PYQ Relevance:
Q) Data security has assumed significant importance in the digitized world due to rising cyber-crimes. The Justice B. N. Srikrishna Committee Report addresses issues related to data security. What, in your view, are the strengths and weaknesses of the Report relating to protection of personal data in cyber space? (UPSC CSE 2018) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on “ Data security” (2018), and the Impact of digital technology (2021).
Surveillance capitalism is an economic system where tech companies collect, analyze, and sell personal data to predict and influence behaviour. This system, described by Shoshana Zuboff in The Age of Surveillance Capitalism (2018), treats human experiences as a resource for profit, similar to how colonialism and industrial capitalism exploited natural and human resources.
Today’s editorial highlights current issues related to surveillance capitalism and its impact. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 2 and 3 in the UPSC Mains.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, surveillance capitalism has depended on turning personal data into a product. It affects people’s privacy and freedom while being closely linked to government surveillance.
What is Surveillance Capitalism?
- Surveillance capitalism is an economic system where technology companies collect, analyze, and monetize personal data to predict and influence human behaviour.
- This data is often gathered through digital platforms like social media, search engines, and smart devices, often without users’ full awareness.
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How does surveillance capitalism rely on the commodification of personal data?
- Collection of Personal Data as Raw Material: Google Search tracks every query a user makes, including location and device information. This data is processed to understand user preferences and behaviour patterns.
- Behavioural Prediction for Targeted Advertising: Companies monetize behavioural data by selling it to advertisers who target users with precision, maximizing ad effectiveness.
- Meta (Facebook) monitors user activity across its platforms to deliver highly personalized ads. Users discussing fitness products may soon see ads for gym memberships.
- Continuous Data Harvesting Across Devices: Data is continuously extracted from smart devices, even during routine interactions, deepening the pool of user insights.
- Amazon’s Alexa collects voice commands and ambient sounds to refine product recommendations and improve its machine-learning models.
- Algorithmic Manipulation to Influence Behaviour: Algorithms shape user behaviour by curating content that fosters prolonged engagement, increasing ad revenue.
- YouTube’s recommendation algorithm analyses watch history to suggest videos that keep users engaged, often promoting content that aligns with their interests or biases.
What are the strong connections between data commodification and state surveillance?
- Mass Data Collection Programs: Governments collaborate with private tech companies to access vast amounts of personal data for surveillance purposes. Example: The PRISM program by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) collected user data from major tech companies like Google, Facebook, and Microsoft to monitor global communications.
- Legal Mandates for Data Sharing: Many countries enforce laws requiring digital platforms to share user data with state agencies for national security and law enforcement. Example: India’s Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 require platforms to trace the origin of messages, facilitating state surveillance.
- Surveillance Technologies Integration: States use advanced technologies like facial recognition and AI-driven monitoring to track citizens’ movements and online activities. Example: China’s Social Credit System uses surveillance cameras and digital monitoring to track citizens’ behavior, affecting access to services based on their social scores.
What are the negative impacts of commodifying personal data?
- Privacy Erosion: When personal data is commodified, individuals lose control over their private information, leading to widespread privacy violations. Example: Social media platforms like Facebook have been criticized for selling user data to third parties, such as Cambridge Analytica which used it for targeted political advertising without users’ explicit consent.
- Exploitation and Manipulation: Personal data is often used to influence behaviour through targeted advertising or algorithmic content curation, exploiting vulnerabilities. Example: Companies like Google and Amazon use personal data to create highly targeted ads.
- Increased Risk of Data Breaches: The collection and trade of personal data raise the likelihood of data breaches, leading to identity theft, financial loss, and other harms. Example: The Equifax data breach in 2017 exposed the personal information of 147 million people.
- Inequality and Discrimination: Commodified data can reinforce social and economic inequalities by enabling discriminatory practices, such as price discrimination or exclusion from services. Example: Insurance companies may use personal data to charge higher premiums to individuals based on their health or lifestyle, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups.
- Loss of Autonomy and Trust: The exploitation of personal data weakens public trust in institutions and reduces individuals’ sense of control over their own information. Example: The revelation that apps like TikTok collect and share user data with governments or third parties.
What steps has the Indian government taken?
- Data Protection Legislation: The Indian government enacted the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA), 2023, which regulates the collection, processing, and storage of personal data. It mandates user consent, imposes penalties for data breaches, and establishes a Data Protection Board to address grievances.
- Strengthening Cybersecurity: Initiatives like the National Cyber Security Policy (2013) and the establishment of CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team) aim to protect critical information infrastructure, prevent cyberattacks, and enhance data security.
- Regulating Big Tech: The government has introduced guidelines like the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, which require platforms to ensure transparency, allow user grievance redressal, and hold intermediaries accountable for data misuse.
What steps have been taken at the global level?
- General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), European Union (2018): The GDPR sets a global benchmark for data privacy by enforcing strict guidelines on data collection, processing, and storage. It grants individuals the right to access, correct, and delete their personal data and imposes hefty penalties for non-compliance.
- Global Data Protection Frameworks: Initiatives like the OECD Privacy Guidelines and the UN’s Internet Governance Forum promote international cooperation on data privacy, emphasizing transparency, user consent, and cross-border data flow regulations.
- The USA’s Sectoral Approach: The California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) and similar state-level laws provide data protection rights to consumers, including the ability to opt out of data sales. The USA also advocates for a federal privacy law to harmonize regulations across industries.
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Way forward:
- Stronger Regulatory Frameworks: Implement comprehensive and adaptive data protection laws with clear accountability for data handlers, regular audits, and stringent penalties to safeguard user privacy and prevent misuse.
- User Empowerment and Transparency: Promote data literacy programs and ensure platforms provide clear, accessible consent mechanisms, allowing users greater control over their personal information and how it is shared.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Pharma Industries; India’s hegemony;
Why in the News?
The pharmacy of the Global South is facing a reputation crisis after cough syrups made by Indian pharmaceutical companies were found to contain harmful levels of diethylene glycol and/or ethylene glycol.
Why is the pharmacy of the Global South facing a reputation crisis?
- Quality Control Failures and Contaminated Products:
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- Gambia (2022): Cough syrups made in India containing diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol killed 66 children.
- Uzbekistan (2022): Similar contamination led to the deaths of 65 children.
- U.S. (2023): India-made eye drops contaminated with drug-resistant bacteria caused 3 deaths and 8 cases of blindness.
- Illegal Manufacturing and Unapproved Drugs: Unauthorized drug production and export are damaging India’s credibility. Example: Aveo Pharmaceuticals (Maharashtra) illegally exported unapproved opioid combinations to West Africa, exposed by a BBC investigation in 2023.
- Regulatory Lapses and Weak Oversight: Inconsistent enforcement by regulatory authorities enables violations. Example: State drug authorities in India have issued licenses for unapproved Fixed Dose Combinations (FDCs) without clearance from the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO).
- Global Scrutiny and Trade Barriers: Increased surveillance by international health bodies and trade restrictions. Example: The WHO’s alert on toxic cough syrups led to enhanced inspections of Indian pharmaceutical exports, impacting trade with African and Southeast Asian nations.
How does this impact India’s hegemony?
- Erosion of Soft Power and Global Reputation: India’s image as the “Pharmacy of the Global South” is under threat due to quality concerns and regulatory lapses. Example: The WHO alerts on contaminated cough syrups in Gambia and Uzbekistan have damaged India’s credibility as a reliable supplier of affordable medicines.
- Reduced Diplomatic Influence in Developing Countries: Many nations in Africa and Southeast Asia, which depend on Indian pharmaceuticals, may seek alternative suppliers, weakening India’s influence in these regions. Example: Countries like Nigeria and Kenya exploring Chinese and Brazilian pharmaceutical alternatives.
- Economic and Trade Consequences: Heightened global scrutiny could lead to export restrictions and trade losses, affecting India’s dominance in the generic drug market. Example: In 2023, the U.S. imposed tighter checks on Indian pharmaceutical imports following incidents of contaminated eye drops, impacting Indian drug exports.
What is the extent of India’s pharmaceutical exports?
- Total Export Value: India’s pharmaceutical exports were valued at USD 27.85 billion, contributing substantially to the nation’s economy.
- Global Market Share: India stands as the world’s third-largest producer of pharmaceuticals by volume, supplying approximately 20% of global generic drugs, with North America being a major recipient.
- Key Export Destinations: The United States remains the largest importer of Indian pharmaceutical products, accounting for 17.90% of India’s total merchandise exports in this sector.
- India supplies about 26% of Africa’s generic pharmaceutical market, highlighting its role as a key provider of affordable medicines on the continent.
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What steps has the Indian government taken in this situation?
- Strengthening Regulatory Oversight: The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) has intensified inspections of pharmaceutical manufacturing units to ensure compliance with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). Example: Following the Gambia and Uzbekistan incidents, the government ordered inspections of 76 cough syrup manufacturers across 20 states, leading to the suspension of several licenses.
- Policy Reforms and Legal Action: The government introduced a mandatory quality certification for drug exports to certain countries to prevent the export of substandard medicines. Example: After the Aveo Pharmaceuticals case, the Maharashtra government revoked the company’s manufacturing license and seized 13 million illegal medicines.
- International Collaboration and Transparency: The Indian government has increased cooperation with the World Health Organization (WHO) to address quality concerns and strengthen pharmacovigilance. Example: India joined hands with African health regulators to enhance quality assurance for pharmaceuticals exported to African countries.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Regulatory Oversight: Implement stricter quality controls, regular audits, and a centralized tracking system to ensure compliance with global standards.
- Enhance Global Collaboration: Partner with international health bodies and key importing nations to improve quality assurance and rebuild trust in Indian pharmaceuticals.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma? (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges to RTI;
Why in the News?
The RTI Act allowed people to question the government, but the government soon tried to weaken it.
Why is the RTI now being viewed as the ‘right to deny information’?
- Judicial Interpretations Diluting the Scope of RTI: Key court judgments, like Girish Ramchandra Deshpande vs. CIC (2012), have expanded the definition of “personal information” under Section 8(1)(j) of the RTI Act. This allows authorities to deny information about public servants’ misconduct, assets, and disciplinary records.
- Delayed Appointments and Case Backlogs: Government delays in appointing Information Commissioners have led to massive backlogs, reducing the effectiveness of the RTI. Information is often provided after significant delays, turning it into a “right to history.”
- Narrow Interpretation of Public Interest: The Supreme Court’s ruling in CBSE vs. Aditya Bandopadhyay (2011) warned against the “misuse” of RTI for seeking all types of information, limiting disclosures that could allegedly disrupt administrative efficiency.
- Example: Information requests related to public policy decisions are frequently denied on vague grounds of protecting “national integration” or preventing “administrative burden.”
What have been the key achievements of the RTI since its inception?
- Increased Transparency and Accountability: The RTI Act has empowered citizens to hold public authorities accountable by providing access to government records and decisions. Example: In 2007, RTI applications exposed corruption in the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGA), leading to better monitoring and payment transparency.
- Exposing Corruption and Misuse of Power: RTI has played a crucial role in uncovering major scams and irregularities, prompting legal and policy reforms. Example: The 2G spectrum scam (2008) involving massive financial irregularities in telecom licensing was brought to light through RTI inquiries, leading to the cancellation of 122 telecom licenses by the Supreme Court.
- Empowering Marginalized Communities: Rural and marginalized groups have used RTI to access entitlements like ration cards, pensions, and housing schemes, ensuring their socio-economic rights. Example: In Rajasthan, villagers used RTI to reveal discrepancies in public distribution system (PDS) records, ensuring access to their rightful food supplies.
What are the limitations of RTI?
- Exemptions under Section 8: Certain categories of information are exempt from disclosure, such as matters related to national security, sovereignty, and personal privacy. Example: Information related to defense strategies or confidential Cabinet discussions cannot be accessed through RTI.
- Delayed or Incomplete Responses: Bureaucratic delays and lack of accountability often lead to incomplete or delayed information, undermining the RTI’s effectiveness. Example: In 2021, RTI applications regarding COVID-19 vaccine procurement faced significant delays, limiting public scrutiny during a critical period.
- Threats and Intimidation of RTI Activists: Whistleblowers and activists who use RTI to expose corruption face harassment, threats, and even violence. Example: Amit Jethwa, an RTI activist from Gujarat, was murdered in 2010 after exposing illegal mining near the Gir Forest.
Does India have an alternative to the RTI?
- Public Services Delivery Laws (Right to Public Services Act): Various states in India have enacted Public Services Delivery Laws to ensure the timely delivery of public services and redress grievances.
- Example: Madhya Pradesh was the first state to implement the Right to Public Services Act (2010), which mandates timely delivery of services like issuing ration cards and driving licenses.
- Whistleblower Protection Act (2014): This law protects individuals who expose corruption and wrongdoing in government institutions. It allows whistleblowers to report issues while keeping their identity confidential.
- Example: An employee of a public sector bank can report irregularities without fear of retaliation under this Act. However, delays in operationalizing the law limit its effectiveness.
- Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013): This law establishes an independent body (Lokpal) at the central level and Lokayuktas at the state level to investigate corruption among public officials.
- Example: In 2019, the Lokpal was appointed to investigate allegations of corruption against high-level public servants, including the Prime Minister (with conditions).
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Institutional Framework: Ensure timely appointment of Information Commissioners, enforce penalties for delayed/incomplete responses, and streamline processes to reduce case backlogs.
- Enhance Legal Safeguards: Amend the Whistleblower Protection Act for better security of RTI activists and clarify exemptions under Section 8 to prevent misuse while balancing public interest.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Recent amendment to the Right to Information Act will have a profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Karnal
Why in the News?
On February 24, 1739, the Battle of Karnal marked a turning point in the history of Mughal empire.
About Battle of Karnal
- The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, saw Nadir Shah’s Persian army defeat Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in under three hours.
- Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army was crushed by Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained troops using modern tactics and superior firearms.
- Following the victory, Delhi was sacked, 30,000 civilians massacred, and the Mughal treasury looted, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.
Impact on Mughal Decline
- Economic Collapse: The Mughal treasury was emptied, crippling military and administrative strength.
- Weakening Central Power: Governors of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad declared independence.
- Military Decline: The Mughal army’s outdated tactics were exposed; future invasions (e.g., Ahmad Shah Abdali, 1748-1761) followed.
- Rise of Regional Powers: The Marathas expanded, eventually capturing Delhi (1771); the Sikhs grew in Punjab.
- British Expansion: The East India Company took advantage, leading to British rule after 1857.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdars and Zamindar?
1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.
2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Quality of Public Expenditure' Index
Why in the News?
The Quality of Public Expenditure (QPE) Index, developed by the RBI, evaluates how efficiently government funds are used, focusing on expenditure composition and its long-term impact on economic growth.
About the QPE Index
- The QPE Index by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) measures how effectively government funds are utilized.
- It focuses on fiscal discipline, capital investment, and efficient allocation of public resources for long-term growth.
- Key Indicators of the QPE Index:
- Capital Outlay to GDP Ratio: Measures government spending on infrastructure as a percentage of GDP. Higher ratio = better quality expenditure.
- Revenue Expenditure to Capital Outlay Ratio: Lower ratio preferred, as excessive spending on salaries & subsidies reduces funds for development.
- Development Expenditure to GDP Ratio: Tracks spending in education, healthcare, infrastructure, improving human capital & productivity.
- Development Expenditure as % of Total Expenditure: Higher share indicates better resource allocation.
- Interest Payments to Total Expenditure Ratio: Lower ratio = better debt management & fiscal sustainability.
Key Findings from RBI’s QPE Index Analysis:
- 1991-2003: Post-liberalization, focus on reducing fiscal deficit led to a decline in public investment.
- 2003-2008: FRBM Act (2003) improved fiscal discipline, increasing capital spending & state revenues.
- 2008-2013: Global Financial Crisis (GFC) led to higher government spending, increasing fiscal deficits but supporting recovery.
- 2013-2017: 14th Finance Commission (2015) increased states’ share in central taxes, boosting development expenditure.
- 2017-2020: GST implementation challenges affected the Centre’s revenues, but states benefited from higher tax shares.
- 2020-Present: Record capital expenditure boosted infrastructure & economic recovery, improving public expenditure quality.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to Union Budget, which of the following, is/are covered under Non-Plan Expenditure?
1. Defence-expenditure
2. Interest payments
3. Salaries and pensions
4. Subsidies
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(d) None |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rupee-Dollar Swap Auction
Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) will conduct a $10 billion dollar-rupee swap auction on February 28, 2025, aimed at injecting durable rupee liquidity into the banking system.
This 3-year forex swap is expected to inject ₹86,000 crore into the banking system at a time when there is a liquidity deficit of ₹1.7 lakh crore in the financial sector.
What is the RBI’s Forex Swap Auction?
- Forex swap auctions are a tool used by the RBI to manage liquidity and stabilize financial markets.
- In return, the RBI will inject rupee liquidity into the banking system.
- Buy-Sell Swap: RBI buys dollars now and sells them back later (liquidity injection).
- Sell-Buy Swap: RBI sells dollars now and buys them back later (liquidity absorption).
- After 3 years, the transaction will be reversed, with the RBI selling dollars back to banks and absorbing rupee liquidity from the system.
How does it work?
- Auction Process:
- Banks bid in the swap auction by quoting the swap rate (forward premium).
- The lowest premium bids are accepted first (similar to G-sec auctions).
- Liquidity Injection:
- Banks sell US dollars to the RBI at the prevailing exchange rate.
- The RBI provides rupees in exchange, boosting liquidity in the banking system.
- Reverse Swap After Three Years:
- On March 6, 2028, the swap will be reversed.
- The RBI will return US dollars to the banks and absorb the equivalent amount of rupees.
- This allows the RBI to control liquidity over a longer period without permanently altering its forex reserves.
Significance of this move
- Reduces Borrowing Costs: More liquidity in the system lowers short-term interest rates. Bond yields and corporate borrowing costs decline, benefiting businesses and NBFCs.
- Stabilizes Foreign Exchange Markets: The rupee’s availability increases, reducing pressure on exchange rates. Lower hedging costs for companies with foreign liabilities.
- Enhances RBI’s Monetary Policy Toolkit: This approach provides a temporary boost to liquidity, while ensuring a controlled reversal in the future.
PYQ:
[2015] Convertibility of rupee implies:
(a) Being able to convert rupee notes into gold
(b) Allowing the value of rupee to be fixed by market forces
(c) Freely permitting the conversion of rupee to other currencies and vice versa
(d) Developing an international market for currencies in India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BOBP-IGO
Why in the News?
India has taken over the Chairmanship of the Bay of Bengal (BOB) Inter-Governmental Organisation from Bangladesh at the 13th Governing Council Meeting in Male, Maldives.
What is BOBP-IGO?
- BOBP-IGO is a regional fisheries body promoting sustainable fisheries management and improving the livelihoods of small-scale fishers in the Bay of Bengal region.
- It was established in 2003 and is headquartered in Chennai.
- It evolved from the Bay of Bengal Programme (BoBP), which was launched in 1979 under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
- Members:
- Full Members: Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Sri Lanka.
- Cooperating Non-Contracting Parties: Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand.
- Objectives: Enhance marine fisheries management, build fisher capacities, promote policy cooperation, and combat Illegal, Unreported & Unregulated (IUU) fishing.
Significance of India’s Chairmanship in BOBP-IGO
- India will lead policies for sustainable fisheries management and marine conservation across member nations.
- This would strengthen monitoring, surveillance, and enforcement to prevent overfishing and illegal activities.
- It will facilitate collaboration among member nations, exchange best practices, and integrate advanced technology in fisheries.
- It would promote scientific research, innovation, and economic growth while reinforcing India’s influence in the Indian Ocean Region.
PYQ:
[2022] Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? |
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