Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Haber-Bosch process
Mains level: Issues related to fertilizer;
Why in the News?
One hundred million tonnes of nitrogen are extracted from the atmosphere and transformed into fertilizer through the Haber-Bosch process, adding 165 million tonnes of reactive nitrogen to the soil.
What is the Nitrogen molecule and how is it availed in Nature?
- The nitrogen molecule (N2) consists of two nitrogen atoms joined by a triple bond, sharing three pairs of electrons. This triple bond makes the molecule extremely stable and nearly inert, requiring a significant amount of energy (946 kJ/mol) to break.
- When the triple bond is broken, nitrogen atoms can form reactive nitrogen compounds like ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4+), or nitrates (NO3–).
- These compounds are essential for plant growth as they help synthesize enzymes, proteins, and amino acids.
- Lightning generates enough energy to break the N2 triple bond, producing nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) that can combine with water vapor to form nitric and nitrous acids. These acids add reactive nitrogen to the soil through rainfall.
- Certain bacteria, such as Azotobacter and Rhizobia, fix atmospheric nitrogen through biological processes.
- Rhizobia forms symbiotic relationships with legumes, while Azolla, an aquatic fern, also fixes nitrogen via its symbiotic cyanobacterium.
What is the Haber-Bosch process?
- The Haber-Bosch process synthesizes ammonia by reacting nitrogen (N2) with hydrogen (H2) under high pressure (200 atm) and moderate temperature (200°C), using a catalyst (typically iron oxides).
- The process was developed by Fritz Haber, who found that high pressure and a suitable catalyst were key to converting nitrogen to ammonia efficiently. The setup was scaled up by Carl Bosch, leading to the first ammonia production plant in 1913.
What are the downsides of fertilizers?
- Environmental Impact: While synthetic nitrogen fertilizers have significantly increased food production, they have also led to negative environmental effects:
- Over-fertilization: Excess nitrogen application results in reactive nitrogen being released into the atmosphere, contributing to acid rain and soil degradation.
- Water Pollution: Nitrogen runoff from agricultural fields enters freshwater and coastal ecosystems, leading to eutrophication, which causes oxygen depletion and harms aquatic life.
- Human Health Concerns: High nitrogen levels in drinking water can pose health risks.
- Socio-Economic Challenges: Despite increased food production, issues such as starvation, malnutrition, and unequal food distribution persist, highlighting that technological solutions like fertilisers are insufficient; social and political action is also needed.
Way forward:
- Promote Sustainable Fertilizer Use: Encourage the adoption of precision agriculture techniques, such as soil testing and site-specific nutrient management, to optimize fertilizer application. This approach minimizes over-fertilization, reduces nitrogen runoff, and mitigates environmental damage.
- Strengthen Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Governments should implement and enforce policies to regulate nitrogen fertilizer use, ensuring that environmental safety standards are met.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to posthumous assisted reproduction;
Why in the News?
The Delhi High Court recently permitted a couple in their sixties to access their late son’s sperm sample, thus opening the door for posthumous assisted reproduction.
About the Present Case:
- The Delhi HC allowed a couple in their sixties to access their deceased son’s sperm sample for posthumous assisted reproduction, marking a significant legal ruling.
- The son, who passed away from cancer in 2020, had cryopreserved his sperm at a hospital. The hospital refused to release the sample without a court order since there were no guidelines for cases without a surviving spouse.
- The parents sought court intervention to carry on their son’s legacy, with the assurance that they would take full responsibility for any child born through surrogacy using the sperm sample.
What is the ART Act?
- The Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Act, 2021 regulates fertility treatments and artificial insemination procedures in India.
- It provides guidelines for posthumous retrieval of sperm but is limited to cases where the deceased is married, allowing the surviving partner to seek sperm retrieval.
- The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare stated that the current legislation does not account for “postmortem grandparenthood” cases, where grandparents seek to use a deceased individual’s sperm.
What are present International practices?
- Uruguay: Allows posthumous reproduction with written consent valid for one year.
- Belgium: Permits posthumous reproduction after a six-month waiting period following death, and the request must be made within two years.
- Victoria, Australia: Requires written or oral consent before witnesses, approval from a “patient review panel,” and counseling for the parent.
- Canada and the UK: Both require written consent for posthumous reproduction.
- Israel: Limits the use of a deceased individual’s sperm to the female partner, with some exceptions allowing parents to use it. The Delhi High Court ruling referenced a similar case in Israel involving a 19-year-old soldier.
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Precedents and Concerns:
- Legal Precedent for Non-Spousal Claims: The Delhi High Court’s ruling sets a precedent where parties other than a spouse, such as parents, can claim the right to access a deceased individual’s cryopreserved reproductive material.
- This expands the legal interpretation beyond the scope typically covered by existing laws, which usually prioritize the spouse’s consent.
- Ethical and Consent Issues: Posthumous reproduction raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding the presumed consent of the deceased individual.
- Determining whether the deceased intended for their reproductive material to be used after death can be complex, especially when explicit written consent is not available.
- Child Welfare Considerations: The ruling highlights concerns about the future child’s welfare, who would grow up without one genetic parent.
Way forward:
- Establish Clear Legal Guidelines: Develop comprehensive legal frameworks for posthumous reproduction, addressing scenarios beyond spousal claims and ensuring explicit consent requirements to guide such cases.
- Prioritize Child Welfare and Ethical Considerations: Implement safeguards like mandatory counseling, ethical review panels, and consideration of the child’s best interests in decisions involving posthumous assisted reproduction.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Crime against venerable section;
Why in the News?
A recent Supreme Court ruling redefines the act of watching and downloading child pornography as a serious crime, rather than merely an adult indulgence.
Effectiveness of Existing Laws:
- Expansion of Legal Scope: The Supreme Court ruling corrected the limited interpretation of the Madras High Court by making downloading and storage of Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material (CSEAM) a crime under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act. This strengthens the legal framework for child protection.
- Shift in Terminology: The judgment reframed “child porn” as CSEAM, emphasizing that it is a severe crime rather than an “adult indulgence,” thereby acknowledging the harm caused to children.
- Mandating Responsibilities for Intermediaries: The court placed stringent obligations on social media platforms to report CSEAM content to authorities in real-time, ensuring compliance with Indian law.
What new measures will be implemented to enhance Child Safety?
- Cybercrime as an Organized Crime: Explicitly defining cybercrimes involving CSEAM as economic and organized crimes in Indian law, including outlawing emerging offenses like AI-generated child sexual abuse content.
- Forensic Lab Establishment: A domestic forensic lab equipped with advanced technology will be set up to handle CSEAM cases, enabling faster response times to flagged content and coordination with law enforcement agencies.
- National Database on Sexual Offenders: Ensuring that individuals prosecuted for possession or sharing of CSEAM are added to a database and prohibited from employment in child-related sectors.
Collaboration among Stakeholders:
- Real-Time Reporting by Social Media Platforms: The judgment mandates social media companies and intermediaries to report instances of CSEAM to law enforcement immediately, facilitating rapid intervention.
- International Cooperation: Calls for the establishment of an International Database of Sex Offenders to strengthen cross-border coordination in tracking offenders. This includes working with international agencies like Interpol to streamline efforts.
- Role of Financial Institutions: Leveraging financial institutions to trace and disrupt the financial transactions that support networks involved in child exploitation.
Educational Initiatives:
- Awareness Programs on Digital Safety: Launching campaigns to educate parents, children, and communities about the dangers of online child exploitation and methods for protecting themselves.
- Training for Law Enforcement and Judiciary: Providing specialized training to authorities on identifying and prosecuting CSEAM cases, including the use of AI in the creation of exploitative material.
- School-Based Programs: Implementing programs in schools to teach children about safe online behavior and recognise signs of potential exploitation.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Legal and Technological Frameworks: Update laws to explicitly classify CSEAM-related cybercrimes as organized crimes and establish a state-of-the-art forensic lab for swift case handling and coordination with global agencies.
- Enhance Prevention and Awareness Initiatives: Implement nationwide digital safety education for children, parents, and authorities, while bolstering collaboration with international bodies and financial institutions to dismantle exploitation networks.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nobel Prize in Economics
Why in the News?
The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for 2024 was awarded to Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson for their research into why some nations are more prosperous than others.
What is the Nobel Economics Prize?
- Officially called the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, established in 1968.
- It is not part of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel in 1895.
- Created by the Swedish central bank to honor Alfred Nobel’s legacy.
- Although not an original Nobel Prize, it is presented alongside the other Nobel Prizes on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
- Includes a diploma, gold medal, and a one-million-dollar prize for the laureates.
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This Year’s Nobel for Economics:
- The 2024 Nobel awardees’ research focused on the role of societal institutions in determining a country’s economic prosperity.
- The laureates distinguished between inclusive institutions, which promote democracy, rule of law, and protection of property rights, and extractive institutions, where power is concentrated and resources are exploited for the benefit of a few.
- Their study explains how inclusive institutions foster long-term economic growth by providing stability and incentives, while extractive institutions undermine growth by discouraging investment and innovation.
- The researchers also explored how European colonization shaped current economic disparities by establishing either inclusive or extractive institutions, with decisions influenced by factors such as mortality risks during colonization.
Significance of the study
- The study highlights the critical role of societal institutions in determining a country’s prosperity.
- It distinguishes between inclusive institutions that foster growth and extractive institutions that hinder it.
- It explains how colonial history shaped modern economic disparities.
- The research offers policy insights for building inclusive institutions to promote long-term prosperity.
- It has global implications for reducing inequality and promoting sustainable development.
PYQ:
[2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order.’ Elaborate. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Bacteria
Why in the News?
- Due to increasing antimicrobial resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), many existing antibiotics are becoming less effective.
- As a result, researchers are studying Mtb to identify key proteins and design new drugs to target them.
What is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)?
- Mtb is the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB), affecting the lungs and sometimes spreading to other organs.
- It spreads through airborne droplets from coughing or sneezing by an infected person.
- Mtb can remain dormant in the body for years without causing active disease.
- It infects macrophages, immune cells designed to destroy invaders, but instead, Mtb survives and multiplies inside them.
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What do various studies say?
- A 2024 CSIR-CCMB study showed that Mtb uses cysteine synthase enzymes to survive oxidative stress.
- A 2017 Karolinska Institute study identified 71 compounds that inhibit these enzymes, improving the effectiveness of antibiotics like isoniazid.
- Researchers found that Mtb’s ability to evade the immune system is due to its long evolution with humans.
- Other studies focus on Mtb’s phosphate and carbon metabolism, critical for its survival in hostile environments.
- Ways for effective medicine development:
- Target enzymes like CysK2 and CysM to weaken Mtb’s defence mechanisms.
- Study Mtb’s metabolic pathways to identify vulnerabilities for new drug development.
- Explore how Mtb develops antibiotic resistance and find ways to overcome it.
- Investigate how Mtb evades immune responses by manipulating immune cells.
- Combine new inhibitors with existing antibiotics to enhance treatment efficacy.
PYQ:
[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: THAAD Defense System
Why in the News?
The US has announced that it will send its advanced THAAD (Terminal High-Altitude Area Defense) missile system to Israel, along with US troops to operate it.
What is THAAD?
- THAAD is an advanced missile defense system developed by Lockheed Martin Corporation in the 1990s.
- It is designed to intercept and destroy short-range (up to 1,000 km), medium-range (1,000–3,000 km), and intermediate-range (3,000–5,000 km) ballistic missile threats during their terminal phase of flight.
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- Uses “hit-to-kill” technology to destroy missiles.
- Can defend a larger area than the older Patriot Air and Missile Defense System.
- Provides a rapidly deployable capability both inside and outside the atmosphere.
India’s AD-1 missile interceptor under the Phase 2 Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) system, is similar to the THAAD missile system used by the US.
- AD-1 and AD-2 interceptor missiles are developed to intercept ballistic missiles, including ICBMs, with ranges over 2,000 km.
- Swordfish LRTR, derived from Israel’s Green Pine radar, has an upgraded detection range of 1,500 km for enhanced missile tracking.
- The system intercepts both exo-atmospherically and endo-atmospherically, creating a comprehensive missile defence shield.
- It can manage multiple missile threats simultaneously, ensuring defence against complex attack scenarios.
- A floating test range is being developed for missile trials over the sea, enabling tests at higher altitudes and ranges up to 1,500 km.
- INS Dhruv, equipped with advanced radars, monitors missile tests and supports surveillance during defense operations.
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Significance of Sending THAAD to Israel
The decision to send THAAD to Israel is significant for several reasons:
- It is part of broader US military adjustments in the region to support Israel’s defense and protect Americans from attacks by Iran and Iranian-aligned militias.
- The deployment signals increased US involvement in the conflict.
| PYQ:
[2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?
(a) An Israeli radar system
(b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme
(c) An American anti-missile system
(d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nile River System
Why in the News?
A regional partnership of 10 countries announced that an agreement on the equitable use of Nile River water resources has come into effect, despite Egypt’s opposition.
Why discuss this?
- The legal status of the “cooperative framework” was confirmed by the African Union after South Sudan joined the treaty.
- The treaty is backed by the Nile Basin Initiative.
- Countries Involved:
- Ethiopia, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania have ratified the agreement.
- Egypt and Sudan have refused to sign.
- Congo abstained, while Kenya has yet to submit its ratification documents.
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About Nile River:
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Details |
| Length |
Approximately 6,650 km (4,130 miles), making it the longest river in the world. |
| Tributaries |
White Nile (originating from Lake Victoria in Uganda) and Blue Nile (originating from Lake Tana in Ethiopia). |
| Countries Traversed |
11 countries: Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, DR Congo, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt. |
| Source |
- White Nile from Lake Victoria,
- Blue Nile from Lake Tana.
|
| Mouth |
Mediterranean Sea, forming the Nile Delta in Egypt. |
| Major Cities |
Includes Cairo, Khartoum, and Alexandria. |
| Key Dams |
- Aswan High Dam (Egypt), controls flooding, generates hydroelectric power, and forms Lake Nasser.
- Built in 1970 across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt; helps in irrigation, flood control, and hydroelectric power generation but also disrupts silt flow.
|
| Economic Importance |
Provides over 90% of water for Egypt and Sudan; vital for agriculture, fishing, industry, and energy production. |
| Disputes |
Between Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan over water rights, particularly due to the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD). |
| Historical Treaties |
- 1929 and 1959 Nile Water Agreements allocated water mostly to Egypt and Sudan; upstream countries seek revision.
- Nile Basin Initiative (NBI): Established in 1999, it is a partnership among Nile Basin countries aimed at promoting cooperation, development, and sustainable management of the Nile’s resources.
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PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following pairs:
|
River |
Flows into |
| 1. |
Mekong |
Andaman Sea |
| 2. |
Thames |
Irish Sea |
| 3. |
Volga |
Caspian Sea |
| 4. |
Zambezi |
Indian Ocean |
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2 and 4 only |
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