application of the Convention.
Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law (COSIS)
It was established in 2021. COSIS was formed as an association of small island states, which are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. COSIS aims to address and mitigate the unique challenges that small island states face due to climate change.
It seeks to leverage international law to advocate for stronger climate action and protection measures.
New Elements in the ITLOS Advisory Opinion on Climate Change
Broad Interpretation of Obligations: The ITLOS extended its interpretation of obligations under UNCLOS to include not just parties to the COSIS Agreement but all states, emphasizing that climate change mitigation responsibilities apply universally.
Recognition of GHG Emissions as Marine Pollution: The Tribunal explicitly recognized anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide, as a form of marine pollution under Article 194(1) of UNCLOS, necessitating measures to prevent, reduce, and control these emissions.
Adoption of the 1.5°C Temperature Goal: The Opinion aligned necessary climate actions with the more ambitious 1.5°C global temperature goal, reflecting the latest scientific consensus and international climate commitments, thus raising the standard for state obligations under UNCLOS.
Legal Significance
Principle of Prevention and Collective Interest: The Opinion embraces the principle of prevention, typically applied bilaterally, in a collective context for addressing climate change.
Stringent Due Diligence Obligation: The ITLOS describes the obligation to take necessary measures to mitigate climate change as a due diligence obligation. However, the standard of conduct is stringent due to the high risks of serious and irreversible harm to the marine environment from GHG emissions.
General Obligation to Mitigate Climate Change: While the Opinion outlines a general obligation under Article 194(1) of the UNCLOS, it is somewhat general in nature, allowing for measures that gradually reduce GHG emissions over time. This underscores that states do not have unrestricted discretion in their climate actions.
Equity and State Capabilities: The Opinion incorporates the principle of equity, recognizing that the necessary measures for GHG reduction are subject to states’ means and capabilities. This acknowledges differences in states’ capacities to address climate change and ensures that obligations are realistic and fair.
Political Influence Despite Lack of Legal Force: Although the advisory opinion lacks binding legal force, it holds substantial political influence as an authoritative judicial pronouncement. This can guide future legal interpretations and state actions in international climate change law.
Conclusion: ITLOS plays a critical role in the interpretation and application of the law of the sea, providing a judicial forum for resolving maritime disputes and offering authoritative guidance on emerging global issues like climate change. The recent advisory opinion underscores the Tribunal’s capacity to address complex and pressing environmental challenges, contributing to the evolving landscape of international environmental law.
Mains PYQ:
Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Future Scope and Concerns associated with Indigenous Aircraft Carrier-2 (IAC-2)
Why in the news?
Recent reports from the media suggest that the Indian Navy’s persistent request for a third aircraft carrier is edging closer to reality, as Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL) prepares to commence construction on an additional Vikrant-class platform weighing approximately 40,000 tonnes.
About Indigenous Aircraft Carrier-2 (IAC-2)
The Indigenous Aircraft Carrier-2 (IAC-2) is a proposed second Indigenous aircraft carrier for the Indian Navy.
It is planned to be similar to the first indigenous aircraft carrier, INS Vikrant, but with some modifications.
The IAC-2 is expected to have a displacement of around 45,000 tonnes and will be equipped with STOBAR (short take-off but arrested recovery or short take-off, barrier-arrested recovery) technology.
Future Scope
Operational Versatility: IAC-2 will enhance the Indian Navy’s operational flexibility, enabling it to conduct a wide range of missions including power projection, maritime security, and humanitarian assistance. The carrier’s advanced capabilities and modern technologies will ensure its effectiveness in addressing evolving maritime challenges.
Strategic Deterrence: IAC-2 will serve as a key deterrent against potential adversaries, bolstering India’s maritime deterrence posture and signalling its commitment to safeguarding its maritime interests. Its presence will reinforce India’s position as a major maritime power in the Indo-Pacific region, contributing to regional stability and security.
Technological Advancement: The construction and operation of IAC-2 will drive technological innovation and advancement in India’s indigenous defence industry. It will stimulate research and development efforts, fostering self-reliance and technological sovereignty in naval defence capabilities.
Concerns associated
Budgetary issues: The estimated cost of constructing and operating IAC-2 is high, raising concerns about budgetary constraints and the allocation of resources amidst competing defence priorities.
Operational Vulnerabilities: IAC-2 may face challenges from evolving anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) strategies employed by potential adversaries such as China and Pakistan. The carrier’s large size and visibility make it susceptible to modern maritime warfare tactics, including advanced missile systems and submarine threats, potentially compromising its operational effectiveness.
Strategic Alignment: Questions may arise about the carrier’s role and relevance in addressing contemporary security threats and whether alternative defence investments would provide better national security and strategic deterrence returns.
Upgrading Capabilities as a Solution
Enhanced Airborne Capabilities: The Indian Air Force (IAF) can project maritime power using aircraft like the SEPECAT Jaguar IM/IS and Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighters, which can carry advanced maritime strike weapons. The Su-30MKI squadron, equipped with BrahMos-A supersonic cruise missiles, enhances maritime strike capabilities.
Strengthening Island Defenses: Upgrading the military capabilities of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago could create an A2/AD maritime ‘exclusive zone’, deterring Chinese naval activities.
Balanced Force Development: Diversifying investments to upgrade existing surface combatants, submarines, and air assets can provide a balanced approach to enhancing naval capabilities. Ensuring adequate funding for other critical areas like mine counter-measures, maritime patrol aircraft, and naval utility helicopters is essential for comprehensive maritime security.
Conclusion: While the IAC-2 represents a significant advancement in India’s naval capabilities, addressing financial constraints, strategic vulnerabilities, and diversifying investments in maritime and airborne assets are crucial for achieving a robust and balanced defence strategy.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the maritime security challenges in India? Discuss the organisational, technical and procedural initiatives taken to improve maritime security. (UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Benchmark for the granting of SCS
Mains level: Why is the demand for special status for Andhra Pradesh back in the political limelight?
Why in the News?
With the completion of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, the demand for Special Category Status to Andhra Pradesh is again gaining attention.
Why is the demand for special status for Andhra Pradesh back in the political limelight?
Unfulfilled Promise: Despite assurances by the previous Prime Minister and BJP leaders, the Special Category Status (SCS) promised to Andhra Pradesh post bifurcation remained unfulfilled.
Economic Struggles: Andhra Pradesh faces revenue deficits and escalating debts post-bifurcation, hampering its development projects and infrastructure initiatives.
Dependency on Central Aid: With the need for funding for critical projects like Amaravati’s development and ongoing revenue deficits, Andhra Pradesh seeks central assistance for its economic stability and growth.
Five factors stood as the qualifying benchmark for the granting of SCS
States that comprise a majority tribal population, low density of population, hilly States and close to international borders, have socio-economic and industrial backwardness and lack adequate State finances.
At present, the States that have the SCS include Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, and Uttarakhand.
Why did Chandrababu Naidu, back in 2018, settle for a special package?
Pressure from Opposition: Facing criticism and a strong opposition campaign over the unmet promise of SCS, Naidu, then allied with the NDA, agreed to a Special Package (SP) as an alternative.
Naidu’s decision to accept the SP was influenced by political considerations that included maintaining stability within the NDA alliance and counter-opposition attacks.
Is the State qualified to be granted Special Status?
Debatable Qualification: Andhra Pradesh’s eligibility for SCS is contested, with some arguing it doesn’t meet the criteria outlined for special status, including socio-economic and geographical disadvantages.
Previous Annulment: The 14th Finance Commission equated SCS with general category status and annulled it for new states, citing increased tax devolution and revenue deficit grants as alternatives.
What did the 14th Finance Commission state?
On Alternative Grants: Instead of SCS, the commission increased tax devolution to states and introduced revenue deficit grants to address fiscal disparities, providing Andhra Pradesh with financial assistance.
Scope for Review: While the 14th Finance Commission did not explicitly rule out SCS, it left the decision to the Union Government, suggesting a potential review by subsequent finance commissions and policy bodies.
Way forward:
Comprehensive Economic Reform: Implement structural reforms to boost economic growth, reduce fiscal deficits, and attract investments, ensuring sustainable development beyond dependency on special status or central aid.
Targeted Development Projects: Prioritize funding for infrastructure projects based on critical needs and potential economic returns, focusing on sectors like agriculture, manufacturing, and technology to drive growth and employment.
Mains PYQ:
Q The political and administrative reorganization of states and territories has been a continuous ongoing process since the mid-nineteenth century. Discuss with examples. (UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constitutional mandate of the Speaker
Mains level: Powers of the Speaker
Why in the News?
The pivotal role of the Speaker in parliamentary democracy is underscored as both the TDP and JD(U), crucial allies within the NDA, compete for the position, highlighting its significance.
Constitutional Mandate:
Speaker and Deputy Speaker are elected as per Article 93 of the Constitution, with the Speaker chosen by a simple majority.
The speaker’s term ends with the House dissolution and no-confidence motion can be moved against the Speaker.
No specific qualifications for the Speaker, who is distinct from other members.
Powers of the Speaker
Conducting the House: The Speaker decides House conduct and government business, ensuring adherence to rules, crucial for opposition participation. There are Rules and Procedure for the functioning of the House, but the Speaker has vast powers in ensuring these Rules are followed, and in choosing procedures.
Questions & Records: The Speaker holds authority over determining the validity of queries raised by members and overseeing the publication of House proceedings. The Speaker possesses the power to remove, wholly or partially, statements deemed unparliamentary.
Voice Votes, Division: The speaker can push bills through by voice vote or division, crucial for the legislative process.
As per the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, if the Speaker thinks that is “unnecessarily claimed”, simply ask the members who are for ‘Aye’ and those for ‘No’ respectively to rise in their places and decide.
No-Confidence Motion: A pivotal moment where the Speaker’s neutrality significantly affects the Opposition is during the presentation of a motion of no-confidence against the government.
In 2018, when notices for a no-confidence motion were submitted by the YSRCP and TDP, Speaker Sumitra Mahajan postponed the House multiple times before acknowledging the motion and conducting the vote.
Casting Vote: As per Article 100 of the Constitution, pertaining to voting in the Houses, the Chairperson of the Rajya Sabha or the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, or any individual acting in such a capacity, “shall refrain from voting initially but must cast a deciding vote in the event of a tie.”
His Removal:
Motion: A member of the Lok Sabha gives a written notice for the removal of the Speaker, citing specific grounds such as misconduct or inability to perform duties.
Support: The motion needs support from at least 50 members to be admitted for discussion in the House.
Resolution: Once admitted, the House discusses the motion. If the majority of members present and voting support the motion, a resolution for the Speaker’s removal is passed.
Note: During the process of removal of the Lok Sabha Speaker in India, the Speaker typically remains present and presides over the proceedings until the resolution for their removal is passed. The Speaker maintains their role in overseeing the House’s functioning unless and until the majority of members vote in favor of the motion to remove them. Once the resolution is passed and approved by the President, the Speaker ceases to hold office and their duties are formally relinquished.
Disqualification of Members
Power of the Speaker: The Speaker of the House holds the authority to disqualify legislators who defect from their party, as per the provisions of the Tenth Schedule.
Introduction of the Anti-Defection Law: The Tenth Schedule, also known as the anti-defection law, was incorporated into the Constitution in 1985 through the Fifty-Second (Amendment) Act.
Judicial Review: The Supreme Court, in the landmark case of Kihoto Hollohan versus Zachillhu in 1992, upheld the power vested in the Speaker to decide on defection cases. It ruled that only the final order of the Speaker is subject to judicial review.
Impact on Government Stability: Defections can change the numerical strength of political parties in the House, potentially destabilizing governments if members defect in significant numbers. Timely action by the Speaker in disqualifying defective members is crucial to maintaining the integrity of the Tenth Schedule and ensuring that governments retain their majority.
Supreme Court Directives: The Supreme Court has issued directives emphasizing the need for Speakers to expedite disqualification proceedings. For instance, in 2020, it ruled that Speakers must decide on disqualification pleas within three months, except in exceptional circumstances.
Impact on Government Formation: Delays in deciding disqualification petitions can have significant political ramifications, as seen in cases where governments have collapsed due to prolonged delays in addressing defection issues.
Case Example: In 2023, the Supreme Court directed the Maharashtra Assembly Speaker to expedite disqualification proceedings against members of factions within the Shiv Sena party. Prolonged delays in these proceedings contributed to the collapse of the government led by Uddhav Thackeray.
Conclusion: The Speaker holds significant powers in conducting the House, ensuring adherence to rules, deciding on crucial matters like no-confidence motions, and maintaining political stability through the judicious application of these powers.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker’! Do you think this practice should be adopted to impart objectivity to the office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha? What could be its implications for the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India? (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coronal Mass Ejection, Aditya L1 and its various payloads
Why in the News?
India’s solar mission Aditya-L1 recently captured images of the Sun and it’s Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) during a solar storm in May.
The Active region AR13664 on the Sun erupted several X-class and M-class flares, which were associated with Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs).
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
CMEs were discovered in 1971 and established their importance in solar-terrestrial relations later in the 1980s.
It consists of massive clouds of solar plasma and magnetic field lines.
It typically accompanies solar flares and filament eruptions.
The frequency of CMEs varies with the 11-year solar cycle, with about one a week observed during solar minimum and an average of two to three CMEs per day observed near solar maximum
They travel at thousands of km per hour.
They can lead to geomagnetic storms, aurorae, and in extreme cases, damage to electrical power grids.
Not all CMEs interact with Earth, but those that do can cause disruptions to satellite communications and power grids.
Halo CMEs are Earth-directed CMEs visible as rings in white-light coronagraph observations.
About Aditya-L1:
Aditya-L1 mission is India’s first space mission to observe the Sun.
It is ISRO’s 2nd space-based astronomy mission after AstroSat, which was launched in 2015.
It was launched on September 2nd 2023 to observe the Sun and the solar corona.
The L1 point is a location in space where the gravitational forces of two massive objects, such as the Earth and the Sun, balance each other out, allowing a spacecraft to “hover” in a stable orbit.
Launch Details:
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) with 7 payloads (instruments) on board.
The 7 payloads include:
Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC): Images of the solar corona in visible light to study its structure and dynamics.
Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (SUIT): Images the solar chromosphere and transition region in ultraviolet light to understand heating and dynamics.
Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer (SoLEXS): Measures solar X-ray spectrum to study solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer (HEL1OS): Measures high-energy solar X-rays to understand particle acceleration.
Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya (PAPA): Measures solar wind plasma properties to study its interaction with Earth’s magnetosphere.
Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment (ASPEX): Measures energetic particle properties in the solar wind to study their effects on Earth’s atmosphere.
Solar Irradiance Monitor (SIM): Measures solar irradiance variations and their impact on Earth’s climate.
Objectives:
Aditya L1 will study the coronal heating, solar wind acceleration, coronal magnetometry, origin and monitoring of near-UV solar radiation and continuously observe the photosphere, chromosphere and corona, solar energetic particles and the magnetic field of the Sun.
Location:
Aditya is placed in L1 Halo orbit which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth. The orbit allows the mission to look at the Sun continuously.
L1 refers to Lagrangian/Lagrange Point 1, one of 5 points in the orbital plane of the Earth-Sun system.
Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two-body system like the Sun and Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
PYQ:
[2017] The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, ‘String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of-
(a) Observation and understanding of the Universe
(b) Study of the solar and lunar eclipses
(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth
(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth
