Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Common Noctule Bats (Nyctalus noctula)
Why in the News?
The Common Noctule Bats are surf over the storm winds when they migrate thousands of miles across continents, reveals new research.
About the Common Noctule Bats (Nyctalus noctula)
- The common noctule bat (Nyctalus noctula) is one of the largest bat species in Europe.
- It has a body length of 7–9 cm, a wingspan of 32–40 cm, and weighs between 18–40 grams.
- Its fur is reddish-brown to golden-brown, darker on the back and lighter underneath, while its wings are long and narrow, designed for fast and sustained flight.
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- Common noctules are known for their swift and high-altitude flight, reaching heights of up to 3,000 meters.
- They are primarily insectivorous, feeding on moths, beetles, and other flying insects.
- Their echolocation abilities allow them to detect and hunt prey with precision, even in complete darkness.
- Although classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, common noctule bats face several threats, including habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization.
- Habitat:
- The common noctule bat is widely distributed across Europe, North Africa, and Asia, extending into Siberia and parts of China.
- It is migratory, especially in central and eastern Europe, traveling long distances between summer breeding sites and winter hibernation sites.
- It inhabits forests and woodlands, where it uses hollow trees for roosting, as well as urban areas, where it often roosts in buildings, attics, and bat boxes.
- These bats also thrive in wetlands and grasslands, hunting over water bodies and open fields where insect populations are abundant.
PYQ:
[2012] Consider the following kinds of organisms:
1. Bat
2. Bee
3. Bird
Which of the above is/are pollinating agent/agents?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Zebrafish
Why in the News?
A recent research revealed that the Zebrafish (a popular aquarium fish) can regenerate damaged heart muscle within 60 days, a capability absent in humans. The Hmga1 protein plays a key role in this process, offering potential insights for heart repair in mammals.
Discovery of Hmga1’s Role in Zebrafish Heart Regeneration:
- In zebrafish, the Hmga1 protein plays a pivotal role in activating dormant genes necessary for regeneration.
- It removes molecular “roadblocks” on chromatin (DNA-packaging structures), shifting genes from an inactive state to active regeneration mode.
- The Hmga1 gene, active during embryonic development in mice and humans, becomes inactive after birth.
- In zebrafish, however, the gene remains active during heart regeneration, enabling the repair process.
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About Zebrafish
- Zebrafish are small freshwater fish measuring 2-3 cm in length.
- It is named for the horizontal blue stripes running along their bodies.
- It is native to South Asia’s Indo-Gangetic plains and is commonly found in paddy fields, stagnant water, and streams.
- It is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN.
Features of Zebrafish
- Zebrafishes are known for their ability to regenerate almost all major organs, including the heart, brain, eyes, and spinal cord.
- This unique trait makes them an important model in developmental biology and disease research.
- They share approximately 70% of their genes with humans.
- Over 80% of human disease-related genes have counterparts in zebrafish, making them valuable for studying genetic disorders.
- They produce hundreds of embryos in a single clutch, enabling large-scale studies.
- They are now preferred over rodent (guinea pigs) models for certain vertebrate development studies.
- Widely used for regenerative biology and drug discovery due to their cost-effectiveness and rapid breeding.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green GDP
Why in the News?
For the first time in India, Chhattisgarh has introduced an innovative framework that integrates the ecosystem services of its forests into the calculation of Green Gross Domestic Product (Green GDP). This initiative highlights the critical role forests play in supporting both environmental sustainability and economic growth.
Highlights of the Chhattisgarh’s Plan
- Forest contributions like carbon absorption, climate regulation, and biodiversity preservation will now be formally quantified and included in the state’s economic planning.
- The initiative ensures forests are valued not just for their resources but for their broader ecological services.
- With 44% of its land under forest cover, Chhattisgarh’s natural resources are vital for the livelihoods of millions and play a significant role in mitigating climate change.
- The initiative aligns with ‘Developed India 2047’ vision, focusing on long-term ecological and economic sustainability.
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About Green GDP
- Green GDP is an alternative metric for assessing economic growth that includes the environmental costs of economic activities.
- It subtracts the value of natural resource depletion and environmental degradation from traditional GDP to provide a more accurate picture of economic well-being.
- Introduced in the 1993 United Nations Handbook of National Accounting: Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting under the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) framework.
- Key Features:
- Aims to measure the sustainability of economic growth.
- Focuses on valuing ecosystem services like carbon sequestration, soil conservation, and water resources.
- Provides insights into the trade-offs between economic growth and environmental conservation.
- Calculation:
- Green GDP = Traditional GDP – Costs of Environmental Degradation – Costs of Resource Depletion.
- Challenges: Incomplete environmental data, reliance on subjective assumptions, difficulty in valuing ecosystem services, and the absence of a universal calculation framework, often oversimplifying nature’s intrinsic worth.
Government Initiatives for Green GDP Accounting
- Green National Account Framework: It integrates environmental considerations into national accounting systems. It captures the value of natural resources, costs of pollution, and benefits of ecosystem services like clean air and water.
- System of Environmental-Economic Accounting, 2012 (SEEA): It was adopted by India under UN guidelines to create databases for natural capital accounting and informed policymaking.
- RBI Estimates: Green GDP for 2019 was ₹167 trillion, reflecting a 10% adjustment from traditional GDP. It is supported by organizations like TERI and Indian Statistical Institute to refine valuation methodologies.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) and its Functions
Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change has introduced amendments to the rules governing the selection of experts in the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC).
Key Highlights of the Revised GEAC Rules:
- Conflict of Interest Disclosure: Expert members must disclose any direct or indirect interests that may conflict with their duties. Conflicted members must recuse themselves from decision-making unless specifically requested by the committee.
- Transparency Measures: All members are required to submit a detailed record of their professional affiliations from the past 10 years to ensure accountability and unbiased evaluations.
- Participation Restrictions: Experts with conflicts of interest must report them before meetings and take steps to ensure that their affiliations do not affect GEAC decisions.
- Enhanced Governance: The revised rules aim to strengthen the regulatory process for genetically modified organisms (GMOs), ensuring fair and impartial decision-making.
- Supreme Court Compliance: The amendments align with the Supreme Court’s directive (2023) to address concerns of conflict of interest in GM crop approval processes, boosting public trust in GEAC’s role.
- Improved Operational Integrity: These changes emphasize transparency, ensuring that scientific appraisals and policy decisions remain free from external influence.
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What is Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC)?
- The GEAC is the apex regulatory body overseeing activities related to genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in India, particularly their release into the environment.
- It is established under the Rules for the Manufacture, Use/Import/Export, and Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells (Rules, 1989) framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Structural Mandate:
- Operates under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC).
- Composition:
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- Chairperson: Special Secretary/Additional Secretary of MoEF&CC.
- Co-Chairperson: Representative from the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
- Includes 24 members, representing key institutions like the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), and Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB).
- Meets monthly for appraisals and discussions.
Powers and Functions of GEAC:
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- Approves or denies proposals for environmental release of genetically engineered organisms (including GM crops).
- Exercises the power to take punitive actions under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for violations.
- Monitors large-scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial production.
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- Evaluates activities involving the environmental release of GMOs and their products, including experimental field trials.
- Ensures compliance with safety protocols to minimize environmental risks.
- Reviews applications for the import, export, manufacture, and storage of GM organisms and cells.
- Makes recommendations based on a comprehensive assessment of environmental and health impacts.
- Addresses concerns related to conflicts of interest and ensures impartiality in decision-making.
- Engages with stakeholders, including farmers and environmentalists, to maintain transparency and address public concerns.
PYQ:
[2015] The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee is constituted under the:
(a) Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006
(b) Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999
(c) Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
(d) Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Initiatives related to climate change;
Why in the News?
India recently shared a report about its efforts to fight climate change. The report includes details about how much greenhouse gases (GHG) the country produces and the steps it has taken to reduce these emissions as part of its global climate promises.
What is the Biennial Update Report (BUR)?
- The Biennial Update Report (BUR) is a detailed report that developing countries, including India, submit to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This report outlines their efforts toward climate action, as mandated under the Paris Agreement.
- BURs include an overview of national circumstances related to climate, socio-economic factors, and forestry, along with a comprehensive inventory of national greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their sources. They also detail national action plans for emission mitigation and the support received for climate-related initiatives.
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What are the BUR-4’s highlights and submissions on emissions inventory?
- Total GHG Emissions: In 2020, India’s total GHG emissions were reported at 2,959 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent. After accounting for land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF), net emissions were 2,437 million tonnes, reflecting a 7.93% decrease from 2019 levels.
- Reduction in Emissions Intensity: The report indicates that from 2005 to 2020, India’s emissions intensity of GDP decreased by 36%. This metric measures GHG emissions per unit of economic output, highlighting improved energy efficiency and a shift towards renewable energy sources.
- Sectoral Contributions: The energy sector was the largest contributor to emissions, accounting for 75.66%, with electricity production alone responsible for 39% of total emissions. Agriculture contributed 13.72%, while industrial processes and waste management accounted for 8.06% and 2.56%, respectively.
What does BUR-4 say about the status of India’s climate commitments?
- The BUR-4 outlines India’s commitment to its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, aiming for a 45% reduction in GDP emission intensity by 2030 compared to 2005 levels.
- The report notes that between 2005 and 2021, India created an additional carbon sink of approximately 2.29 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through enhanced forest and tree cover, contributing significantly to its climate goals.
What has the report said about India’s tech needs for climate-conscious growth? (Way forward)
- Advanced Technologies for Low-Carbon Growth: The report emphasizes the necessity for adopting cutting-edge technologies across various sectors, including solar energy, wind energy, bioenergy, electric vehicles, and carbon capture and storage.
- Capacity Building: Strengthening institutional frameworks and workforce capabilities is essential for effective implementation of climate policies and programs. This involves training personnel and developing skills necessary to manage and operate advanced technologies.
- Financial and Technological Support: The BUR-4 identifies a significant gap in technology transfer from developed countries, which hampers India’s ability to implement necessary climate solutions. India calls for increased international cooperation to facilitate technology transfer, eliminate intellectual property barriers, and provide financial assistance to support its climate initiatives.
- Integration of Technology in Key Sectors: The report highlights the importance of integrating advanced technologies into critical sectors that contribute to emissions, such as agriculture and energy.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Significance of Remittances;
Why in the News?
In 2024, India received a record $129.1 billion in remittances which marked the highest share for any country since 2000 as per the World Bank.
What are the Trends in Remittances flow?
- Record Inflows: In 2024, India received an estimated $129.1 billion in remittances, marking the highest amount ever recorded for any country in a single year.
- Global Share: India accounted for 14.3% of global remittances, the highest share since the turn of the millennium.
- Growth Rate: The growth rate of remittances in 2024 was approximately 5.8%, a significant increase from 1.2% in 2023.
- Top Recipients: Following India, Mexico and China received the largest remittances, with Mexico at $68 billion and China at $48 billion.
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What are the Factors Responsible for High Remittances in India?
- Large Diaspora: India has one of the largest diaspora populations globally, with over 18 million Indians living abroad, contributing significantly to remittance inflows.
- Shift to High-Income Countries: There has been a trend of Indian migrants moving to high-income economies such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Australia, where job opportunities are more abundant.
- Diverse Skill Levels: Indian migrants include highly skilled professionals (in sectors like IT and healthcare) as well as semi-skilled and unskilled labourers, broadening the scope for remittance generation.
- Recovery of Job Markets: The recovery of job markets in high-income countries post-pandemic has driven an increase in remittance flows as employment opportunities have improved.
What is the significance of high Remittances?
- Economic Support for Households: Remittances serve as a crucial source of income for many families in India, supporting their daily needs and contributing to overall household welfare.
- Impact on National Economy: In 2024, remittances constituted approximately 3.3% of India’s GDP, highlighting their role in bolstering the economy.
- Comparison with Other Financial Flows: Remittances have outpaced other forms of external financial flows, such as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and Official Development Assistance (ODA), indicating their importance for funding current account deficits and fiscal shortfalls in low- and middle-income countries.
- Long-Term Growth Trends: Over the past decade, remittances to low-and-middle-income countries have increased by 57%, underscoring their growing significance as a stable source of income compared to declining FDI.
What are the negative impacts of brain drain?
Even though remittances are good for the country, they have negative signals for any country like brain drain.
- Loss of Skilled Labor: Brain drain leads to a significant depletion of skilled professionals in the home country, resulting in shortages in critical sectors such as healthcare, education, and technology.
- This loss hampers the country’s ability to innovate and develop, as there are fewer qualified individuals to drive progress and maintain essential services.
- Economic Consequences: The exodus of skilled workers results in decreased tax revenues for the home country, which can limit public spending on infrastructure and social programs. This financial shortfall can stunt economic growth and development, exacerbating existing challenges within the economy.
- Impeded National Development: Countries experiencing brain drain may face slower overall development due to the loss of human capital. This can create a cycle of underdevelopment, where the lack of skilled labour leads to reduced investment opportunities and further emigration, perpetuating the cycle of talent loss and economic stagnation.
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Way forward:
- Enhance Domestic Opportunities: Strengthen education, healthcare, and innovation ecosystems to retain skilled professionals by providing competitive salaries, career growth, and improved living standards.
- Engage Diaspora Strategically: Leverage the Indian diaspora for knowledge transfer, investments, and partnerships, creating pathways for their contribution to national development while maintaining ties with homegrown talent.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to insolvency;
Why in the News?
The current state of cross-border insolvency laws is poor, with rules that cannot be enforced and slow progress in making necessary changes. This situation needs to be fixed.
How did the evolution of the cross-border insolvency framework in India?
- Post-Independence Legal Framework: After Independence, India’s insolvency laws focused on domestic cases and did not address cross-border insolvency, leaving a significant gap in the legal framework.
- Committee Recommendations and IBC Drafting: In the 2000s, committees like the Eradi, Mitra, and Irani Committees recommended adopting the UNCITRAL Model Law, leading to the drafting of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC) in 2015, which initially focused on domestic insolvencies.
- Incorporation of Cross-Border Provisions: Sections 234 and 235 were introduced in 2016 to facilitate cross-border insolvency, allowing reciprocal agreements and assistance from foreign courts, though their effectiveness was limited by the lack of implementation and reciprocal arrangements.
What are the key challenges in adopting a cross-border insolvency framework in India?
- Outdated Framework: Current legal provisions, such as Sections 234 and 235 of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), remain non-notified and unenforceable, rendering them ineffective. Reliance on ad hoc protocols like in the Jet Airways case increases judicial burden, delays resolutions, and reduces asset value.
- Jurisdictional Issues: Section 60(5) of the IBC limits the jurisdiction of civil courts over insolvency matters, leaving the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) as the sole authority. However, the NCLT lacks the power to recognize or enforce foreign judgments.
- Lack of Reciprocal Arrangements: The absence of reciprocal agreements between India and other nations for cross-border insolvency resolution creates barriers to effective cooperation.
- Inefficient Court Communication: Outdated communication methods between Indian and foreign courts hinder transparency and efficiency in handling cross-border insolvency matters.
- Legislative Gaps: The delay in adopting structured frameworks, such as the UNCITRAL Model Law, highlights a critical regulatory gap in managing cross-border insolvencies.
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How does India’s proposed legislation align with international standards, such as the UNCITRAL Model Law?
- India’s proposed amendments to the IBC aim to incorporate elements of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency, which provides a structured framework for international cooperation and coordination in insolvency matters.
- By adopting this model, India seeks to enhance its legal framework to better manage cross-border insolvencies and align with global best practices.
- The recommendations from various expert committees, including the Insolvency Law Committee and the Parliamentary Standing Committee, emphasize the need for a comprehensive approach that includes provisions for recognizing foreign insolvency proceedings and facilitating smoother communication between jurisdictions.
What implications do these reforms have for foreign investment and economic growth in India?
- Attracting Foreign Investment: A robust cross-border insolvency framework will enhance investor confidence by ensuring that their rights are protected in case of insolvency. This predictability is crucial for attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) into India, as investors seek assurance that their interests will be managed effectively across borders.
- Facilitating Corporate Restructuring: Improved legal mechanisms for cross-border insolvency will enable Indian companies operating internationally to restructure more efficiently when faced with financial difficulties. This can lead to better asset recovery and preservation of business value, ultimately contributing to economic stability and growth.
- Strengthening Economic Ties: By aligning its insolvency laws with international standards, India can foster stronger economic relationships with other nations, facilitating smoother trade and investment flows. This alignment is essential as India’s economic integration with global markets continues to grow.
Way forward:
- Adopt UNCITRAL Model Law: Expedite the implementation of the UNCITRAL Model Law on Cross-Border Insolvency to establish a predictable, structured framework for managing international insolvency cases, fostering investor confidence and global integration.
- Enhance NCLT Capacity: Strengthen the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) with expanded jurisdiction and training to effectively handle cross-border insolvency cases, alongside modernizing judicial coordination mechanisms through international guidelines like JIN.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: KM3NeT Project
Why in the News?
Scientists are deploying two advanced telescopes under the Mediterranean Sea as part of the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) project.
What is KM3NeT Project?
- The KM3NeT is a European research initiative launched in 2012 and located in the Mediterranean Sea.
- It uses advanced water Cherenkov detectors to study high-energy neutrinos and their origins, as well as fundamental neutrino properties.
- ARCA (Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Sicily, Italy, at 3,400 meters depth, studying high-energy cosmic neutrinos.
- ORCA (Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Toulon, France, at 2,475 meters depth, focusing on neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy.
- It detects Cherenkov radiation, faint light produced when neutrinos interact with water molecules, using 6,210 optical modules.
- Design:
- Modular construction with plans to deploy 12,000 optical modules on 600 vertical strings, anchored to the seabed.
- Connected via electro-optical networks to shore stations for power and data processing.
About Neutrinos
- Neutrinos are subatomic particles, similar to electrons but without an electric charge.
- Neutrinos are the 2nd most abundant particles in the universe after Photons.
- Approximately a billion neutrinos pass through a cubic centimetre of space every second.
- First detected in 1959, though their existence was theorized in 1931.
- High-energy neutrinos, which originate from exotic astrophysical events like supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, or colliding stars, are of particular interest to scientists because:
- Neutrinos can travel through dense cosmic environments, such as the dust-shrouded centre of the Milky Way, where visible light telescopes fail.
- Neutrino detection depends on observing Cherenkov radiation — light flashes produced when neutrinos interact with water or ice molecules.
- Darkness is essential for detecting the faint flashes of Cherenkov radiation.
- Why study neutrinos?
- Neutrinos provide insights into particle physics, including neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy, challenging the Standard Model.
- Neutrinos pass through dense cosmic regions, offering access to areas invisible to traditional telescopes.
- Studying neutrinos aids in tracing cosmic ray origins and understanding dark matter, unlocking mysteries of the universe.
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PYQ:
[2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the planning commission as a mega-science project under the 11th Five-year plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
- Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
- Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
- Neutrinos have a negligible, but non-zero mass.
- Trillions of Neutrinos pass through the human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Banana Cultivation
Why in the News?
India has seen a 10x increase in banana exports over the past decade and now targets $1 billion in exports within the next five years. In the fiscal year 2022-23, India’s banana production was estimated at around 34.9 million metric tons.
Do you know?
- Banana is the second most important fruit crop in India after Mango, contributing 33% to total fruit production.
- India is the largest producer of bananas globally, contributing 26.5% to the world’s total banana production (FAO, 2021).
- Andhra Pradesh is the leading state with 56.84 lakh tonnes (16.5% of national production) followed by Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
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Banana Cultivation in India
- Bananas thrive in tropical and subtropical climates with temperatures between 15°C and 35°C and high humidity.
- Common varieties: Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Grand Naine, Nendran, Rasthali, Poovan, Red Banana, Monthan, Safed Velchi, Lal Velchi, Ardhapuri, Karpuravalli, Elakki Bale, Basrai, Amrit Sagar, Champa, Chinia, Malbhog, Rajapuri, and Yelakki.
- The crop requires well–drained, loamy soil with a pH of 6.5–7.5 and 1,800–2,000 mm of water annually, often supported by drip irrigation.
- Fusarium Wilt is the most common disease affecting Bananas.
- Seasons for Planting:
- Maharashtra: Kharif (June–July) and Rabi (October–November).
- Tamil Nadu: February–April and November–December.
- Kerala: Rainfed crop (April–May) and irrigated crop (August–September).
PYQ:
[2011] Recently, our scientists have discovered a new and distinct species of banana plant which attains a height of about 11 metres and has orange coloured fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been discovered?
(a) Andaman Islands
(b) Anaimalai Forests
(c) Maikala Hills
(d) Tropical rain forests of northeast |
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Trinidad and Tobago
Why in the News?
The government of Trinidad and Tobago declared a state of emergency on December 30, 2024, in response to escalating violence in the Caribbean nation.
About Trinidad and Tobago
- Geography:
- Located in the southern Caribbean, near Venezuela.
- A dual-island nation consisting of Trinidad (4,768 sq. km) and Tobago (300 sq. km).
- Total land area: 5,128 sq. km.
- Climate: Tropical, with a dry season from January to May and a rainy season from June to December.
- Population:
- Approximately 1.5 million people.
- Ethnic Composition: African (36.3%), Indian (35.4%), Mixed (22.8%), European, Chinese, and others.
- Religions: Christianity (64%), Hinduism (18%), Islam (5%), and others.
- Capital and Cities:
- Capital: Port of Spain (Trinidad).
- Other key cities: San Fernando, Chaguanas, and Scarborough (Tobago).
- Political System:
- Government Type: Parliamentary democracy under a constitutional republic.
- Member of the Commonwealth of Nations.
- Gained independence from the UK on August 31, 1962, and became a republic in 1976.
- Infrastructure:
- Ports: Port of Spain, Point Lisas, and Scarborough are critical for trade.
- Airports: Piarco International Airport (Trinidad) and A.N.R. Robinson International Airport (Tobago).
- Culture and Heritage:
- Known for the Carnival, one of the world’s largest pre-Lenten celebrations.
- Birthplace of Calypso music, Soca, and the Steelpan (the only acoustic musical instrument invented in the 20th century).
Geo-Political Significance
- T&T is a major exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petrochemicals (methanol and ammonia), supplying markets in the U.S., Europe, and Latin America.
- It is positioned at the crossroads of the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean, serving as a gateway between North and South America.
- It is a founding member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) advocating for regional economic integration, disaster response, and collective security.
- It is a active member of the Commonwealth and the United Nations, pushing for climate change resilience and sustainable development initiatives.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline;
Mains level: Geopolitical tension in Europe;
Why in the News?
For over 40 years, Russian gas has been transported to Europe through Ukraine, but these supplies are set to cease on January 1, following Ukraine’s Naftogaz decision not to renew its most recent five-year transit agreement with Russia’s Gazprom.
Note: Student you can use this content in Prelims for facts related to map and mains exam for substantiate the argument related to geopolitical tension in Europe.
Do you know about the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline?
- The Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, also known as the Brotherhood pipeline, is a significant natural gas export route from Russia to Europe, primarily traversing Ukraine. The pipeline starts at the Urengoy gas field in northwest Siberia and extends southwest to Uzhhorod, Ukraine, near the Slovakian border.
- It spans approximately 4,500 kilometers (2,800 miles), with about 1,160 kilometers (720 miles) located in Ukraine.
- The pipeline was commissioned in 1984 and has been a crucial part of Russia’s gas export strategy to Europe.
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What is the volume of gas supplied through Ukraine?
- Historical Context: At its peak, the pipeline system, including the Urengoy-Pomary-Uzhgorod pipeline, delivered approximately 201 billion cubic meters (bcm) of gas to Europe in 2018. However, this volume has drastically decreased over the years due to geopolitical tensions and the ongoing conflict in Ukraine.
- Recent Figures: In 2023, only about 15 bcm of gas was shipped through Ukraine, a significant drop from 65 bcm when the last five-year contract began in 2020.
What are the Possible Impacts?
- Economic Consequences for Ukraine: Ukraine is expected to lose up to $1 billion annually in transit fees due to the cessation of gas flows. To mitigate this loss, it plans to quadruple gas transmission tariffs for domestic consumers, which could burden its industry with additional costs exceeding $38.2 million per year.
- Impact on Gazprom: Russia’s Gazprom is projected to lose around $5 billion in gas sales as a result of this halted transit.
- European Energy Security: The European Union has prepared for this transition and does not anticipate immediate impacts on consumer prices.
- Countries like Slovakia and Austria have secured alternative gas supplies from sources such as Norway and LNG imports from the U.S. and Qatar.
- Hungary will continue receiving Russian gas through the TurkStream pipeline under the Black Sea.
TurkStream pipeline
- Energy Crisis in Moldova: The cessation has led to an energy emergency in Transdniestria, a breakaway region of Moldova that relies on these transit flows, resulting in cutoffs of heating and hot water supplies for residents
Way forward:
- Enhanced Energy Diversification: Europe and Ukraine should continue to strengthen alternative energy supply routes, including LNG imports and renewable energy projects, to reduce reliance on Russian gas and ensure long-term energy security.
- Support for Affected Regions: Provide immediate humanitarian and financial assistance to regions like Transdniestria and Moldova for energy infrastructure upgrades, while encouraging energy-efficient solutions to mitigate the crisis.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Initiatives related to agriculture;
Why in the News?
The government extended two crop insurance schemes, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS), for another year until 2025-26. It also set aside ₹824.77 crore to improve these schemes using advanced technology.
What are the provisions and key features of PMFBY?
- Comprehensive Risk Coverage: PMFBY provides coverage against all non-preventable natural risks from pre-sowing to post-harvest stages, including droughts, floods, and pests.
- Subsidised Premium Rates: Farmers pay a fixed premium of 1.5% for rabi crops, 2% for kharif crops, and 5% for cash crops. The remaining premium is shared between the central and state governments.
- Financial Support: It offers financial assistance to farmers suffering from crop loss due to unforeseen events, aiming to stabilise their income and encourage modern agricultural practices.
- Technology Integration: The scheme incorporates technological initiatives like YES-TECH for yield estimation and WINDS for weather data collection, enhancing efficiency in claim settlement.
Why was RWBCIS introduced?
- Financial Protection Against Weather Risks: RWBCIS was introduced to safeguard farmers from financial losses caused by adverse weather conditions such as rainfall, temperature fluctuations, wind, and humidity, which can severely impact crop yields and farmer income.
- Comprehensive Coverage for Various Crops: The scheme aims to provide insurance protection for a wide range of crops, including food crops, oilseeds, and commercial or horticultural crops, thereby mitigating the impact of natural calamities like droughts and floods on farmers’ livelihoods.
What is the difference between PMFBY and RWBCIS?
|
PMFBY (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana) |
RWBCIS (Restructured Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme) |
| Launch |
Launched in 2016 (replacing NAIS and MNAIS). |
Introduced in 2016 to safeguard farmers against adverse weather conditions. |
| Primary Focus |
Protects against crop failure due to natural calamities, pests, diseases. |
Provides insurance based on weather parameters (e.g., rainfall, temperature, wind) to mitigate financial losses from weather extremes. |
| Risk Assessment Method |
– Area-based approach with crop-cutting experiments, remote sensing, etc.
– Yield vs. threshold yield determines compensation. |
– Weather-based triggers using data from weather stations.
– Predefined thresholds (e.g., rainfall levels) activate payouts automatically. |
| Premium Structure |
– Uniform, capped rates for farmers: 2% for Kharif, 1.5% for Rabi, 5% for horticulture/commercial crops.
– No upper limit on government subsidy. |
– Varies based on weather risks and policy design.
– Similar subsidy approach, but rates are dependent on specific weather-based insurance products. |
| Coverage |
– All notified crops in a defined area.
– Includes food crops, oilseeds, and commercial/horticultural crops. |
– Covers food crops, oilseeds, and commercial/horticultural crops for weather-induced losses (e.g., drought, flood, cyclone, hailstorm). |
| Enrollment |
– Initially compulsory for farmers with crop loans (KCC).
– Made voluntary for all farmers from Kharif 2020. |
– All farmers, including sharecroppers and tenant farmers, are eligible if they grow notified crops in notified areas. |
| Key Objectives |
– Provide financial support and stabilize income in the event of crop failure.
– Encourage innovative and modern farming practices. |
– Protect farmers from weather aberrations, ensuring swift compensation when weather thresholds are met or breached. |
| Unique Features |
– “One Nation, One Scheme” concept.
– Loss-based compensation linked to actual yield shortfall. |
– Trigger-based system; payouts depend on deviation from normal weather parameters (no extensive damage assessment). |
What is the role of FIAT in crop insurance schemes?
The Fund for Innovation and Technology (FIAT) has been established with a corpus of ₹824.77 crore to enhance the implementation of PMFBY and RWBCIS. There are various key roles:
- Technological Advancement: Funding technological initiatives aimed at improving the assessment of crop damage and expediting claim settlements.
- Research Support: Facilitating research and development studies that enhance the effectiveness of crop insurance schemes through innovative practices.
- Improving Accessibility: Aiding in the use of digital technologies for easier enrollment processes and expanding coverage among farmers.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Awareness and Accessibility: Increase farmer outreach through targeted awareness campaigns and simplify enrollment processes using digital platforms to ensure maximum participation in crop insurance schemes.
- Enhanced Technology Integration: Expand the deployment of advanced tools like remote sensing and automated weather monitoring to improve accuracy in loss assessment, and claim settlements, and minimize disputes.
Mains PYQ:
Q How do subsidies affect the cropping pattern, crop diversity and economy of farmers? What is the significance of crop insurance, minimum support price and food processing for small and marginal farmers? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Annual Ground Water Quality Report – 2024
Why in the News?
The Annual Groundwater Quality Report 2024 was released by the Union Minister of Jal Shakti. Conducted by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), the report provides a scientific baseline for groundwater quality across India.
Annual Groundwater Quality Report, 2024: Key Highlights
Monitoring Scale
- Data collected from 15,200 locations and 4,982 trend stations both before and after the monsoon.
Contamination Levels
- Nitrate
- 20% of samples exceeded the safe limit of 45 mg/L.
- Hotspots include Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra (>40% of samples), Telangana (27.48%), Andhra Pradesh (23.5%), and Madhya Pradesh (22.58%).
- States such as Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland remain within safe limits.
- Fluoride
- 9.04% of samples above permissible limits.
- Affected states: Rajasthan, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
- Arsenic
- Detected in Ganga-Brahmaputra floodplains (West Bengal, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh).
- Linked to cancer and skin lesions.
- Uranium
- 42% of Rajasthan and 30% of Punjab samples exceed 100 ppb.
- Over-exploited zones in Gujarat, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh also show elevated levels, posing kidney damage risks.
Agricultural Suitability
- SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) & RSC (Residual Sodium Carbonate): 81% of samples suitable for irrigation; 100% suitability in North-Eastern states.
- High Sodium: Elevated levels in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, risking soil degradation.
- Salinity (as a measure of Electrical Conductivity (EC)): High in Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Karnataka.
Temporal Trends
- Seasonal Improvements: Post-monsoon recharge improves EC (salinity) and fluoride levels.
- Stable Nitrate since 2015 in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat.
- Rising Nitrate (2017–2023) in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana.
Hotspots of Contamination
- Nitrate:
- Rajasthan (Barmer, Jodhpur), Maharashtra (Wardha, Jalgaon), Andhra Pradesh (Palnadu), Tamil Nadu (Villupuram), Punjab (Bathinda).
- Uranium:
- Over-exploited aquifers in Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat.
- Arsenic:
- Ganga-Brahmaputra floodplains in West Bengal, Assam, Bihar.
What are the key factors contributing to decline in Groundwater quality?
Groundwater quality declines due to:
- Industrialization, with untreated waste introducing heavy metals and chemicals into aquifers, and agricultural practices, where excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides leads to nitrate contamination.
- Urbanization worsens the problem through improper waste disposal, sewage leakage, and landfill contamination.
- Over-extraction for agriculture and domestic use lowers water tables, exposing aquifers to pollutants like arsenic and uranium.
- Climate change and poor livestock waste management further exacerbate contamination and reduce aquifer recharge.
Government Initiatives to conserve Groundwater
- Jal Jeevan Mission – Groundwater Component (2023): Ensures source sustainability for rural water supply by focusing on groundwater recharge and sustainable extraction with local governance participation.
- Jal Shakti Abhiyan – Catch the Rain (2021): A nationwide campaign promoting rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge, emphasizing the creation of water conservation structures.
- National Aquifer Mapping and Management Program (Updated 2020): Maps groundwater aquifers to guide sustainable management, particularly in over-exploited areas.
- Atal Bhujal Yojana (2019): Focuses on sustainable groundwater management through community participation in seven water-stressed states, with decentralized planning involving Gram Panchayats.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements:
1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.
2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP)
![[pib] What is Di-Ammonium Phosphate?](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/dap.jpg)
Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the extension of the One-time Special Package on Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) beyond the Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme.
What is Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP)?
- DAP is a two-nutrient fertilizer that contains 18% nitrogen (N) and 46% phosphorus (P) as P2O5.
- DAP is highly soluble in water and soil, releasing phosphate and ammonium that plants can use.
- DAP is a popular choice for farming and other industries because of its high nutrient content and physical properties. It’s particularly effective in the early stages of plant development.
|
What is Fertilizer Subsidy in India?
| Details |
- Ensures affordable fertilizers for farmers to boost agricultural productivity.
- Applies to both Urea and Phosphatic & Potassic (P&K) fertilizers, each with distinct pricing/subsidy mechanisms.
Types of Subsidies:
1. Urea Subsidy
- Fixed MRP: Urea is sold at a statutorily notified MRP (₹5,360/ton in 2023), irrespective of production costs.
- Government Compensation: Bridges the cost gap, making urea highly affordable but often leading to overuse.
2. Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) for P&K (2010)
- Nutrient-Based Approach: Subsidies depend on Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) content, promoting balanced fertilization.
- Pricing Revision: Subsidy rates are reviewed annually or bi-annually based on global market prices.
- Objectives: Improve soil health, nutrient efficiency, and ensure affordability of P&K fertilizers.
3. Subsidies as per New Investment Policy (NIP) for Urea (2012)
- Self-Sufficiency Focus: Encourages new urea plants and revival of old ones to reduce imports.
- Investment Incentives: Aim to increase domestic production through favourable policies and pricing.
|
| Concerns Related to Subsidy |
- Overuse of Urea: Low urea prices lead to excessive application, causing soil nutrient imbalance and environmental harm.
- Fiscal Burden: Total subsidy expenditures reached ₹2.25 lakh crore (2023–24), placing a heavy load on public finances.
- Imbalanced Nutrient Use: Heavy reliance on urea discourages the use of P&K fertilizers, degrading soil quality over time.
- Import Dependency: India relies significantly on P&K imports, exposing farmers to global price volatility.
|
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to chemical fertilizers in India, consider the following statements:
1. At present, the retail price of chemical fertilizers is market-driven and not administered by the Government.
2. Ammonia, which is an input of urea, is produced from natural gas.
3. Sulphur, which is a raw material for phosphoric acid fertilizer, is a by-product of oil refineries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tobacco Board, Tobacco Cultivation in India
Why in the News?
The Tobacco Board of India, established on January 1, 1976, under the Tobacco Board Act, 1975, plays a pivotal role in ensuring the growth and sustainability of the tobacco industry.
About Tobacco Board of India
- It is established under the Tobacco Board Act, 1975, operational from January 1, 1976.
- It functions under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
- It is headquartered in Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.
- Objective: To promote the orderly development of India’s tobacco industry, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
- Functions:
- Regulates the production, curing, grading, and marketing of Virginia tobacco (Flue-Cured Virginia and Burley).
- Issues licenses and registrations for growers, manufacturers, exporters, and dealers.
- Collaborates with research institutes to develop new crop varieties and improve farming practices.
- Engages in market promotion, price stabilization, and quality control to protect farmers and maintain fair trade.
About the Tobacco Production and Trade
India
- Tobacco is drought-tolerant, hardy, and short-duration, cultivable on soils where other crops are less profitable.
- It is grown on 0.45 million hectares, accounting for 0.27% of India’s net cultivated area.
- India produces around 750 million kilograms of tobacco leaf annually.
- India is the second-largest producer globally (after China) and second-largest exporter (after Brazil).
- About 300 million kg of Flue-Cured Virginia (FCV) tobacco is produced on 0.20 million ha, while 450 million kg of non-FCV varieties come from 0.25 million ha.
- India contributes 10% of global tobacco acreage and 9% of world tobacco production
PYQ:
[2008] Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
| List-I(Board) |
List-II (Headquarters) |
| A. Coffee Board |
1. Bengaluru |
| B Rubber Board |
2. Guntur |
| C Tea Board |
3. Kottayam |
| D Tobacco Board |
4. Kolkata |
Code: A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1
(b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) 1 4 3 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sanctions
Why in the News?
The United States has imposed sanctions on entities in Iran and Russia, accusing them of attempting to interfere in the 2024 US presidential election.
Understanding Sanctions: Purpose, Application, and Impact
- Sanctions are strategic tools used to influence behavior, deter aggression, and enforce compliance with international norms.
- Sanctions are commonly used to address counterterrorism, human rights abuses, nuclear proliferation, and election interference.
Types of Sanctions
- Comprehensive Sanctions: Broad measures against entire countries (e.g., U.S. embargo on Cuba).
- Targeted (Smart) Sanctions: Focused on specific individuals or entities (e.g., asset freezes, travel bans).
- Common Forms:
- Trade restrictions and arms embargoes.
- Asset freezes and capital restraints.
- Travel bans and reductions in foreign aid.
How sanctions work?
- United States:
- Managed by the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC).
- Targets include terrorism (e.g., al-Qaeda), nuclear programs (e.g., Iran), and election meddling (e.g., Russia).
- Example: 2024 sanctions on Iranian and Russian entities for using AI to interfere in U.S. elections.
- United Nations:
- Imposed by the UN Security Council, requiring no veto from the five permanent members (U.S., UK, France, China, Russia).
- Measures include asset freezes, travel bans, and arms embargoes.
- Example: Sanctions on North Korea to curb its nuclear weapons program.
|
Why are Sanctions Imposed?
Sanctions aim to:
- Coerce: Change policies or actions, such as dismantling nuclear programs.
- Deter: Prevent future aggression or cyberattacks.
- Punish: Impose costs for violating international norms.
- Shame: Isolate violators diplomatically and economically.
Impacts on Regional and Global Geopolitics
- Economic Effects:
- Sanctions can weaken economies, such as Iran’s reduction in oil exports or Russia’s challenges in energy markets.
- However, some nations adapt; Russia’s economy grew by 3.6% in 2023, despite sanctions.
- Shifting Alliances:
- Targeted nations strengthen ties with others (e.g., Russia’s growing relations with China and Iran).
- Trade Realignment:
- EU sanctions on Russia accelerated Europe’s move to renewable energy sources.
- Humanitarian Consequences:
- Comprehensive sanctions can harm civilians, as seen in Iraq during the 1990s.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Importance of QUAD;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Foreign Ministers of the Quad countries issued a joint statement to mark 20 years of their partnership.
What are the Highlights of the Joint Statement?
- Commitment to a Free and Open Indo-Pacific: The Quad nations reaffirmed their vision of a peaceful, stable, and prosperous Indo-Pacific, emphasizing the importance of effective regional institutions.
- Support for ASEAN: The ministers expressed unwavering support for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and its central role in the region, endorsing the implementation of the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific.
- Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief: They reiterated their commitment to humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, noting ongoing efforts to enhance disaster preparedness and response across the Indo-Pacific.
- Collective Response to Challenges: The joint statement emphasized collaboration in addressing complex challenges such as climate change, pandemics, maritime security, and emerging technologies.
What are the Strategic Significance of Quad?
- Regional Stability: The Quad serves as a counterbalance to China’s growing influence in the Indo-Pacific, promoting a rules-based international order that respects sovereignty.
- Multilateral Cooperation: It fosters cooperation among member nations in various sectors including security, infrastructure development, and technological advancement.
- Disaster Response Framework: Originating from a joint response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the Quad has evolved into a robust partnership capable of coordinating humanitarian efforts during crises.
What are the achievements of QUAD?
- Expanded Areas of Cooperation: The Quad has evolved from a security dialogue into a multifaceted partnership, establishing six working groups focused on diverse areas such as climate change, cybersecurity, health security, infrastructure development, critical technologies, and space cooperation.
- Vaccine Distribution and Health Initiatives: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Quad successfully coordinated efforts to distribute vaccines, particularly through the Quad Vaccine Partnership.
- The Quad committed to delivering over 1.2 billion doses of COVID-19 vaccines to countries in the region by 2022.
- Maritime Security and Regional Stability: The Quad has actively engaged in enhancing maritime security in the Indo-Pacific, conducting joint exercises like Malabar naval exercises, which include all four member nations (India, Japan, Australia, and the US) and launching initiatives like the Indo-Pacific Partnership for Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA).
|
What are the Challenges Faced by the Quad?
- Geopolitical Tensions: China’s increasing assertiveness poses significant challenges to the Quad’s objectives in maintaining regional stability.
- Diverse Interests Among Members: Each member nation has its own national interests and priorities, which can complicate unified action on various issues.
- Implementation of Initiatives: While there is strong rhetoric around cooperation, effectively implementing initiatives across diverse political landscapes remains a challenge.
What Should Quad Members Do? (Way forward)
- Strengthen Institutional Frameworks: Establish a formal mechanism or secretariat to streamline decision-making, enhance coordination, and ensure the effective implementation of initiatives.
- Expand Inclusive Regional Engagement: Deepen partnerships with ASEAN, Pacific Island nations, and other regional stakeholders to build trust, enhance collective capabilities, and counter perceptions of exclusivity.
Mains PYQ:
Q Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Accountability of Judiciary;
Why in the News?
In the U.S. Supreme Court, dissenting opinions often reflect the political views of judges, as they are appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. In contrast, dissenting opinions in the Indian judiciary cover a wider range, including political, social, and purely intellectual disagreements
What is the significance of dissenting opinions?
- Preservation of Judicial Independence: Dissenting opinions serve as a safeguard for judicial independence, allowing judges to express their disagreements with majority decisions without fear of repercussions. This fosters a culture of open debate within the judiciary, which is essential for a healthy democracy.
- Shaping Legal Precedents: Dissent can influence future legal interpretations and decisions. Over time, dissenting views may gain traction and become part of the evolving legal landscape, as seen in cases like ADM Jabalpur and P.V. Narasimha Rao, where dissents later informed subsequent rulings.
- Encouraging Public Discourse: Dissenting opinions can stimulate public discussion and debate about important legal and constitutional issues. They often highlight alternative perspectives that may resonate with societal values or concerns, thereby enriching democratic dialogue.
How does dissent in the Indian judiciary compare to that in the U.S.?
- Political Influences: In the U.S., dissent often reflects the political affiliations of justices, who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. For example, Justice Samuel Alito’s dissents align with conservative viewpoints on issues like abortion and same-sex marriage.
- In contrast, Indian judges are selected through a collegium system, which aims to reduce political influence on judicial decisions, resulting in dissents that may not necessarily align with current political sentiments.
- Nature of Dissents: U.S. Supreme Court dissents frequently stem from ideological divides among justices, whereas Indian judicial dissents encompass a broader spectrum, including political, social, and intellectual disagreements.
- For instance, Justices Khehar and Nazeer in Shayara Bano focused on the social implications of personal law rather than political affiliations.
- Impact on Law: While both systems recognise the importance of dissent in shaping jurisprudence, Indian dissents have historically led to significant legal changes post-ruling, as seen in cases like Sita Soren where earlier dissents influenced the court’s later position on parliamentary immunity.
What challenges and criticisms surround judicial dissent in India?
- Risk of Retaliation: Judges who dissent against majority opinions may face professional backlash or career repercussions. Notable cases include Justice H.R. Khanna, who was superseded as Chief Justice after his dissent in ADM Jabalpur, highlighting potential risks for dissenters within the judiciary.
- Infrequent Dissent: Despite its importance, dissent is relatively rare in the Indian Supreme Court compared to its potential significance. The Chief Justice often avoids dissenting opinions in constitutional bench cases, which raises concerns about conformity over independent judicial reasoning.
- Public Perception: Judicial dissent can sometimes be viewed negatively by the public or political entities as undermining judicial authority or coherence. This perception can discourage judges from expressing their dissent openly.
What are the accountable-related issues?
- High Bar for Impeachment: The process requires “proved misbehaviour or incapacity” and a two-thirds majority in Parliament, making it almost impossible to remove errant judges.
- Resignation to Evade Accountability: Judges like Justice Soumitra Sen and P.D. Dinakaran resigned before the completion of impeachment proceedings, avoiding scrutiny while retaining post-retirement benefits.
- Immunity Misuse: Judges continue to enjoy post-retirement benefits even after accusations of misconduct, as seen in Justice Ramaswami’s case, undermining accountability.
- Limited Scope for Independent Oversight: The judiciary lacks an independent review mechanism outside the Parliament-driven impeachment process, leaving little room for holding judges accountable in real time.
What is the review mechanism of committee set up under the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968?
- Initiation: A removal motion, signed by 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs, is submitted and approved by the Speaker or Chairman to initiate the process.
- Investigation: A three-member committee (Supreme Court judge, Chief Justice of a High Court, and an eminent jurist) is constituted under the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 to investigate allegations of “proved misbehaviour or incapacity.”
- Parliamentary Decision: If the committee confirms the charges, the motion is debated in Parliament and requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses for the judge’s removal by the President.
|
Way forward:
- Institutional Support for Dissent: Establish mechanisms to safeguard dissenting judges from career repercussions, such as transparent evaluation criteria and protections for judicial independence, ensuring open debate within the judiciary.
- Promote Judicial Dialogue: Encourage a culture of constructive dissent by incorporating dissenting opinions into judicial training and fostering recognition of their long-term contributions to legal evolution.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. (UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges related to Delimitation;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, N. Chandrababu Naidu and M.K. Stalin, expressed their frustration over the proposed delimitation exercise, which might lead to their states losing parliamentary seats.
How Does Population Control Influence Delimitation?
- Population as the Basis for Representation: Delimitation exercises are based on the population count, which determines the number of seats allocated to states in Parliament.
- Southern States’ Success in Population Control: Southern states like Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, which have achieved lower fertility rates, face the risk of reduced parliamentary representation.
- Demographic Divide: States with higher population growth (mainly in northern India) may gain more seats, leading to an imbalance in political representation.
What are the implications of current demographic trends on political representation?
- Seat Redistribution: The impending delimitation exercise, scheduled for 2026, may lead to a significant redistribution of Lok Sabha seats.
- Estimates suggest that states like Uttar Pradesh could gain up to 14 additional seats, while Tamil Nadu might lose several, decreasing its representation from 39 to potentially 30 seats.
- Federal Structure Concerns: The southern states argue that using population counts for political representation undermines the federal structure of India. They contend that it is unjust to penalize regions that have successfully managed population growth while rewarding those with higher growth rates.
What are the arguments for and against reversing population control measures during delimitation?
Reversing population refers to attempts to increase fertility rates through incentives, aiming to counteract declining population growth trends.
- Argument in favour of Reversal:
-
- Political Strategy: South political leaders advocate for incentivizing larger families as a means to maintain or increase political representation in light of the delimitation concerns.
- Cultural Context: There is a push to celebrate larger families as a cultural norm, with comments from leaders suggesting an exaggerated approach to family size as a humorous response to the delimitation threat.
- Argument against Reversal:
- Long-term Consequences: Experts argue that reversing fertility rates through incentives may not be effective or sustainable. Historical examples, such as China’s one-child policy, illustrate the challenges and unintended consequences of aggressive population control measures.
- Social Support Necessity: Encouraging higher birth rates without adequate social support for families could place additional burdens on women and society at large. Effective policies should focus on providing necessary support rather than merely increasing birth rates.
What reforms are necessary for a fair delimitation process? (Way forward)
- Equitable Representation Criteria: Reforms should consider not only population counts but also socio-economic characteristics, ensuring that regions with successful population management are not unfairly penalized in political representation.
- Stakeholder Consultations: Increased dialogue among stakeholders is essential to address concerns regarding the delimitation process. This could involve re-evaluating how political representation is determined based on demographic trends and regional development successes.
- Migration Policies: To address regional population imbalances, promoting migration could serve as a viable solution alongside revising how political representation is allocated based on demographic characteristics rather than sheer numbers alone.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Willow Quantum Processor
Why in the News?
Google has unveiled its latest quantum processor, ‘Willow’, which has sparked excitement about the potential of quantum computers to solve practical problems.
About Willow Quantum Processor:
- Google’s team of researchers developed Willow and shared their results in the scientific journal Nature.
- Willow has 105 qubits, which are the basic units of information in quantum computers.
- Some qubits perform the actual calculations (called data qubits).
- Others check for mistakes and fix them (called measurement qubits).
- It operates at an extremely low temperature—almost absolute zero (-273.15°C)—to keep its qubits stable.
- How fast is It? Willow solved a tough problem in just a few minutes. The same task would take the world’s best regular computer 10 septillion years (that’s 1 followed by 24 zeros!).
- Each qubit can stay stable for 100 microseconds (a tiny fraction of a second), which is a big improvement for quantum computers.
Features and Significance
- Smarter Error Handling:
- Quantum computers are extremely sensitive, and even the tiniest disturbance can cause errors.
- Willow uses a system where some qubits (called measurement qubits) are dedicated to spotting and fixing errors without disturbing the main qubits (called data qubits) that are doing the calculations.
- Bigger, Better Performance:
- Willow has 105 qubits: about half for computations and the rest for error correction.
- Most quantum computers become less reliable as more qubits are added. Willow is different—it actually improves its performance as more qubits are included.
- Longer Stability:
- Qubits in Willow remain stable for 100 microseconds—a significant improvement that allows it to perform more complex tasks.
PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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