Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: X-ray applications;
Mains level: Biotechnology; Issues related to Health care Machines;
Why in the News?
On the evening of November 8, 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen was conducting experiments in his laboratory at the University of Würzburg in Germany when he made an unusual discovery.
Did you know the Röntgen’s discovery story of X-rays?
- While experimenting with cathode rays in a glass vacuum tube, Röntgen noticed a fluorescent screen glowing at a distance, despite being too far to be affected by the rays he was studying.
- Intrigued by this unexpected glow, he wondered if this mysterious ray could penetrate organic materials, so he experimented by photographing his wife’s hand, capturing her bones and ring. This was the world’s first recorded X-ray image of the human body.
- Röntgen documented his findings in an article titled “On a new kind of rays,” in 1895 which was published by introducing “X-rays” to the scientific community.
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How did Röntgen’s discovery transform Medical practices and Diagnostics?
- Revolution in Diagnostic Medicine: Physicians rapidly adopted X-rays, which allowed them to view the human body without surgery. This was transformative for diagnostics, especially in orthopedics and internal medicine.
- Surgical Advancements: By February 1896, British physician Major John Hall-Edwards had successfully used X-rays to guide the surgery. Within months, armies began using X-ray technology to locate bullet wounds and diagnose fractures, marking the beginning of its use in trauma care.
What are the long-term implications of Röntgen’s discovery on Public health and Safety?
- Development of Radiology: this discovery led to the birth of radiology, with subsequent advancements leading to CT, MRI, ultrasound, and other imaging technologies that are essential in modern medicine.
- Radiation Safety and Awareness: Initially, x-rays were used liberally, even for non-medical purposes (such as in shoe stores to fit footwear), with little awareness of potential harm. It wasn’t until early reports of radiation burns and later research in the early 20th century that the health risks of radiation exposure were acknowledged, prompting the development of safety protocols.
- Ongoing Safety Protocols: Today, radiation safety is central to radiology practices. Equipment advancements and regulatory standards have minimized exposure risks, making x-rays safe for patients and medical personnel while ensuring their continued benefits.
- Public Health and Preventive Care: The ability to detect diseases, fractures, and other internal injuries without invasive procedures has been crucial for preventive care, enabling early detection and treatment. This has significantly impacted patient survival rates and quality of care, solidifying diagnostic imaging as a pillar of modern public health.
Issues related to X-ray machines in Rural areas:
- Limited X-ray Equipment: Rural Community Health Centres (CHCs) in India often need more X-ray machines, with only 68% of available units functioning, primarily due to high operational costs and shortages of technicians.
- Maintenance and Operational Delays: Even when X-ray machines are present, many remain non-functional due to installation delays and insufficient maintenance, as imaging services are not prioritized in CHC guidelines.
- Access and Specialist Shortages: Rural patients face long travel distances to access imaging services, further limited by a concentration of radiologists in urban areas, reducing timely access to diagnostic interpretation.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Infrastructure and Access: Increase the availability and functionality of X-ray machines in rural areas by improving equipment maintenance, investing in portable and mobile X-ray units to bring diagnostic services directly to underserved populations.
- For example, Teleradiology enables remote interpretation of images, improving access to diagnostic services.
- Telemedicine and Remote Diagnostics: Expand telemedicine platforms like ‘XraySetu’, enabling healthcare workers in rural areas to share X-ray images for remote analysis by radiologists, improving diagnostic capabilities without requiring patients to travel long distances.
Mains PYQ:
Q Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain. (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Judiciary; Landmark Judgements; Issues related to Minority status;
Why in the News?
In a 4:3 majority decision, the Supreme Court overturned its 1967 Azeez Basha ruling, which had denied Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) minority status, directing that AMU’s status be reassessed according to the principles outlined in the current judgment.
Constitutional Provisions and Historical Background of the case:
- The Aligarh Muslim University (AMU) was founded in 1875 and incorporated by imperial law in 1920.
- Article 30 of the Constitution empowers religious and linguistic minorities to establish and administer educational institutions – AMU had enjoyed minority status.
- A 1951 amendment to that imperial law, the AMU Act, did away with compulsory religious instructions for Muslim students.
- In India, compulsory religious instruction is prohibited in state-funded educational institutions under Article 28.
- In S. Azeez Basha vs. Union of India (1967), the SC ruled that AMU could not be considered a minority institution, as it was established by a central act, categorizing it as a central university.
- This ruling denied AMU the rights of minority institutions under Article 30 of the Indian Constitution.
- In 1981, an amendment to the AMU Act attempted to restore AMU’s minority character, aiming to secure rights for it as a minority-administered institution.
- The Allahabad High Court (2006) struck down the 1981 amendment, reinforcing the Supreme Court’s earlier ruling and reasserting that AMU did not qualify as a minority institution.
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What criteria will be used to assess AMU’s minority status?
- The SC emphasized that an educational institution must be established by a minority community to qualify for minority status under Article 30(1) of the Indian Constitution.
- This involves examining who initiated the idea of the institution and whether it was primarily intended to benefit that community.
- Holistic Two-Fold Test: The Court introduced a two-fold test:
- First Limb: Identify the “brain behind” the establishment, which includes reviewing correspondence and documentation that reflect the intentions of the founders.
- Second Limb: Assess whether the administrative structure of the institution affirms its minority character and serves to protect and promote the interests of the minority community.
- Broad Interpretation of “Established”: The ruling clarified that “established” should be interpreted broadly, meaning that an institution can still be considered a minority institution even if it is governed by a statutory body or has undergone changes in its legal status over time.
How does this ruling affect the legal precedent set by the 1967 Azeez Basha case?
- The overruling of Azeez Basha: The SC’s decision effectively overruled its previous 1967 ruling, which had declared AMU as not being a minority institution because it was established through a government statute rather than directly by a minority community.
- New Framework for Minority Status: This ruling marks a shift towards a more inclusive interpretation of what constitutes a minority institution, allowing for a reassessment of AMU’s status based on historical context and community intent rather than solely on formal legal definitions.
- Legal Autonomy Reaffirmed: The judgment underscores that legislative recognition does not negate an institution’s minority character, challenging previous interpretations that linked statutory establishment with loss of minority status.
What are the implications of this ruling for Educational rights and Reservations?
- Potential for Reservations: If AMU is recognized as a minority institution, it could reserve seats specifically for Muslim students in various programs without needing to adhere to general reservation policies applicable to Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC) under Article 15(5) of the Constitution.
- Autonomy in Administration: The ruling provides AMU greater autonomy in managing its affairs, including admissions and staff appointments, thereby allowing it to align its policies with the interests of the Muslim community it serves.
- Broader Educational Rights: This decision reinforces the constitutional rights granted to minorities under Article 30(1), ensuring that they can establish and administer educational institutions without undue interference from state laws, thereby promoting educational diversity in India.
Way forward:
- Define Minority Status Framework: Parliament could establish a clear legislative framework based on the Supreme Court’s criteria, ensuring consistent and streamlined recognition of minority institutions across India.
- Balance Autonomy and Accountability: Policies should support minority institutions’ autonomy while maintaining accountability to uphold educational standards, ensuring both community-focused goals and inclusive, high-quality education.
Mains PYQ:
Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bidar Fort
Why in the News?
- The Karnataka Waqf Board has identified 17 monuments within the historic Bidar Fort as its own property.
- These include the 16-Khamba Mosque (Sixteen Pillar Mosque) and 14 tombs of Bahmani rulers and their family members, including Ahmed Shah-IV, Allauddin, Hassan Khan, and others.
About Bidar Fort:
- It is situated in Bidar City on the northern plateau of Karnataka, India.
- The fort’s history dates back over 500 years, beginning with the Western Chalukya dynasty.
- Sultan Ahmed Shah Wali of the Bahmani dynasty made Bidar his capital in 1430 and renovated it into a strong citadel.
- Architectural Features:
- Constructed from trap rock with stone and mortar used for walls.
- Notable for its Islamic and Persian architectural elements, including:
- Seven main entrances
- 37 octagonal bastions equipped with metal-shielded cannons
- Mosques, mahals, and over 30 Islamic monuments
- The entrance gate features a lofty dome painted in bright colors.
About the Bahmani Kingdom
- The Bahmani Kingdom was established in 1347 when Ala-ud-din Hassan Bahman Shan revolted against Muhammad Bin Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate.
- This marked the creation of the first independent Islamic kingdom in South India.
- The kingdom covered areas in present-day Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.
- Initially, the capital was set in Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) but was later moved to Bidar.
- The Bahmani Kingdom had 14 sultans in total, with prominent rulers like Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I, and Firoz Shah.
- One of the kingdom’s notable statesmen, Mahmud Gawan, served as the Prime Minister for 23 years, from 1458 to 1481.
- Under his guidance, the kingdom expanded its territories, including reclaiming Goa from the Vijayanagar Empire.
- The Bahmani Kingdom began to decline around 1518 when Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated its last ruler, leading to the dissolution of the Bahmani rule in the region.
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PYQ:
[2021] With reference to Indian history, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. The Nizamat of Arcot emerged out of Hyderabad State.
2. The Mysore Kingdom emerged out of Vijayanangara Empire.
3. Rohilkhand Kingdom was formed out of the territories occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Loaita Island
Why in the News?
Philippine forces conducted combat exercises in the South China Sea to practice retaking the Loaita Island in the disputed waters.
About Loaita Island
- Loaita Island, also known as Kota Island, has an area of 6.45 hectares and is the 10th largest of the naturally-occurring Spratly Islands.
- The island is administered by the Philippines as part of Kalayaan, Palawan, and is also claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam.
- Loaita Island fringes the Loaita Bank, which includes shoals and reefs, and its western side features calcarenite outcrops visible at low tide.
- The island is covered with mangrove bushes, coconut palms, and other small trees.
- On May 22, 1963, a sovereignty stele was rebuilt on Loaita Island by South Vietnam, marking its claim.
- The Philippines has stationed soldiers on the island since 1968, and the island contains minimal structures serving as shelters for the soldiers.
China also reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippines’ establishment of defined sea boundaries.
About the Flashpoint Reef
- Flashpoint Reef generally refers to Scarborough Shoal (part of the
Spratly Islands), a contested reef in the South China Sea.
- Known as Huangyan Dao in China, this reef has become a focal point of territorial disputes between China and the Philippines.
- Flashpoint Reef lies close to the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ); which asserts control over the entire South China Sea under its nine-dash line claim.
- China took control of the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines, despite an international tribunal ruling in 2016 that invalidated China’s claims.
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Do you know?
- Fiery Cross Reef is a rock located in the Spratly Islands. China first took possession of the feature in 1988.
- Mischief Reef is a Low-Tide Elevation (LTE) within the Philippines’ EEZ. It is part of the submerged continental shelf of the adjacent coastal state, which is the Philippines.
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PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following pairs:
Regions sometimes Country mentioned in news
- Catalonia — Spain
- Crimea — Hungary
- Mindanao — Philippines
- Oromia — Nigeria
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MAHASAGAR Initiative
Why in the News?
- The Indian Navy conducted the 3rd edition of MAHASAGAR Initiative, a high-level virtual interaction led by the Chief of Naval Staff.
- Theme: “Training Cooperation to Mitigate Common Maritime Security Challenges in IOR,” emphasizing the importance of training cooperation to address shared maritime challenges.
About MAHASAGAR Initiative:
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Details |
| About |
- MAHASAGAR stands for “Maritime Heads for Active (MAHA) Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR)”
- SAGAR Doctrine was culminated out of PM’s vision in 2015.
- Launched by Indian Navy in 2023 as part of India’s commitment to maritime security and regional cooperation.
- Held bi-annually.
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| Aims |
- Training Cooperation: Collaborative training efforts among IOR nations.
- Capacity Building: Developing skilled manpower to address maritime security challenges.
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| Members |
- Countries bordering the Indian Ocean, include Bangladesh, Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, and Tanzania.
- Chief of Naval Staff of India leads the interactions.
- Heads of Navies, Maritime Agencies, and Senior Leadership from each participating country.
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PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following in respect of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS):
1. Inaugural IONS was held in India in 2015 under the chairmanship of the Indian Navy.
2. IONS is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime cooperation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Commercial Courts (Amendment) Bill, 2024
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Law and Justice is inviting comments on the draft Commercial Courts (Amendment) Bill, 2024.
The GoI has enacted and amended the Commercial Courts Act, 2015 to ensure that commercial cases are resolved quickly, effectively, and affordably.
- Amendment History:
- The original Commercial Courts Act was enacted in 2015.
- Further amendments were made in 2018 to enhance the dispute resolution system.
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Key features and provisions of the Commercial Courts (Amendment) Bill, 2024:
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Details |
| Purpose |
To enhance the speed and efficiency of resolving commercial disputes through specialized courts and procedures. |
| Dedicated Commercial Courts |
Creation of Commercial Courts at the District level and High Court level to exclusively handle commercial disputes. |
| Arbitration Matters |
Provisions to establish specific courts for handling arbitration-related disputes. |
| Electronic Communication |
Includes provisions for the use of audio-video electronic means (video conferencing) for court proceedings, recording of evidence, and communications. |
| Pre-Institution Mediation |
Mandatory mediation before filing a commercial suit, unless urgent relief is required, aimed at reducing litigation burden. |
| Time-bound Decisions |
Judgment must be pronounced within 60 days of the conclusion of arguments. The judgment must be delivered to the parties via email or other electronic means. |
| Injunction Applications |
Courts must dispose of injunction applications within 90 days of filing, with reasons provided for any delay. |
| Infrastructure |
Provisions for setting up infrastructure like video conferencing facilities and other necessary resources for the functioning of Commercial Courts. |
| Appeals Process |
New provisions for expediting appeals, requiring prior notice to the opposing party before filing. |
| Witness Management |
Provisions to streamline the witness list format, requiring comprehensive details, including addresses and documents, and facilitating electronic submission. |
| Execution Proceedings |
Execution proceedings must be disposed of within six months from the date of filing the application. |
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