Q) Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC CSE 2017)
Q) ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Note4Students:
Prelims: Supreme court judgements related to climate change impact,
Mains: Role of state and local Government to address the impact of climate change,
Mentor comment: Climate change poses grave threats to human rights, including the rights to life, health, food, water, housing, and an adequate standard of living. Extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and environmental degradation disproportionately impact vulnerable populations. Governments have a legal obligation to curb climate change, and corporations must respect human rights by reducing emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Addressing climate change is crucial to upholding human rights and ensuring a sustainable future for all.
Let’s learn!
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Why in the news?
In a landmark judgment, the Supreme Court of India recently recognized a right to be “free from the adverse impacts of climate change” in “M.K. Ranjitsinh and Others vs Union of India”, deriving it from the right to life and the right to equality.
Law to inform development choices
Integrating Climate Objectives into Development: Ensure that low-carbon and climate-resilient futures are prioritized in routine decision-making at all levels of development. Embed climate objectives in the legal framework to guide sustainable development choices.
Grounding Climate Action in Social Justice: Design laws to protect vulnerable populations disproportionately affected by climate change. Ensure the energy transition is just and equitable, advancing social justice and inclusive development.
Adopting a Comprehensive and Flexible Approach: Move beyond top-down emission targets to address broader developmental choices and their long-term impacts. Establish well-defined legal procedures that promote continuous consideration of low-carbon and climate-resilient futures.
Building a Robust Institutional Framework: Create an institutional structure to strategize, prioritize, troubleshoot, and evaluate climate policies. Enhance governance capacity to ensure credible and accountable climate action across all levels of government.
Tailoring Framework Climate Laws to the Indian Context: Adapt elements of global framework climate laws to suit India’s specific needs, focusing on maximising development per unit of carbon emitted. Emphasize climate resilience and social equity, ensuring development progresses in a low-carbon direction while building resilience to pervasive climate impacts.
Need for a Low-Carbon Development Body
Rigorous Policy Analysis and Knowledge Generation: Establish a knowledge body in government to rigorously analyze policy options and their potential futures. Enable informed decision-making through a comprehensive understanding of low-carbon development and resilience strategies.
Expertise and Technical Guidance: Create an independent ‘low-carbon development commission’ staffed with experts and technical personnel. Provide national and state governments with practical guidance on achieving low-carbon growth and resilience.
Deliberative Decision-Making and Stakeholder Consultation: Facilitate a platform for deliberative decision-making involving multiple stakeholders. Systematically consult vulnerable communities and those adversely affected by technological changes to ensure their concerns are heard and integrated, leading to more sustainable and inclusive policy outcomes.
Strategic Direction and Whole-of-Government Coordination: Form a high-level strategic body, or ‘climate cabinet,’ comprising key Ministers and representation from State Chief Ministers to drive climate strategy across government. Address the challenge of siloed decision-making by promoting a whole-of-government approach with dedicated coordination mechanisms.
Enhanced Governance and Legal Empowerment: Complement the role of the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change with higher-level coordination bodies. Reinforce existing structures like the Executive Committee on Climate Change with clearly defined legal powers and duties to ensure effective implementation and accountability in climate governance.
Role of State and Local Governments in Climate Law
Engagement with Federal Structure: Recognize the importance of India’s federal structure in climate governance. Acknowledge that crucial areas for emission reduction and resilience improvement, such as electricity, agriculture, water, health, and soil, are managed by State and local governments.
First Responders to Climate Impacts: Understand that climate impacts are felt first and most intensely at local levels. Ensure that any institutional structure or regulatory instrument engages meaningfully with subnational governments.
Access to National Scientific Capacity: Establish channels for subnational governments to access national scientific resources and expertise. Utilize the low-carbon development commission as an intermediary to enhance local climate scientific capacity.
Financing Local Action: Develop mechanisms for financing local climate actions. Align centrally-sponsored schemes with climate goals and require national departments to climate-tag expenditures to enhance local climate resilience.
Coordination Mechanisms and Unified Goals: Create coordination mechanisms for the Centre and States to consult on major climate decisions. Require periodic updates of medium-term climate plans from both Centre and States, built around unified climate goals.
State-Specific Solutions and Institutions: Enable States to develop complementary institutions to those at the Centre, providing local knowledge, strategy-setting, deliberation, and coordination functions. Foster the development of State-specific solutions that address unique local climate challenges.
Steps taken by Government to address the impact of climate change:
International Solar Alliance (ISA): Launched in 2015, this alliance aims to efficiently utilize solar energy and reduce dependence on non-renewable sources like fossil fuels.
One Sun, One World, One Grid (OSOWOG) project with the UK: This project aims to build and scale inter-regional energy grids to share solar energy globally.
Swachh Bharat Mission: This program emphasized cleaning India’s cities and villages by providing toilets for every household.
National Clean Air Programme: Launched in 2019 to reduce particulate matter concentrations in the atmosphere.
Green Skill Development Programme: Launched to develop green skills and provide employment in the environment and forest sectors.
Commitment to get 50% of energy from renewable sources and reduce total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030: The government aims to ensure sustainable development of the environment.
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid & Electric Vehicles (FAME) India scheme: Launched in 2015 to promote electric vehicles and decrease coal consumption.
Way forward:
Strengthen Institutional and Legal Frameworks: Establish robust institutions like an independent low-carbon development commission to provide expert guidance, facilitate stakeholder consultations, and ensure informed decision-making.
Promote Inclusive and Equitable Climate Action: Integrate social equity considerations into climate policies by systematically consulting vulnerable communities and those affected by technological changes.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About Hepatitis A, B, C ;
Mains level: Diseases and their successful case studies in Federal states;
Why in the News?
Hepatitis A infection in Kerala is shifting from early childhood to adolescents and young adults due to better sanitation and hygiene practices.
The inclusion of hepatitis A vaccination into the mainstream immunization program for both one-year-old children and 15-year-old individuals in Kerala shows cost-effectiveness and success.
Present State in Kerala and Overall India:
At the Regional level (Kerala): Kerala has been experiencing regular hepatitis A outbreaks, with the 2024 outbreak being particularly severe.
As of May 30, over 2,400 cases and 18 deaths have been reported, mainly in districts like Kozhikode, Malappuram, Thrissur, and Ernakulam.
At the National Level: Severity in Different Age Groups: Almost 50% of children aged 1-5 years in India were found to be susceptible to the hepatitis A virus.
However, the hepatitis A vaccine is currently only available for those who can afford it, and is not part of the national immunization program.
About Hepatitis A infection:
The infection is usually mild or asymptomatic in children under six years but can be symptomatic and severe in older children, adolescents, and adults, occasionally leading to liver injury and fatalities.
India has recently launched its first indigenously developed hepatitis A vaccine, called Havisure:
Havisure was launched in January 2024 by Indian Immunologicals Limited (IIL), a subsidiary of the National Dairy Development Board.
IIL plans to manufacture up to 1 million doses of Havisure per year initially, focusing on the domestic market first.
Types of Hepatitis
Cause
Vaccine
Hepatitis A (HAV)
Spread through ingestion of contaminated food or water.
Hepatitis A vaccine (e.g., Havrix, Vaqta)
Hepatitis B (HBV)
Spread through contact with infectious body fluids (blood, semen, etc.)
Hepatitis B vaccine (e.g., Engerix-B, Recombivax HB)
Hepatitis C (HCV)
Spread primarily through blood-to-blood contact, often via injection drug use or unsafe medical procedures.
No vaccine is available currently. Treatment focuses on antiviral medications
Hepatitis D (HDV)
Requires HBV as a co-infection to cause illness.
No specific vaccine for HDV. Prevention relies on hepatitis B vaccination.
Hepatitis E (HEV)
Spread through ingestion of contaminated water, similar to HAV
A vaccine is available in some regions (e.g., Hecolin in China), but not widely used. Prevention mainly involves improving sanitation and safe drinking water
Benefits of Hepatitis A Vaccination in Kerala:
Lifelong Immunity: Vaccination provides lifelong immunity against the hepatitis A virus, protecting individuals from severe infections and health complications later in life.
Less Out-of-Pocket Expenditure: Studies have shown that vaccinating children aged one year and adolescents aged 15 years in Kerala using either live attenuated or inactivated vaccines is cost-effective.
Vaccination prevents future healthcare expenditures associated with treating hepatitis A infections.
Increase in Household savings: Implementing vaccination for adolescents could save Kerala ₹5,872 million to ₹10,553 million over five years, depending on the type of vaccine used.
Equal and Universal Accessibility: Due to the inclusion in the universal immunization program, these vaccines are accessible throughout all sections of society, whether rich or poor.
Government Initiatives:
National Viral Hepatitis Control Program (NVHCP): The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare launched the NVHCP in July 2018 to prevent and control viral hepatitis in India.
The program aims to combat hepatitis and achieve country-wide elimination of hepatitis C by 2030, reduce morbidity and mortality associated with hepatitis B and C, and reduce the risk, morbidity, and mortality due to hepatitis A and E.
State-Level Initiatives: Some states like Punjab, Assam, Manipur, Tripura, and Haryana have started free or subsidized hepatitis C treatment programs.
Haryana launched its own Hepatitis Control Program in 2013 at PGIMS Rohtak, which was later expanded to all district civil hospitals in the state in 2017.
What is the Prime challenge?
Achieving high vaccination coverage among adolescents, who are not covered under the universal immunization program, remains a challenge. Strategies such as school-based vaccination campaigns are proposed to enhance this kind of coverage.
Conclusion: Implement targeted vaccination campaigns in schools and communities to ensure high coverage among adolescents aged 15 years, who are not currently included in Kerala’s universal immunization program. This can be achieved through collaboration with schools, healthcare providers, and community organizations to raise awareness and facilitate easy access to vaccinations.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines? (UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Motion of Thanks; Parliamentary privileges; Article 87; Rajya Sabha and Loksabha Rules;
Mains level: Can a member of the Lok Sabha direct a remark against a Minister?
Why in the News?
The 18th Lok Sabha’s special session featured intense debates on the ‘Motion of Thanks’ to the President’s address, culminating in disputes over expunged remarks by Opposition leaders.
What are expunged remarks?
Expunged remarks in Parliament refer to the words deemed defamatory, indecent, or unparliamentary by the presiding officer and are deleted from the official record.
What is a ‘Motion of Thanks’?
A Motion of Thanks is moved in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha after the President’s address (Article 87) by an MP of the ruling party, following which it is debated in both the Houses.
It is a customary practice, adopted from the British Parliament. The Indian Constitution does not provide for any such motion, except direction that each House shall discuss the matters contained in the address.
In most cases, three days are set aside for a discussion of the Motion of Thanks and the members are at liberty to speak on any matter of national or international importance and other issues.
Why did the Opposition engage in a war of words with the government over expunging certain remarks?
The expunging of critical remarks escalated tensions between the Opposition and the government, leading to a verbal clash during the parliamentary session.
There were concerns about transparency in the expunction process, with accusations of biased decisions by the presiding officers.
The opposition alleged that there were different standards for expunging remarks made by their leaders compared to those made by ruling party members.
Opposition members argued that their remarks critical of the Prime Minister and the ruling party were unfairly expunged, infringing on their Parliamentary Privilege of Free speech.
What is the process for ‘expunging remarks’ in Parliament?
Presiding Officer’s Discretion: Under Rule 261 in Rajya Sabha and Rules 380 and 381 in Lok Sabha, the Chairman or Speaker can order expunction if words are deemed defamatory, indecent, unparliamentary, or undignified.
If objectionable words are used, the Chair may request their withdrawal; if not complied with, the words are expunged immediately.
Recording Changes: Expunged portions are marked with asterisks and a footnote explaining that they were expunged as ordered by the Chair.
Publication Restrictions: Media are provided with a list of expunged words/phrases and are prohibited from publishing them to avoid a breach of parliamentary privilege.
Can a member of the Lok Sabha direct a remark against a Minister?
Parliamentary Privilege: Members of Parliament (MPs) have the privilege of ‘Freedom of Speech and Expression’ within the House.
This includes the right to question the conduct, policies, or actions of Ministers during parliamentary debates without fear of legal repercussions.
Procedural Requirements: According to parliamentary rules (Rule 353 in Lok Sabha), if an MP wishes to make an allegation against a Minister, they are required to provide advance notice.
This notice allows the Minister in question to prepare a response or provide facts to address the allegation during the debate.
Government Accountability: MPs play a crucial role in holding the government accountable to Parliament and the public. Allegations made against Ministers are part of this oversight function, ensuring transparency and accountability in governance.
However, these allegations must be made in adherence to parliamentary decorum and procedural rules to maintain fairness and order in debates.
What do the various rules state?
Rajya Sabha (Rule 261): Allows the Chairman to expunge defamatory, indecent, unparliamentary, or undignified words from proceedings.
Lok Sabha (Rules 380 and 381): Similar provisions for the Speaker to expunge objectionable remarks from parliamentary records.
Scope of Expunction: Rules also cover situations where remarks are detrimental to the national interest, offensive to dignitaries, or likely to affect religious or communal sensitivities.
Digital Age Challenges: Despite expunction, digital recordings and social media can perpetuate expunged remarks, challenging the effectiveness of traditional expunction practices.
Way forward:
Enhanced Monitoring and Control: Implement advanced monitoring tools that can detect and automatically blur or mute expunged remarks in live broadcasts and recordings of parliamentary proceedings. This can help prevent the inadvertent spread of expunged content on digital platforms.
Public Awareness and Education: Encourage responsible reporting and sharing practices to uphold the integrity of expunctions in parliamentary records.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker’! Do you think this practice should be adopted to impart objectivity to the office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha? What could be its implications for the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India? (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About the 2019 National Research Foundation (NRF) Project Report
Mains level: Steps taken by Government for RD
Why in the News?
In 2023, the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) Bill was passed by both Houses of Parliament, heralding a significant new initiative aimed at promoting and advancing research in India, particularly within the country’s universities and colleges.
About 2019 National Research Foundation (NRF) Project Report
Objective: The 2019 NRF project report emphasized the goal of seeding, growing, and facilitating research in India, particularly within universities and colleges.
Aim: The project aimed to create an environment where research could thrive free from bureaucratic constraints, providing a funding boost and fostering collaboration with industry partners.
Scope and Structure: NRF will have five major divisions: Sciences, Technology, Social Sciences, Humanities, and Arts
Priority: A top priority mentioned in the report was “growing outstanding research cells already existing at State Universities.”
Lack of Industry Representation in India:
Governing Bodies Composition: The ANRF Governing Board and Executive Council lack representation from key organizations, such as Central and State universities or colleges.
Current Members: Members primarily include Secretaries from various government science departments, directors of top research institutions, and international figures, but not from Indian industry or local academia.
Industry and Academia Input: There is a critical need for representatives who understand the practical challenges and bottlenecks of the current university system and have ground-level experience.
Diversity Issues: There is minimal representation from the industry and a lack of diversity, with the sole industry representative being an Indian-American based in Silicon Valley and the only woman representative being the Secretary of the DSIR.
R&D underfunding:
Current Funding Levels: India significantly underfunds research and development, allocating less than 1% of GDP to R&D. There is a pressing need to increase this to at least 4% to make Indian innovation globally competitive.
Systemic Overhaul: The current funding system requires a significant overhaul to boost research. This includes implementing a robust grant management system, ensuring timely disbursal of funds, and minimizing bureaucratic hurdles at both the funding body and grantee institutions.
Grant and Fellowship Disbursal: Timely disbursal of research grants and student fellowships is crucial. The aim should be a quick turnaround time of less than six months between application and fund disbursal to maintain the momentum of research activities.
Flexibility in Spending: Researchers need flexibility in spending research funds. The current system’s stringent general financial rules (GFR) and the requirement to use the Government e-marketplace (GeM) portal can hinder efficient resource utilization.
Diverse and Competent Leadership: The ANRF should be staffed with diverse representatives from practising natural and social scientists, young entrepreneurs, and women.
Other steps taken by the Government:
Atal Innovation Mission (AIM): It is a flagship initiative to promote innovation and entrepreneurship in the country. It aims to create an ecosystem for innovation and provide support to startups through incubators, accelerators, and mentorship programs.
Impacting Research Innovation and Technology (IMPRINT) Program: IMPRINT is a joint initiative of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Science and Technology to promote translational research.
Uchhatar Avishkar Yojana (UAY): UAY is a scheme to promote industry-specific need-based research in premier institutions.
Conclusion: The ANRF should actively involve representatives from both Indian industry and academia in its Governing Board and Executive Council. This inclusion will ensure that decision-making processes are informed by practical insights and ground-level experiences.
Mains PYQ:
Q Scientific research in Indian universities is declining, because a career in science is not as attractive as are business professions, engineering or administration, and the universities are becoming consumer-oriented. Critically comment. (UPSC IAS/2014)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Who are Gig workers?
Mains level: Why are safeguards necessary for Gig workers?
Why in the News?
The Karnataka government released the draft of the Karnataka Platform-based Gig Workers (Social Security and Welfare) Bill, becoming the second Indian state to take such an initiative, following Rajasthan.
Who are the Gig workers?
Gig workers are independent contractors, freelancers, or temporary workers who are hired for specific projects or tasks, often through online platforms, rather than being employed in traditional long-term employer-employee relationships.
Key highlight of the Bill proposed for the welfare of gig workers:
Social Security and Welfare Fund: Establishment of a welfare boards, social security and welfare fund for gig workers, funded by a welfare fee on transactions or company turnover, and contributions from the Union and State governments.
Grievance Redressal Mechanism: Introduction of a two-level grievance redressal mechanism to address workers’ complaints and ensure transparency in the automated monitoring and decision-making systems used by platforms.
Fair Termination Procedures: Requirement for contracts to list exhaustive grounds for termination, with a 14-day prior notice and valid reasons in writing needed before terminating a worker.
Payment and Deductions: Mandate weekly payments to workers, with clear communication regarding any payment deductions, and the right for workers to refuse a specified number of gigs per week without adverse consequences.
Safe Working Conditions and Contract Transparency: Obligation for aggregators to provide reasonable and safe working conditions, registration of all gig workers, and contracts to be written in simple language with a 14-day notice for any changes, allowing workers to terminate the contract without losing existing entitlements.
What are the impacts of the labour market in a larger domain, and why are safeguards necessary?
Lack of Basic Rights and Social Security: Gig workers are often classified as “partners” rather than employees, leaving them security outside the purview of labour protection laws and without access to basic rights and social benefits.
Arbitrary Terminations and Lack of Grievance Redressal: Instances of arbitrary terminations, blacklisting, and dismissals without hearing the worker’s side are common in the absence of regulatory laws. Automated monitoring and decision-making systems often make these decisions, leaving no room for grievance redressal.
Reduced Payments and Exploitation: Over the years, gig workers have faced reduced payments, arbitrary deductions, and exploitation due to the lack of regulatory laws governing the gig economy.
The wide gap between the purchasing power of these workers and the affluent consumers they serve raises questions about the long-term sustainability of this model.
Need for Transparency and Fair Contracts: The absence of transparency in automated monitoring systems and decision-making by platforms, as well as the lack of fair contracts, has led to the exploitation of gig workers.
There is a need for the state to review contract templates and ensure fair contracts with gig workers.
Lack of Access to Credit and Skill Development: Gig workers often lack access to credit and skill development opportunities, hindering their growth and formalization.
There is a need for enabling platforms to provide these benefits to gig workers.
State-level and National level Initiatives taken previously:
Code on Social Security, 2020: At the national level, the Code on Social Security, 2020 recognized those who freelance or work under short-term contracts. It mandated employers to provide benefits similar to those of regular employees to gig workers.
Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act: Rajasthan became the first state to introduce a bill for the welfare of gig workers in 2023.
The bill, which became an Act in September 2023, sought to establish a welfare board and fund for gig workers.
However, the Act has gone into cold storage after the changed government in November 2023.
Haryana Gig Workers Welfare Board Bill: The bill aims to establish a state-level board dedicated to the social and economic security of gig workers involved in delivering goods, services, and food at doorsteps.
Case study:
In California (USA), the Proposition 22 ballot measure allows app-based transportation and delivery companies to classify drivers as independent contractors while providing them with some benefits like a health insurance subsidy and minimum earnings guarantee.
New York City (USA) has passed legislation requiring food delivery apps to provide workers with benefits like paid sick leave and minimum pay.
Way forward:
Unified Legislation: Introduce a comprehensive national-level legal framework specifically addressing the rights and welfare of gig workers. This legislation should encompass social security, fair wages, occupational safety, and grievance redressal mechanisms.
Strict Enforcement: Ensure robust enforcement of these laws through dedicated government bodies and regular audits of gig economy platforms. Penalties for non-compliance should be substantial enough to deter exploitative practices.
Mains PYQ:
Q Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (UPSC IAS/2021)
There have been four cases, including three deaths, of the rare, but fatal brain-eating primary amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) in Kerala in the last two months.
What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?
PAM is a rare brain infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba found in warm freshwater and soil worldwide.
An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.
Diagnosis and Treatment:
Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
Treatment followsCDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chandravalli Caves
Why in the News?
Observations made by previous historians who had found painted pottery and coins from the Shatavahana empire and the pre-historic period were once again in the news.
About Chandravalli Caves (also known as Ankali Math)
Chandravalli, a cave temple near Chitradurga, is also a pre-historic site.
Observations at the Site:
Previous excavations were carried out by Mortimer Wheeler under the guidance of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1947.
The cave features multiple chambers including a puja place with a shivlinga, a drawing room, a bedroom, and a water outlet connected to an internal tank.
The caves are accessible only through a narrow entrance, with interiors visible only with the help of a powerful torch hence they are also called as “Dark Caves”.
Presently, Excavations have revealed artifacts such as coins, painted bowls, and earthen pots from various dynasties such as the Hoysala, the Satavahana, and the Vijayanagara.
Excavation reports show that human habitation existed here even during the Iron Age.
Historical Aspect:
They were named after a saint from Ankalagi in Belagavi district who is believed to have settled here.
The cave also contains a rock inscription of Mayurasharma, the founder of the Kadamba dynasty, dating back to AD 450.
About Kadamba dynasty
The Kadambas of Goa were vassals of the Chalukya dynasty of Kalyana. In recognition of his assistance in defeating the Rashtrakutas, Chalukyan emperor Tailapa II appointed Kadamba Shasthadeva as the provincial governor (Mahamandaleshwara) of Goa.
In 960 AD, Shasthadeva captured the city of Chandavara from the Shilaharas and later seized control of the port of Gopakapattana, which is present-day Goa.
Talara Nevayya’s son Gundayya may have fought alongside Shasthadeva in the conquest of the port but died in the battle after successfully capturing it.
Coins from Indian kings like Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Krishnadevaraya, various Satavahana kings, and Viraraya of the Hoysala kingdom have been discovered.
Among the foreign coins found are denarii of Roman ruler Augustus Caesar and a coin of Chinese Han dynasty Emperor Wu Ti.
Geographical Aspects:
The area is semi-arid with scrub vegetation and a stream running through it.
These caves are surrounded by three hills: Chitradurga, Kirabanakallu, and Jolagudda.
PYQ:
[2021] Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora river.
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal river.
(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada river.
(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari river.
Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
This trend, aimed at reducing import duties by the traders, poses potential long-term revenue losses for India.
India’s Silver Imports
India imported a record 4,172 metric tons of silver in the first four months of 2024, far exceeding the total of 3,625 tons imported in all of 2023.
In February 2024 alone, India imported a record 2,295 metric tons of silver, up from 637 tons in January. This represents a 260% increase.
The surge in imports has been driven by increasing demand from the Solar panel industryas well as a rise in Speculative Investment, with investors betting on silver outperforming gold.
Nearly half of India’s silver imports in 2024 so far have come from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) due to a lower import duty under the India-UAE Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
India generally imposes a 15% import duty on silver.
However, because of the CEPA signed between India and the UAE in 2022, allows private traders to import silver through the India International Bullion Exchange (IIBX) paying 9% duty, and an extra 3% in value-added tax.
The government is now concerned about the 647-fold spike in silver imports from the UAE and plans to discuss the issue with Abu Dhabi.
The Gift City exchange, while clearing imports from Dubai since December 2023, is under scrutiny for potential violations of these rules compared to imports from other ports.
About India International Bullion Exchange (IIBX)
Bullion refers to physical gold and silver of high purity that is often kept in the form of bars, ingots, or coins.
The IIBX was announced during the 2020 budget speech by the Finance Minister.
It is set up at the International Financial Services Center (IFSC) located in GIFT City, Gandhinagar.
It is India’s first bullion exchange, launched on 29 July 2022 in Gujarat.
It is the 3rd exchange of its kind in the globe.
Regulations and Setup:
The International Financial Services Centres Authority (Bullion Exchange) Regulations, 2020, were notified in December 2020 specifically for the trading of precious metals, including gold and silver.
These regulations encompass the operations of the bullion exchange, Clearing Corporation, depository, and vaults associated with IIBX.
Operational Framework
Previously, India had liberalized gold imports through nominated banks and agencies in the 1990s.
With IIBX, eligible qualified jewellers in India can directly import gold.
Jewellers need to become trading partners or clients of an existing trading member to participate in the exchange.
Comparison with Previous Practices
Previously, bullion in India was imported under a consignment modelby nominated banks and agencies approved by the RBI, which added handling fees and premiums.
The introduction of IIBX aims to streamline the supply chain by allowing direct imports through the exchange, potentially reducing costs for traders and consumers alike.
Recommendations for Addressing Challenges
Renegotiation of CEPA Terms: The Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) advocates for revising CEPA terms to curb duty arbitrage and enforce stricter checks on value addition claims by Gift City exchange.
Enhanced Regulatory Oversight: GTRI proposes limiting silver imports to RBI/DGFT-nominated agencies to mitigate risks associated with mis-declared imports and ensure compliance with CEPA conditions.
Investigation and Oversight: There is a call for a thorough investigation into relationships between export and import firms to identify and mitigate conflicts of interest or familial ties that could influence import practices.
PYQ:
[2016] What is/are the purpose/purposes of Government’s ‘Sovereign Gold Bond Scheme’ and ‘Gold Monetization Scheme’?
To bring the idle gold lying with Indian households into the economy.
To promote FDI in the gold and jewellery sector.
To reduce India’s dependence on gold imports.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: General Zorawar; LT Zorawar
Why in the News?
The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and private company Larsen & Toubro (L&T) unveiled the prototype of the Zorawar light tank.
Note:
India primarily has T-90S Bhishma and T-72 Ajeya produced under license from Russia.
The Future Ready Combat Vehicle (FRCV) program aims to develop and induct next-generation Indigenous main battle tanks to replace the ageing T-72 fleet starting from 2030 onwards
What is Zorawar Tank?
The Zorawar Tank was developed jointly by the DRDO and Larsen & Toubro (L&T).
It is an indigenous light tank designed specifically for operations in high-altitude regions like Ladakh and Sikkim.
It has been developed under ‘Project Zorawar’, named after General Zorawar Singh of Jammu.
Its prototype was unveiled in July 2023, with internal testing completed at L&T’s facility in Gujarat.
It has been scheduled for extensive trials in various conditions, including summer, winter, and high-altitude environments, with plans for inductionby August 2025.
Who was General Zorawar Singh (1784–1841)?
Zorawar Singh Chandel was a military general of theDogra Rajput ruler, Gulab Singh of Jammu.
He served as the governor (wazir-e-wazarat) of Kishtwar and extended the territories of the kingdom by conquering Ladakh and Baltistan.
He also boldly attempted the conquest of Western Tibet (Ngari Khorsum) but was killed in battle of To-yo during the Dogra-Tibetan war.
About his legacy of conquests in the Himalayas including Ladakh, Tibet, Baltistan and Skardu as General and Wazir, Zorowar Singh has been referred to as the “Napoleon of India“, and “Conqueror of Ladakh“.
Operational Capabilities:
Designed to operate effectively in extreme weather conditions and at high altitudes (above 15,000 feet) with minimal logistic support.
Intended for use in challenging terrains where heavier tanks like T-72 and T-90 face limitations.
Includes thermal sights, night-fighting capabilities, and features to reduce visual, sound, heat, and electromagnetic signatures.
Technical Specifications:
Weight: Approximately 25 tons, allowing for air transportation.
Armament: Equipped with a 105mm turret from John Cockerill.
Firepower: Capable of firing advanced smart munitions and anti-tank guided missiles.
Mobility: Agile and manoeuvrable on steep slopes and riverine regions, designed to be amphibious.
Engine and Power:
Initially planned with a German engine, but due to delays, currently powered by a Cummins engine assembled in India.
DRDO is concurrently working on developing a new power pack and a 1400 HP engine to enhance performance.
Various Indigenous Tanks in the Indian Army
Features
Vijayanta (1965)
First indigenous main battle tank of the Indian Army
Based on a licensed design of the Vickers Mk.1 tank
Equipped with a 105mm rifled gun
Top speed of 52 km/h and range of 201 km
Crew of 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
Upgrades included an improved fire control system, armour, and engine
Arjun (2004)
India’s first fully Indigenous main battle tank developed by the Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment
Equipped with a 120mm rifled gun and has top speed of 67 km/h and range of 483 km
Crew of 4 (commander, gunner, loader, driver)
Features advanced fire control system, composite armor, and NBC protection
Arjun Mk-1A variant with improved capabilities entered service in 2022
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Four-year undergraduate program
Why in the News?
Kerala CM Pinarayi Vijayan inaugurated the curriculum of Four-Year Undergraduate Programmes (FYUP) in the state, stressing that it is in line with changes in the Global Education System where the focus is equally on imparting knowledge as well as the transfer of skills and vocational training.
About Four-Year Undergraduate Program (FYUP):
Parameters
Details
Key features
Students can choose their major and minor subjects freely, for example science students can pursue humanities courses.
Provision for students to complete the degree in 2.5 years if they secure the required credits.
Offers 16 FYUP honors programs with research across science, arts, commerce and business streams at the University of Kerala.
FYUP curriculum
It is designed to provide students with knowledge, intellectual abilities, multidisciplinary perspectives, flexible skills, social commitment and research aptitude to make them responsible citizens and offer multiple opportunities in research and employment
Includes online courses, skill development, internships and research projects.
Eligibility criteria
Students need a CGPA of 7.5 or above to advance to the 4th year and get an honors degree with research.
Admission based on 12th marks for now, entrance exam planned from next year.
Administrative and Technological Upgrades required:
Regulatory Revisions: Plans for a comprehensive revision of University Acts and Regulations to streamline academic processes and enhance efficiency.
K-REAP Initiative: Introduction of Kerala Resources for Education Administration and Planning (K-REAP), a governance software to centralize institutional activities.
Issues with FYUP Program
Implementation Challenges: The introduction of the FYUP faced logistical and administrative hurdles, impacting its rollout across Kerala’s higher educational institutions.
Curriculum Adaptation: Critics argue that the FYUP’s curriculum overhaul lacks sufficient alignment with industry needs and fails to adequately prepare students for real-world challenges.
Student Adaptation: Some students and educators have expressed concerns about the abrupt shift in academic structure and its impact on learning outcomes and student performance.
Evaluation Methods: There is ongoing debate over the effectiveness of the FYUP’s assessment methods, with some stakeholders questioning its ability to accurately gauge student knowledge and skills.
Policy Revisions: Continuous revisions and adjustments to the FYUP’s policies and regulations are needed to address evolving educational needs and feedback from various stakeholders.
New Education Policy (NEP), 2020:
The New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 introduced by the Government of India aims to transform the educational landscape of the country.
One of the key changes in the NEP is the restructuring of the duration and framework of undergraduate programs.
The NEP 2020 introduces a four-year undergraduate program as a standard duration for bachelor’s degrees, replacing the traditional three-year format.
Students can exit the program at different stages with a qualification. For example:
After 1 Year: Certificate
After 2 Years: Diploma
After 3 Years: Bachelor’s Degree
After 4 Years: Bachelor’s Degree with Research
PYQ:
[2015] The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss.
