Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Caste-based discrimination;
Why in the News?
On October 3, the Supreme Court in Sukanya Shantha v. Union of India (2024) struck down caste-based segregation in prisons, deeming it discriminatory and a violation of prisoners’ fundamental rights to equality.
What are the key findings regarding caste-based discrimination in Indian prisons?
- Prevalence of Caste-based Roles: The recent Supreme Court decision in Sukanya Shantha v. Union of India (2024) highlighted discriminatory practices based on caste within Indian prisons.
- Specifically, prisoners from marginalized castes were relegated to menial labour like cleaning, while other prisoners were assigned tasks such as cooking. This segregation was rooted in prison manuals that cited traditional caste roles.
- Violation of Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court ruled that such caste-based segregation violates Articles 14 (Right to Equality) and 15 (Prohibition of Discrimination) of the Indian Constitution. The Court noted that assigning prison labour based solely on caste perpetuates harmful caste hierarchies and obstructs prisoners’ equal rights to reform and rehabilitation.
- Historical Precedents: Previous cases like Prem Shankar Shukla v. Delhi Administration (1980) and Inacio Manuel Miranda v. State (1988) also struck down irrational classifications within prison rules that discriminated based on economic or social status, reiterating that discrimination in any form within prisons is unconstitutional.
What actions has the Supreme Court mandated to combat this discrimination?
- Abolition of Caste-based Job Assignments: The Supreme Court directed that prison rules segregating labour assignments based on caste be abolished. It ordered that job assignments within prisons must reflect prisoners’ individual abilities and should not perpetuate caste stereotypes.
- Amendment of State Prison Rules: The Court instructed state governments to review and amend existing prison rules that institutionalize caste-based roles, ensuring that prisons become more inclusive and non-discriminatory spaces.
What challenges remain in implementing these reforms effectively?
- Resistance to Cultural Change: Prison administrations may resist or be slow in adapting to changes in labour assignments and other reforms, given the deeply ingrained social norms and bureaucratic rigidity.
- Lack of Resources and Training: Ensuring non-discriminatory job assignments will require retraining prison staff to implement reforms sensitively. Resource limitations and an undertrained workforce can impede effective reform.
- Need for Comprehensive Prison Reforms: While the Court’s decision targets caste-based discrimination, broader systemic reforms are needed, such as improving prison conditions, expanding prisoner rights to amenities, and aligning all states with the Model Prison Manual 2016 for consistent standards across India.
Way forward:
- Comprehensive Training and Monitoring: Implement mandatory training for prison staff on anti-discrimination practices, coupled with regular monitoring to ensure caste-neutral job assignments and adherence to reformed rules.
- Standardized Prison Reform Across States: Uniformly adopt the Model Prison Manual 2016 nationwide, with added emphasis on equality and dignity for all prisoners, ensuring consistent and humane treatment across all states.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, caste system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment. (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Role of AI in infrastructure;
Why in the News?
With 270 million people set to move to Indian cities in the next 20 years, rapid urbanization will bring major challenges. AI can help tackle these by improving data handling and coordination, supporting India’s vision for a developed nation by 2047.
How can AI technologies be effectively integrated into India’s sustainable development strategies?
- AI-Driven Decision Support: AI systems, such as decision support models, can assess impacts of policy decisions (e.g., zoning changes) by simulating various outcomes. This aids urban planning by providing insights into environmental and economic effects.
- Enhancing Urban Infrastructure: AI can improve last-mile connectivity for public transport, making it more efficient and accessible by continuously analyzing data on transit needs and traffic patterns.
- Multimodal Urban Transit Systems: AI can support seamless integration of multiple forms of urban transport, allowing coordinated planning for buses, trains, and other transit modes on a digital platform.
- Digital Twins for Municipal Governance: AI-based digital twins of cities can assist municipal governments in monitoring and predicting urban needs, streamlining operations, and making governance more responsive and data-driven.
- Energy Distribution and Environmental Monitoring: AI technologies can optimize energy distribution networks, as seen in partnerships like Airawat and Adani, and enable high-precision air and water quality monitoring for real-time governance action.
What ethical and regulatory frameworks are necessary to ensure responsible AI deployment?
- Data Privacy and Security: With the vast data required for AI in urban planning, robust data privacy laws are essential to protect individual and community information.
- Transparency and Accountability: AI decisions, especially those affecting urban infrastructure and environmental policies, should be transparent. Regulatory bodies should ensure AI-driven decisions can be audited, and stakeholders are accountable for outcomes.
- Equity and Inclusivity: AI systems must avoid biases that could disadvantage marginalized communities. Regulations should mandate fairness, requiring AI models to consider equitable access and outcomes for all socioeconomic groups.
- Environmental Sustainability Mandates: Given India’s resource constraints, frameworks should prioritize energy-efficient and environmentally conscious AI deployments. Environmental impact assessments should be integrated into the approval process for new AI systems.
What collaborative efforts are required among stakeholders to maximize AI’s impact on sustainable development?
- Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Effective collaboration between government, industry, and research institutions, as demonstrated by Airawat’s partnerships with Adani and TCS, can drive advancements in sustainable energy and urban management systems.
- Government Oversight and Support: Ministries like the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MOHUA) play an essential role in offering guidance and oversight, ensuring AI initiatives align with national sustainability objectives and regulations.
- Research and Academic Collaboration: Involvement of academic institutions such as IITs, as seen with Airawat, brings research rigor and technical expertise to AI solutions, fostering innovation tailored to India’s unique needs.
- Community Engagement: Collaborating with local communities ensures that AI solutions are grounded in real needs, enhancing acceptance and the relevance of AI in addressing local sustainability challenges.
- Standardized AI Governance Platforms: Partnerships, such as those with eGovernance Foundation’s DIGIT platform, are essential to create uniform AI governance tools that can be scaled across multiple cities, promoting a cohesive approach to sustainable development across India.
Mains PYQ:
Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Renewable energy;
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu, a leader in wind energy with turbines over 30 years old, introduced a new policy for upgrading old windmills in August 2024. However, wind energy producers opposed it, took the issue to the Madras High Court, and obtained a stay.
What is Tamil Nadu’s wind power capacity?
- Installed Capacity: As of November 2023, Tamil Nadu has an installed wind energy capacity of approximately 10,377.97 MW, making it the second-largest wind energy producer in India after Gujarat. This represents about 23% of India’s total installed wind capacity.
- Age of Turbines: Many turbines in Tamil Nadu are over 30 years old, which raises concerns about efficiency and technological advancements5.
- Potential for Repowering: The state has a repowering potential of over 7,387 MW, which could significantly enhance its energy generation capabilities if older turbines are replaced or refurbished.
What about national wind energy capacity?
- Total Potential: The National Institute of Wind Energy (NIWE) estimates that India has a wind power potential of 1,163.86 GW at a height of 150 meters, ranking fourth globally for installed capacity.
- Current Utilization: At 120 meters (the standard height for modern turbines), India’s potential is around 695.51 GW, with only about 6.5% currently utilized nationally and nearly 15% in Tamil Nadu.
- Leading States: The states contributing most to India’s wind power include Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh, which collectively account for approximately 93.37% of the country’s installed capacity.
What does the repowering and refurbishing of wind turbines mean?
- Repowering involves replacing old turbines with new ones to enhance efficiency and output. Refurbishing includes upgrading components like gearboxes and blades to improve performance without complete replacement.
- Regulatory Framework: The Tamil Nadu government introduced a new policy aimed at facilitating these processes. However, generators argue that the policy lacks provisions that effectively promote wind energy generation and financial viability.
Why are wind energy generators opposing the new policy of the TN government?
- Concerns from Generators: Wind energy generators have opposed the new “Tamil Nadu Repowering, Refurbishment and Life Extension Policy for Wind Power Projects – 2024”, claiming it does not adequately support the promotion of wind energy generation. They have approached the Madras High Court and received a stay on the policy implementation.
- Financial Viability Issues: The opposition stems from concerns that repowered turbines will be treated as new installations without banking facilities for generated energy, impacting financial returns on investments.
- Generators emphasize that without a commercially beneficial framework, investments in repowering will decline.
Way forward:
- Revise the Policy to Ensure Financial Viability: The Tamil Nadu government should amend the policy to provide incentives like banking facilities for energy generated from repowered turbines, making the projects financially viable for investors.
- Promote Technological Advancements and Infrastructure Upgrades: The policy should focus on facilitating the replacement of old turbines with modern, high-capacity ones and improving wind energy transmission infrastructure to harness the full potential of Tamil Nadu’s wind resources.
Mains PYQ:
Q Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above bjective? Explain. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NHA estimates
Why in the News?
National Health Accounts (NHA) data for 2021-22 shows a decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) on healthcare due to increased government health expenditure (GHE) and an enhanced public healthcare framework.
What are NHA estimates?
- The NHA estimates are based on the globally accepted framework of ‘A System of Health Accounts (SHA), 2011’ which facilitates inter-country comparisons.
- This report provides a systematic description of the financial flows in India’s health system by different sources, how the money is spent, how healthcare is provided, and the nature of healthcare services that are used.
|
Key Observations from the NHA 2021-22 Data:
|
Details |
| Decline in Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE) |
OOPE has decreased due to increased government investment and improved public healthcare infrastructure, making healthcare more accessible and affordable. |
| Rise in Government Health Expenditure (GHE) |
GHE as a percentage of GDP rose from 1.13% in 2014-15 to 1.84% in 2021-22. GHE’s share of overall government spending increased from 3.94% to 6.12%, reflecting the government’s commitment to public healthcare. |
| Increase in Per Capita Health Spending |
Per capita health spending tripled from ₹1,108 in 2014-15 to ₹3,169 in 2021-22, allowing for more investment in infrastructure, workforce, and services. |
| Expansion of Social Security Expenditure (SSE) |
SSE on healthcare grew from 5.7% to 8.7% of Total Health Expenditure (THE), helping protect individuals from catastrophic health expenses and reducing OOPE. |
| Growth of Government-Funded Insurance Schemes |
Programs like Ayushman Bharat and state-level health insurance schemes increased healthcare access for economically vulnerable populations, reducing reliance on personal funds. |
| Foundation for Universal Health Coverage (UHC) |
The decline in OOPE and increased public health spending are integral to achieving UHC, aiming for equitable healthcare access for all citizens. |
PYQ:
[2021] “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.
[2019] In India, the term “Public Key Infrastructure” is used in the context of:
(a) Digital security infrastructure
(b) Food security infrastructure
(c) Health care and education infrastructure
(d) Telecommunication and transportation infrastructure |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary
Why in the News?
A decomposed carcass of an elephant was discovered in the Khanapara range of the Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary.
About Amchang Wildlife Sanctuary:
|
Details |
| Location |
Eastern fringe of Guwahati, Assam.
Extends from the Brahmaputra River in the north to the hilly forests of Meghalaya in the south. |
| Formation |
Established in 2004 by combining Amchang, South Amchang, and Khanapara reserved forests |
| Flora and Fauna |
Tropical moist deciduous forest, with semi-evergreen areas in valleys and river depressions.
- Fauna: Asiatic elephants, Chinese pangolin, slow loris, Assamese macaque, rhesus monkey, hoolock gibbon, leopard, Leopard cat, jungle cat, sambar, barking deer, red serow, Malayan giant squirrel, Himalayan porcupine.
- Vultures and raptors: White-backed vulture, Slender-billed vulture, White-cheeked hill partridge, Grey peacock pheasant,
- Birds: Kaleej pheasant, Greater adjutant stork, Great pied hornbill, Oriental pied hornbill, Green imperial pigeon.
|
| Conservation Status |
Recognized as an Important Bird & Biodiversity Area (IBA). |
PYQ:
[2018] In which one of the following States is Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary located?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Manipur
(c) Meghalaya
(d) Nagaland |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flashpoint Reef
Why in the News?
China reasserted its claim over Flashpoint Reef (the Scarborough Shoal) in the South China Sea following Philippines’ establishment of defined sea boundaries.
Do you know?
- Fiery Cross Reef is a rock located in the Spratly Islands. China first took possession of the feature in 1988.
- Mischief Reef is a Low-Tide Elevation (LTE) within the Philippines’ EEZ. It is part of the submerged continental shelf of the adjacent coastal state, which is the Philippines.
|
About the Flashpoint Reef
- It generally refers to Scarborough Shoal, a contested reef in the South China Sea.
- Known as Huangyan Dao in China, this reef has become a focal point of territorial disputes between China and the Philippines.
- It lies close to the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) but is also claimed by China, which asserts control over nearly the entire South China Sea under its nine-dash line claim.
- China took control of the shoal in 2012 after a standoff with the Philippines, despite an international tribunal ruling in 2016 that invalidated China’s claims.
Its significance in the South China Sea
- It is strategically located near key shipping lanes that are essential for global trade, with about one-third of global shipping passing through the South China Sea.
- Its proximity to the Philippines, Vietnam, and China makes it an ideal location for military outposts, providing control over surrounding waters and a base for monitoring activities in the region.
- Control over Scarborough Shoal could allow China to extend its air and naval reach, reinforcing its influence and deterrence capabilities over other Southeast Asian nations.
- The South China Sea, including Scarborough Shoal, is believed to hold vast reserves of oil and natural gas—up to 11 billion barrels of oil and 190 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.
- This reef is strategically important due to its proximity to rich fishing grounds and potential undersea mineral resources.
PYQ:
[2011] Southeast Asia has captivated the attention of global community over space and time as a geostrategically significant region. Which among the following is the most convincing explanation for this global perspective?
(a) It was the hot theatre during the Second World War
(b) Its location between the Asian powers of China and India
(c) It was the arena of superpower confrontation during the Cold War period
(d) Its location between the Pacific and Indian oceans and its preeminent maritime character |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: QS Asia University Rankings; India's progress
Why in the News?
India made impressive gains, with 2 institutions in the top 50 and 7 in the top 100 of the QS Asia Rankings 2025.
About QS University Rankings:
|
Details |
| Overview |
Annual ranking of global universities, published by Quacquarelli Symonds (QS). |
| Criteria |
– Academic Reputation: 40%
– Employer Reputation: 10%
– Faculty/Student Ratio: 20%
– International Ratios: 5%
– Citations per Faculty: 20% |
| Coverage |
Ranks over 1,300 institutions across 100+ countries. |
| Key Indicators |
– Academic Reputation (survey of academic experts)
– Employer Reputation (survey of employers)
– Citations per Faculty (research influence) |
| Regional Rankings |
Includes regional rankings for Asia, Latin America, Europe, etc. |
| Annual Release |
Published annually, typically in June. |
Key Insights from QS Asia Rankings 2025
The 2025 rankings cover 984 institutions across 25 countries in Eastern, Southern, South-Eastern, and Central Asia, offering a detailed comparison of institutional performance in the region.
- India made impressive gains, with 2 institutions in the top 50 and seven in the top 100 of the QS Asia Rankings 2025.
- India has the highest number of ranked institutions, dominating the top 10 universities in Southern Asia with seven Indian institutions.
- Top Rankings for India:
- Top 50: IIT Delhi (44th) and IIT Bombay (48th).
- Top 100: Includes IIT Madras (56), IIT Kharagpur (60), Indian Institute of Science (62), IIT Kanpur (67), and University of Delhi (81).
- Top 150: Features IIT Guwahati, IIT Roorkee, JNU, Chandigarh University (120), UPES (148), and Vellore Institute of Technology (150).
- IIT Delhi achieved India’s highest rank at 44th with a 99% employer reputation score, while IIT Bombay follows with 99.5% employer reputation and 96.6% academic reputation.
- University of Delhi improved its ranking from 94th to 81st, with a high score of 96.4% in the International Research Network indicator.
- Anna University scored a perfect 100 in Papers per Faculty, highlighting its strong research output.
- 15 universities scored over 99% in the Staff with PhD indicator, reflecting India’s focus on qualified faculty and teaching quality.
- North Eastern Hill University and University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, both scored 100 in faculty-student ratio, indicating top-tier academic credibility.
PYQ:
[2014] Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students. Discuss in light of the growing challenges. |
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