From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About Machine Unlearning (MUL)
Mains level: Significance of Machine Unlearning (MUL)
Why in the news?
The emergence of artificial intelligence has revolutionized various facets of our lives and has even prompted us to reevaluate our concepts of the mind, brain, and consciousness.
Antithesis of Machine Learning (ML):
Machine Unlearning (MUL) is considered the antithesis of Machine Learning (ML). It was first proposed by Cao and Yang in their work “Towards Making Systems Forget with Machine Unlearning.”
Machine Unlearning focuses on the ability to make AI models forget specific data they have learned. This concept addresses the challenges of removing or correcting sensitive, false, incorrect, or outdated information from trained AI models.
While ML is about learning from data to make predictions or decisions, MUL aims to reverse this process, ensuring that certain data can be effectively and completely erased from the models.
This concept is crucial for maintaining data privacy, reducing AI bias, and complying with regulations that require the deletion of personal or sensitive information.
Implementation approaches
Private Approach: Data fiduciaries voluntarily implement MUL algorithms, allowing flexibility but potentially limiting access for smaller companies due to cost and expertise barriers.
Public Approach: Governments can legislate requirements for MUL implementation, potentially creating a standard framework that data fiduciaries must follow. This can include guidelines under existing data protection laws, as seen in the EU’s AI Act, which addresses data poisoning and mandates security controls.
International Approach: This emphasizes the need for a global framework for MUL, recognizing that AI innovations have cross-border implications. International standard-setting organizations could play a crucial role in developing these standards
Techniques for Machine Unlearning
Exact Unlearning: This method completely removes the influence of specific data points from the model.
Approximate Unlearning: Instead of fully erasing the data’s influence, this technique minimizes its impact on the model’s predictions to an acceptable level.
Data-Centric Approaches: Techniques like data reorganization and pruning are employed to manage the dataset, making it easier to identify and remove unwanted data points.
Model-Centric Approaches: These methods involve manipulating the model parameters directly. For example, algorithms can adjust the weights associated with the data points that need to be forgotten, thereby reducing their influence on the model’s outputs.
Prompting-Based Methods: In large language models (LLMs), developers can use carefully crafted prompts to induce behaviours that mimic unlearning.
Algorithmic Innovations: New algorithms, such as MU-Mis, focus on minimizing the contribution of specific data points to the model’s decision-making process.
Way forward:
Development of Standardized Frameworks: The need to establish a comprehensive regulatory framework for MUL can facilitate its adoption across various sectors. Governments and international organizations should collaborate to create guidelines that mandate the use of MUL techniques for data privacy compliance, similar to the EU’s AI Act.
Investment in Research and Education: The need to increase funding and resources should be directed toward research in machine unlearning techniques and their applications.
Mains PYQ:
Q The emergence of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Legal status of Marijuana
Mains level: Drug issues in India
Why in the news?
Telangana faces a drug crisis, with Hyderabad as a transit hub. Marijuana is trafficked via Konark Express to Maharashtra and Karnataka, per police reports.
The Gravity of the Drug Problem in Telangana
Hyderabad has emerged as a transit hub for drugs, with marijuana being ferried through the city to be supplied to neighbouring states like Maharashtra and Karnataka.
The number of people charge-sheeted for drug possession and peddling increased from 735 in 2020 to 3,052 in 2022. In the first six months of 2023, nearly 1,900 cases were lodged against peddlers and users.
An international drug ring was busted in February 2023, seizing ₹8 crore worth of synthetic psychedelics like OG Kush and Ecstasy pills.
Drug abuse has been found among students in top medical and management colleges in Hyderabad.
Initiatives taken by the State Government
Drug Detection Kits: Officials use the latest technology, including 12-panel drug tests, to instantly identify drug abuse among party attendees and students.
Special Operations: Operations such as checking attendees at Electronic Dance Music parties and conducting tests on students in colleges have been carried out.
Use of Sniffer Dogs: Sniffer dogs are deployed in pubs and transit hubs to detect contraband.
Legal and Technological Actions: The Telangana Anti-Narcotics Bureau sent cease and desist notices to firms manufacturing ganja-laced chocolates shipped via e-commerce platforms.
Political Will: Chief Minister A. Revanth Reddy has shown political will by advocating for awareness among politicians and celebrities, although this has led to legal disputes.
Legal Status of Marijuana
General Prohibition: Marijuana, including its various forms such as ganja (flower), charas (resin), and hashish, is illegal under the NDPS Act. It talks about the possession, sale, and production of these substances are criminal offences.
Bhang Exception: Bhang, made from the leaves and seeds of the cannabis plant, is legally consumed in many parts of India, especially during religious festivals. It is not classified as an illegal substance under the NDPS Act.
State Variations: Different states have their own regulations regarding cannabis. For example, Uttarakhand has legalized the commercial cultivation of hemp, while Odisha has a more lenient approach to recreational use. This leads to a patchwork of laws across the country.
Penalties: The NDPS Act prescribes severe penalties for drug offences.
Possession of small quantities can lead to imprisonment of six months to one year and fines of up to ₹10,000. For larger quantities, penalties can escalate to 10-20 years of imprisonment and fines of ₹1-2 lakh.
Requires Smart thinking and Policing (Way forward)
Focus on Trade, Not Users: The emphasis should be on dismantling the drug network rather than just catching users. This approach was advocated by Home Minister Amit Shah.
Avoiding Witch Hunts: The fight against drugs should not lead to the targeting of specific localities or public shaming of institutions.
Need Economic Considerations: Measures such as shutting down nightlife venues before midnight could harm the economy and the business environment.
Implement Integrated Approach: A comprehensive strategy is needed that involves smarter policing, better use of technology, and effective legal actions against producers and suppliers rather than users.
Mains PYQ:
Q India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (2018)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Abrogation of Jammu and Kashmir's special status in August 2019
Mains level: Internal Security; Developments in Militancy (2014-2024)
Why in the News?
An ambush resulted in the deaths of five Indian Army personnel which highlights a worrying trend of increasing violence in Jammu and Kashmir, particularly in the Jammu region.
This incident marks the fourth terror attack in the state within a span of 48 hours, indicating a surge in militant activities.
Observations on Militancy Leading to Civilian Deaths
The new wave of terrorism: The region has seen a resurgence of violence after a period of relative peace, with notable incidents such as the June 9 attack on a bus carrying Hindu pilgrims, resulting in nine deaths. This shift in militancy is particularly concerning as it reflects a new wave of terrorism, especially in areas like Rajouri and Poonch, which had previously been stable.
Changing dynamics of Terrorism: There is a notable transition from foreign terrorists leading attacks to local militants becoming more prominent.
Developments in Militancy (2014-2024)
Surge in Violence Post-2016: The killing of Hizbul Mujahideen militant Burhan Wani in July 2016 sparked widespread unrest and violence, leading to a resurgence in militant activities. This period saw increased recruitment of local youth into militant ranks, particularly within groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed.
Major Attacks: Notable incidents include the 2016 Uri attack, where militants killed 19 soldiers, and the 2019 Pulwama attack, which resulted in the deaths of 40 CRPF personnel. These attacks highlighted the persistent threat posed by organized militant groups.
Revocation of Article 370: The abrogation of Jammu and Kashmir’s special status in August 2019 led to a significant shift in the political landscape. While the Indian government claimed a reduction in violence, there were still notable attacks, such as the
Emergence of Hybrid Militancy: A new trend termed “hybrid militancy” has emerged, where individuals engage in militant activities sporadically while maintaining their civilian lives.
Decline in Active Militants: By the end of 2022, the number of active militants had fallen to just over 100, down from around 250 in 2019. However, the presence of foreign militants has reportedly increased, indicating a shift in the composition of militant forces.
Increased Counter-Insurgency Operations: The Indian security forces have intensified operations against militants, resulting in the deaths of approximately 750 militants over the last four years, with a significant proportion being local youths.
Changing Tactics and Technology: Militants have increasingly utilized modern technology, including drones and social media, to coordinate attacks and recruit members, presenting new challenges for security forces.
Way forward:
Addressing Recruitment Cycles: Government need to make initiatives aimed at preventing youth recruitment into militant groups. This can include educational programs, vocational training, and employment opportunities that provide alternatives to joining militant organizations.
Enhanced Intelligence and Local Engagement: The need to Strengthen local intelligence networks is crucial to preemptively identify and disrupt militant activities.
Mains PYQ:
Q Analyse the complexity and intensity of terrorism, its causes, linkages and obnoxious nexus. Also suggest measures required to be taken to eradicate the menace of terrorism. (2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Landslides, Landslide Atlas of India
Why in the News?
Many people have died, and hundreds are feared trapped after three landslides hit Kerala’s Wayanad district.
About Wayanad
Wayanad is the only plateau in Kerala, forming a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, part of the Deccan Plateau.
The Kabini River, a tributary of the Kaveri River, originates in Wayanad.
The Chaliyar River, the fourth longest river in Kerala, also originates on the Wayanad plateau.
Wayanad is home to the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.
Susceptibility to Landslides:
The region predominantly has laterite soil, which is highly prone to erosion.
The steep and undulating terrain of Wayanad makes it naturally susceptible to landslides.
Wayanad receives intense and prolonged monsoon rains that cause water infiltration, leading to soil saturation and increased pore water pressure, which destabilizes slopes.
Large-scale deforestation for agriculture and settlement reduces the binding capacity of the soil and its ability to absorb water, exacerbating the risk of landslides.
What are Landslides?
A landslide is the downward and outward movement of materials including rock, earth, or debris down a slope due to gravitational force. Landslides are disasters of hydrogeological origin, resulting from the failure of materials falling down a slope due to gravity.
India is among the top five landslide-prone countries globally, with at least one death per 100 sq km reported annually due to landslides.
Regional Distribution
North-western Himalayas: 66.5% of landslides.
North-eastern Himalayas: 18.8% of landslides.
Western Ghats: 14.7% of landslides.
Key Policy Initiative: National Landslide Susceptibility Map
The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO released the Landslide Atlas of India in 2023.
This detailed guide identifies landslide hotspots across the country with a 100 sq. m resolution overview of landslide susceptibility.
The map highlights traditional high-risk areas and uncovers new regions of concern, broadening the scope of landslide monitoring.
Scientists conducted a risk assessment based on 80,000 landslides recordedbetween1998 and 2022 across 147 districts in 17 states and two Union Territories, creating a “Landslide Atlas” of the country.
Key Highlights of the Landslide Atlas:
Top States by Landslide Events:
Mizoram: 12,385 events in the past 25 years.
Uttarakhand: 11,219 events.
Other states: Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tripura.
Districts with Maximum Landslide Exposure:
Arunachal Pradesh: 16 districts.
Kerala: 14 districts.
Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir: 13 districts each.
Himachal Pradesh, Assam, and Maharashtra: 11 districts each.
Mizoram: 8 districts.
Nagaland: 7 districts.
Highest Landslide Density and Risk Exposure:
Rudraprayag and Tehri Garhwal districts in Uttarakhand.
PYQ:
[2021] Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Oropouche Fever
Why in the News?
Brazil has reported the first deaths from Oropouche fever.
About Oropouche Fever
Oropouche fever is a viral disease caused by the Oropouche virus.
The virus is transmitted primarily through the bites of infected midges, specifically the Culicoides paraensis, and mosquitos.
The World Health Organization (WHO) reported the first-ever outbreak in Cuba on June 11, 2024.
Symptoms:
Symptoms are similar to those of dengue fever and typically begin between four to eight days after the bite.
Common symptoms include:
Sudden onset of fever
Headaches
Body aches
Chills
Joint stiffness
Nausea and vomiting (occasionally)
Most patients recover within seven days, and severe cases are rare.
There is no evidence of human-to-human transmission.
Treatment and Prevention
There is no specific vaccine or antiviral treatment for Oropouche fever.
Treatment is usually symptomatic, focusing on relieving fever and pain.
Preventative measures include avoiding bites from midgesand mosquitos by using repellents, wearing protective clothing, and using insect nets.
PYQ:
[2010] Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine?
(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium
(b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection
(c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria
(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: FnCas9 Enzyme
Why in the News?
Scientists from the “CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology” have developed an enhanced genome-editing system using FnCas9that can modify DNA more precisely and more efficiently than existing CRISPR-based technologies.
CRISPR occurs naturally in some bacteria, as a part of their immune system that limits infections by recognizing and destroying viral DNA.
What is FnCas9?
FnCas9 is a variant of the Cas9 enzyme derived from the bacterium Francisella novicida.
It is used in genome editing technologies, particularly within the CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) system, to make precise modifications to DNA sequences.
What is CRISPR-Cas9 System?
CRISPR-Cas9 is a revolutionary genome-editing tool adapted from a natural bacterial defense mechanism against viruses.
Bacteria use CRISPR sequences to store segments of viral DNA, which helps them recognize and combat viruses in subsequent infections.
The most commonly usedCas9 enzyme is derived from Streptococcus pyogenes.
Mechanism:
Guide RNA (gRNA): A specifically designed RNA molecule that matches the target DNA sequence.
Cas9 Enzyme: Acts as molecular scissors that cut DNA at a location specified by the gRNA.
Proto-spacer Adjacent Motif (PAM): A short DNA sequence adjacent to the target site that Cas9 must recognize and bind to in order to cut the DNA.
DNA Repair: Once the DNA is cut, the cell’s natural repair mechanisms either repair the break or introduce desired genetic changes.
Applications:
Agriculture: Enhancing crop yield and nutritional value.
Healthcare: Diagnosing and treating genetic disorders.
Research: Studying gene functions and interactions.
Challenges with Traditional Cas9: SpCas9 can sometimes cut DNA at unintended sites, leading to potential unintended genetic modifications.
How FnCas9 overpowers traditional Cas9 (SpCas9)?
FnCas9 is known for its higher specificityin targeting DNA sequences compared to SpCas9, resulting in fewer off-target effects.
More accurate targeting reduces unintended genetic modifications.
It ensures more reliable and safer genome editing.
Achievements by Indian Scientists
Scientists at the CSIR-IGIB in New Delhi have modified FnCas9 to enhance its efficiency without compromising specificity.
Key Modifications include:
Amino Acid Tinkering: Researchers modified amino acids in FnCas9 that interact with the PAM sequence to increase binding affinity.
Improved Binding: Enhanced binding affinity allows FnCas9 to sit more securely on the DNA, improving gene-editing effectiveness.
Flexibility: The enhanced FnCas9 can access and edit hard-to-reach regions of the genome.
Experimental Results:
Enhanced FnCas9 cuts target DNA at a higher rate than the unmodified version.
FnCas9 improved ability to detect single-nucleotide changes in the genome, broadening its diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
PYQ:
[2019] What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?
(a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing
(b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients
(c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant
(d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops
[2016] In the context of the developments in Bioinformatics, the term ‘transcriptome’, sometimes seen in the news, refers to:
(a) a range of enzymes used in genome editing
(b) the full range of mRNA molecules expressed by an organism
(c) the description of the mechanism of gene expression
(d) a mechanism of genetic mutations taking place in cells
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MQ-9B HALE UAV
Why in the News?
The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) has reviewed and approved amendments to the deal for 31 MQ-9B High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) from General Atomics of the US.
The DAC also approved a proposal for the scheduled refit of aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya later this year.
About MQ-9B HALE UAV
The MQ-9B drone is a version of the MQ-9 “Reaper” and has two models: Sky Guardian and Sea Guardian.
It is built by the General Atomics.
This drone can fly over 40,000 feet high, making it useful for watching the Himalayan border areas.
It can stay in the air for up to 40 hours, perfect for long surveillance missions.
The MQ-9B has advanced features like automatic take-off and landing, a system to avoid other objects, secure GPS, and encrypted communications.
It can offer 80% of a manned aircraft’s capabilities at 20% of the cost per hour.
Deployment:
The MQ-9B drones are planned to be deployed at four places, including INS Rajaji near Chennai and Porbandar in Gujarat, by the Indian Navy.
The other two services will keep them jointly at two bases in Sarsawa and Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh at Air Force bases due to long runway requirements.
Specifications of the Procurement:
India is looking to procure 31 MQ-9B UAVs, including 15 Sea Guardians for the Indian Navy and 16 Sky Guardians (eight each for the Indian Army and Air Force).
The Indian Navy has leased two MQ-9As with the maiden flight taking place on November 21, 2020.
The estimated cost is $3.99 billion.
As part of the deal, General Atomics will establish a Global Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility in India, contributing to offset obligations.
Significance of the deal
The SeaGuardian model can help the Navy patrol large areas more economically than manned aircraft.
For the Army and Air Force, these drones will help monitor movements along the borders, especially with China.
Back2Basics: Defence Acquisition Council (DAC)
Details
Constitution
Established under the Defence Ministry for guiding defence procurement planning.
Role
Highest decision-making body in the Defence Ministry for new policies and capital acquisitions for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Indian Coast Guard.
Formation
Created in 2001 following recommendations on reforming the National Security System after the Kargil War.
Chairman
Minister of Defence.
Members
Chief of Defence Staff (CDS), Minister of State for Defence, Three Service Chiefs (Army, Navy, Air Force), Chief of Integrated Staff Committees, Defence Secretary, Secretary Defence Research & Development.
Functions
In-principle approval of the 15 Year Long-Term Integrated Perspective Plan for Defence Forces.
Accord of Acceptance of Necessity for acquisition proposals.
Categorize acquisition proposals into ‘Buy’, ‘Buy & Make’, and ‘Make’.
Decisions on offset provisions for acquisitions above Rs. 300 crores.
Decisions regarding the transfer of technology under the ‘Buy & Make’ category.
PYQ:
[2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?
(a) An Israeli radar system
(b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme
(c) An American anti-missile system
(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea
