Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Emergency under Art. 352
Why in the News?
The Government of India has decided to observe 25th June every year as ‘Samvidhaan Hatya Diwas.’
National Emergency imposition in India
June 25, 2025, will mark fifty years since the imposition of the Emergency.
The Emergency lasted from June 25, 1975, to March 21, 1977.
It was characterized by the suspension of civil liberties, press freedom, mass arrests, the cancellation of elections, and rule by decree.
What was the Emergency?
PM Indira Gandhi’s government used constitutional provisions to impose sweeping executive and legislative control.
Opposition leaders were jailed, and fundamental rights, including freedom of speech and expression, were curtailed, leading to press censorship.
The federal structure was effectively converted into a unitary one, with the Union controlling state governments.
Parliament extended its term, made laws on state subjects, and extended the Union’s executive powers to the states.
Legal and Constitutional Sanction
Article 352 allowed the President to proclaim an emergency if India’s security was threatened by war, external aggression, or armed rebellion.
In 1975, “internal disturbance” was used as grounds for the Emergency, citing incitements against the police and armed forces.
This was the only instance of emergency due to “internal disturbance,” later removed by the 44th Amendment in 1978.
Article 358suspended limitations on Article 19 (“Right to freedom”).
Article 359 allowed the President to suspend the right to court enforcement of rights during an emergency.
Political and Social Circumstances: A Timeline
In 1974, the Navnirman movement against corruption in Gujarat led to President’s Rule.
Inspired by Navnirman, a student movement in Bihar, led by Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), aimed to cleanse the country of corruption and misgovernance.
In May 1974, George Fernandes led a massive railway workers’ strike.
On June 5, 1974, JP called for “Sampoorna Kranti” (total revolution).
On June 12, 1975, Justice Jagmohanlal Sinha of the Allahabad High Court convicted Indira Gandhi of electoral malpractice.
On June 25, 1975, President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed signed the Proclamation of Emergency, cutting power to major newspapers and informing the Cabinet the next morning.
Impact on Opposition Leaders, Media, and Political Dissenters
Almost all opposition leaders, including JP, were detained under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA).
Newspapers faced pre-censorship, with UNI and PTI merged into a state-controlled agency, Samachar.
More than 250 journalists were jailed, and The Indian Express resisted by printing blank spaces when stories were censored.
Sanjay Gandhi’s “five-point programme” included forced family planning and slum clearance, leading to forced sterilizations and violent clashes.
Sanjay Gandhi’s “Five-Point Programme”
Sanjay Gandhi, the younger son of then PM, Mrs. Indira Gandhi had come forward with a programme to ‘improve’ the condition of the poor people.
His programme can be divided under five Headings, i.e.
Adult Education.
To abolish Dowry.
To Grow more trees.
Family planning – only two children.
Eradication of caste system.
Legal Changes during the Emergency
With opposition leaders in jail, Parliament passed amendments barring judicial review of the Emergency and securing the Prime Minister’s election.
The 42nd Amendment expanded Union authority over states and gave Parliament unbridled power to amend the Constitution.
In ADM Jabalpur vs. Shivkant Shukla (1976), the Supreme Court ruled that detention without trial was legal during an emergency, with Justice H.R. Khanna dissenting.
Lifting the Emergency and Aftermath
Indira Gandhi lifted the Emergency in early 1977, leading to her defeat in the elections.
The Janata Party emerged victorious, with Morarji Desai becoming India’s first non-Congress Prime Minister.
The Janata government reversed many constitutional changesfrom the 42nd Amendment, made judicial review of emergency proclamations possible, and removed “internal disturbance” as grounds for emergency imposition.
PYQ:
[2022] Which of the following is/are the exclusive power(s) of Lok Sabha?
To ratify the declaration of Emergency
To pass a motion of no-confidence against the Council of Ministers
To impeach the President of India
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Squalus hima
Why in the News?
Scientists from the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) have discovered a new species of deep-water dogfish shark, Squalus hima, from the Sakthikulangara fishing harbour in Kerala along the Arabian Sea.
About Squalus hima
Squalus is a genus of dogfish sharks in the family Squalidae, commonly known as spurdogs, characterized by smooth dorsal fin spines.
The new species, Squalus hima sp. nov., has been misidentified with S. mitsukurii and S. lalannei in the past.
Squalus hima differs from other species by the number of precaudal vertebrae, total vertebrae, teeth count, trunk and head heights, fin structure, and fin colour.
Comparison with Other Species
On the Indian coast, two species of Squalus are found from the southwest coast of India.
The new species, Squalus hima n.sp., is very similar to Squalus lalannei but differs in many characteristics.
Species in the Squalus megalops group are characterized by an angular short snout, a small mouth almost as wide as the snout, the first dorsal fin origin behind the pectoral fins, and a body without any spots.
Economic and Conservation Implications
Sharks in the genus Squalus and Centrophorus are exploited for their liver oil, which contains high levels of squalene, used in high-end cosmetic and anti-cancer products.
Fishermen from southern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands harvest these sharks for their liver oil, making conservation of these species critical.
Importance of the Discovery
The discovery of Squalus hima is significant for the conservation of shark species exploited for commercial purposes.
Dogfish sharks are commercially important for their fins, liver oil, and meat and are sometimes caught as by-catch in fisheries targeting other species.
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has broadened the regulations governing remittances to International Financial Services Centres (IFSCs) under the Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS). The RBI’s circular authorizes “authorised persons” to facilitate remittances for all permissible purposes under LRS to IFSCs.
About Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS)
LRS is governed by the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) 1999, regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
The scheme was introduced by the RBI in 2004 to facilitate outward remittances from India.
LRS allows resident individuals, including minors, to remit a specified amount of money abroad each financial year (April – March).
Currently, individuals are allowed to remit up to USD 250,000 per financial year under LRS.
Funds remitted under LRS can be used for permissible current or capital account transactions, or a combination of both.
Permissible Uses:
Expenses related to travel (private or for business).
Medical treatment abroad.
Payment of fees for education abroad.
Gifts and donations.
Maintenance of close relatives.
Investment in shares, debt instruments, and immovable properties overseas.
Accounts: Individuals can open and maintain foreign currency accounts with banks outside India for transactions permitted under LRS.
Exclusions: LRS is NOT available to corporations, partnership firms, Hindu Undivided Families (HUFs), trusts, etc.
Prohibited Transactions:
Remittances for activities prohibited under Schedule-I of FEMA, such as purchase of lottery tickets, sweepstakes, proscribed magazines, etc.
Trading in foreign exchange abroad.
Remittances to countries identified as non-cooperative by the FATF.
Remittances to individuals/entities identified as posing a terrorism risk by the RBI.
Significance of the move
The RBI’s decision reinforces GIFT IFSC’s position as a prominent international financial services hub.
By broadening the scope of LRS, GIFT IFSC aims to attract more diverse investments and transactions, contributing to the growth of India’s financial sector.
Context: Used to eradicate the invasive weed Salvinia molesta from the Sarani reservoir in Betul district, Madhya Pradesh.
Biological Details: Exotic beetle from Brazil, targets and eradicates Salvinia molesta, dies naturally post-eradication.
Bioremediation: Implemented by ICAR-DWR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Directorate of Weed Research), started in April 2022, completed within 15 to 18 months.
Economic and Social Impact: Restored livelihoods for fishermen by reviving fish populations; initial challenges included high cost and impracticality of manual removal.
Conservation Status: No risk, as the beetle dies naturally after eradicating the weed.
Squalus hima
Context: Newly discovered species of deep-water dogfish shark found in the Arabian Sea off the coast of Kerala.
Biological Details: Genus Squalus, family Squalidae, commonly known as spurdogs; differs in vertebrae count, teeth, and fin structure from other species.
Discovery: Discovered by Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) at Sakthikulangara fishing harbour, Kerala; significant for new species identification and conservation.
Economic and Social Impact: Important for commercial products like liver oil used in cosmetics and anti-cancer products; challenges include high exploitation for liver oil, fins, and meat.
Conservation Status: Critical due to high commercial exploitation for liver oil, fins, and meat; important for conservation efforts.
PYQ:
[2018] Why is a plant called Prosopis juliflora often mentioned in the news?
(a) Its extract is widely used in cosmetics.
(b) It tends to reduce the biodiversity in the area in which it grows.
(c) Its extract is used in the synthesis of pesticides.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About PDS and its structural mandate
Mains level: Imputation of values for food and non-food items
Why in the news?
The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey Data provides an opportunity to analyze the effects of social transfers.
About Public Distribution System (PDS):
The Public Distribution System (PDS) aims to ensure food security by providing subsidized foodgrains to economically vulnerable sections of society. Under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, up to 75% of the rural population and 50% of the urban population are eligible for subsidized foodgrains.
Foodgrains procured by the Food Corporation of India (FCI) are distributed through a network of Fair Price Shops (FPS).
Its structural mandate:
Procurement and Distribution: The PDS operates through the procurement of foodgrains by the Food Corporation of India (FCI) from farmers at Minimum Support Prices (MSP). These foodgrains are then allocated to states and union territories based on their requirements and distributed to Fair Price Shops (FPS), which deliver subsidized foodgrains to eligible beneficiaries.
Identification and Subsidy: Beneficiaries are identified based on the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) data, classifying households into Priority Households and Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) households. Under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013, eligible households receive rice at ₹3 per kg, wheat at ₹2 per kg, and coarse grains at ₹1 per kg. The system aims to ensure that food security is maintained for the economically vulnerable sections of society.
Observations made by the HCES:2022-23 report
The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2022-23 provides insights into the coverage of social welfare programs, including the Public Distribution System (PDS).
The survey highlights discrepancies between administrative data and survey estimates due to inclusion and exclusion errors, offering detailed characteristics of households benefiting from these programs.
Imputation of values for food and non-food items
Note: Imputation of values for food and non-food items refers to the process of assigning a monetary value to items received by households for free or at a subsidised rate through social welfare programs like the Public Distribution System (PDS) in India.
Purpose: Imputation is done to estimate the total consumption expenditure of households more accurately. It accounts for the fact that households receive goods (such as foodgrains from PDS) without directly paying for them, thus impacting their overall consumption.
Methodology: The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) and other agencies use statistical methods to assign a value to these items. This involves determining the modal (most common) or percentile prices of the items received, which may vary by state and rural/urban classification.
Types of Items Imputed: Imputation covers both food and non-food items. In the context of the PDS, it primarily includes foodgrains but can extend to other essential commodities provided through government schemes.
Data Sources: Data for imputation can come from surveys like the HCES, where households report receiving these items. NSSO surveys typically provide detailed guidelines on how imputation values are derived and applied in their reports.
Impact on Analysis: Imputing values allows analysts to compute metrics like the Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) accurately, reflecting the true economic status and welfare impact of households.
Implications for Poverty
Economic Relief for Poorer Households: By providing foodgrains at highly subsidized rates, the PDS reduces the financial burden on poorer households, allowing them to allocate their limited resources to other essential needs.
Enhanced Measurement of Poverty: Imputing the value of free or subsidised items received through programs like the PDS allows for a more comprehensive assessment of household consumption. Including these imputed values in poverty measurements provides a more accurate reflection of the economic well-being of households.
Policy Insights and Targeting: Understanding how imputed values impact poverty metrics helps policymakers in targeting social welfare programs more effectively.
Diversification of Diet: Access to subsidized foodgrains from the PDS allows households to free up resources, potentially enabling them to purchase a more diverse range of nutrient and protein-rich foods such as vegetables, milk, pulses, eggs, fish, and meat
Way forward:
Enhancing Efficiency and Targeting: Improve the identification and targeting of beneficiaries through updated and accurate data collection methods. Continuous validation and updating of Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) data can help in reducing inclusion and exclusion errors.
Promoting Nutritional Security and Health Outcomes: Expand the scope of subsidized items beyond basic grains to include more nutritious food options like pulses, edible oils, and fruits.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the major challenges of Public Distribution System (PDS) in India? How can it be made effective and transparent? (2022)
Q Food Security Bill is expected to eliminate hunger and malnutrition in India. Critically discuss various apprehensions in its effective implementation along with the concerns it has generated in WTO. (2013)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Space Objects
Mains level: Challenges related to asteroid Apophis
Why in the news?
Last week, ISRO Chairman S Somanath expressed the possibility of engaging with the asteroid Apophis during its close approach to Earth at a distance of 32,000 km in 2029. However, the specific manner of ISRO’s involvement has not yet been determined.
Space objects:
The asteroid Apophis may pose a threat:
Initial Concerns: Discovered in 2004, Apophis initially posed a 2.7% chance of colliding with Earth, raising alarms due to its size (about 450 m wide).
Revised Risk: Subsequent observations ruled out immediate collision risks in 2029, 2036, and 2068, but it will pass close to Earth in 2029 at 32,000 km.
Potential Impact: Its size could cause significant damage if it were to collide with Earth, though recent observations suggest no imminent danger.
Other possible incoming threats from space:
Daily Encounters: Thousands of asteroids enter Earth’s atmosphere daily, most burning up due to friction, causing phenomena like fireballs.
Russian Example: In 2013, a 20-meter asteroid exploded above Russia, releasing significant energy and causing damage and injuries.
Detection Challenges: Some asteroids are detected only upon entering the atmosphere, especially those coming from the direction of the Sun, which can obscure detection.
ISRO’s plan: From sci-fi to reality:
Planetary Defense Initiative: ISRO aims to develop capabilities in planetary defense, potentially participating in missions to study and potentially deflect asteroids.
Collaboration: Considering sending its own spacecraft or collaborating with other space agencies, like NASA, which has already redirected a spacecraft to study Apophis in 2029.
Evolution of ISRO: Reflects ISRO’s evolution as a space agency, transitioning from aspirations to reality in tackling global space objectives, demonstrating growing confidence and capabilities.
Way forward:
Form Partnerships: ISRO should actively seek partnerships with leading space agencies like NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), and others involved in asteroid detection and planetary defense.
Joint Missions: Collaborate on joint missions to study and potentially mitigate asteroid threats. This could include sharing resources, technology, and expertise to maximize effectiveness and minimize costs.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC IAS/2019)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bordering countries of Austria and Russia
Mains level: Key dimension related to relation between Austria and India
Why in the news?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi selected Vienna as a neutral location to convey a message to both Moscow and the Western countries.
What message it sent?
India’s Diplomatic Signal: Modi’s visit to Vienna after meeting Putin in Moscow underscored India’s commitment to global peace and non-violence.Statements emphasized India’s concern over civilian casualties in conflict zones and the futility of war as a solution.
Historical Context: Referencing Austria’s historical neutrality and diplomatic role during the Cold War, Modi’s visit reaffirmed India’s stance on maintaining strategic autonomy. Highlighted India’s support for negotiated settlements and dialogue in international disputes.
Similarity in ideologies between both countries
Neutrality and Non-Alignment: Both India and Austria historically maintained neutrality in global conflicts. Shared values in promoting peace, diplomacy, and non-intervention in internal affairs of other nations.
Historical Ties: Nehru’s role in supporting Austria’s sovereignty post-World War II reflected shared principles of neutrality and independence. Both countries value multilateralism and respect for international law.
Evolution of bilateral relations between India and Austria
Establishment of Diplomatic Relations: Diplomatic ties between India and Austria were established in 1949, celebrating 75 years of engagement in 2024.Historical visits by leaders from both countries have strengthened political and economic cooperation.
Modern Partnerships: Focus on future-oriented collaborations in infrastructure, renewable energy, technology, and trade. Continuation of bilateral engagements despite global geopolitical shifts, maintaining a balanced approach in international relations.
Key dimension related to relation between Austria and India:
Political Relations: India intervened in Austria’s favor during negotiations with the Soviet Union on the Austrian State Treaty in 1953.India supported Austria on the UN-South Tyrol conventions. Austria expressed support for India’s bid for a permanent seat on a reformed United Nations Security Council.
Economic Relations: As of 2019, there are over 200 collaborations, including 100 technical collaborations and 60 joint ventures between Indian and Austrian firms.Bilateral trade between Austria and India was EUR 2.93 billion in 2023. Austria has received a cumulative foreign direct investment of EUR 1.159 billion from India as of 2023.
Cultural Relations: The Indo-Austrian cultural relations date back to the 16th century. The Austrian tradition of Indology began in the 19th century.Rabindranath Tagore visited Vienna in 1921 and 1926, fostering cultural exchange.
Way forward:
Enhanced Political Dialogue: Increase high-level visits and diplomatic exchanges to deepen understanding and cooperation on global issues like climate change, terrorism, and global health.
Support for Multilateral Initiatives: Collaborate in multilateral forums such as the United Nations to promote shared values of peace, neutrality, and respect for international law. Work towards common positions on global challenges.
Mains PYQ:
Q What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem. (UPSC IAS/2019)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SDG India Index
Mains level: Key highlights and results from the fourth edition of the SDG India Index
Why in the news?
Overall SDG score for the country is 71 for 2023-24, significant improvement from 66 in 2020-21 and 57 in 2018 (Baseline report).
About SDG India Index:
The SDG India Index is a comprehensive tool developed by NITI Aayog to measure the progress of India and its states/UTs towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The index tracks the progress on 113 indicators aligned with the National Indicator Framework of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
Key highlights and results from the fourth edition of the SDG India Index:
Top Performers: Uttarakhand and Kerala secured the top spots with a score of 79 out of 100, showcasing strong performance across Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) such as poverty eradication, health, education, and environmental sustainability.
National Improvement: India’s overall SDG score improved from 66 points in 2020-21 to 71 points in 2023-24, indicating significant progress in achieving the SDGs nationwide. This improvement reflects efforts in poverty reduction, economic growth, and environmental conservation.
State-wise Variations: Bihar ranked lowest with 57 points, indicating areas needing more attention and development. States like Punjab, Manipur, West Bengal, and Assam showed notable improvements, with Punjab leading the pack with an increase of 8 points to reach 76 points.
Goal-specific Insights: Goals such as “No Poverty,” “Decent Work and Economic Growth,” and “Life on Land” saw the highest increases in scores, reflecting advancements in income equality, employment opportunities, and biodiversity conservation efforts.
Challenges and Focus Areas: Gender Equality received the lowest score at 49 points, highlighting persistent challenges in achieving parity in workforce participation, education access, and political representation. Addressing issues related to hunger and nutrition remains a priority, with the “Zero Hunger” goal scoring 52 points, emphasizing the need for nutritious food access and combating malnutrition.
How did States and UT performed?
Score Ranges: States’ scores range from 57 to 79, while UTs score between 65 and 77. This indicates an improvement compared to the 2020-21 scores, where the range was 52 to 75 for States and 62 to 79 for UTs.
Front Runner Category: There has been a significant increase in the number of States and UTs achieving Front Runner status. In the latest edition, 32 States/UTs scored between 65 and 99, up from 22 in the previous edition. Notably, 10 new States and UTs entered the Front Runner category, including Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Odisha, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.
Score Improvements: Across all States and UTs, there has been improvement in composite scores ranging from 1 to 8 points since the 2020-21 edition. Leading in score improvements are Assam, Manipur, Punjab, West Bengal, and Jammu and Kashmir, each showing an increase of 8 points.
Methodology: The methodology involves compiling raw data for indicators, setting 2030 targets, normalizing data to a 0-100 score, and calculating Goal scores as means of relevant indicators. The composite score represents an average of all Goal scores, excluding Goal 14 focused solely on coastal States.
Way forward:
Targeted Interventions for Lagging States: Implement customized, data-driven interventions in States with lower scores, such as Bihar, to address specific challenges in poverty, health, and education.
Enhance Focus on Gender Equality and Nutrition: Strengthen policies and programs aimed at improving gender equality and combating malnutrition, particularly by increasing female workforce participation and ensuring access to nutritious food.
