PYQ Relevance:
Q) “In spite of adverse environmental impact, coal mining is still inevitable for Development”. Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2017) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the diverse environmental impact of coal (2017), and environmental impacts of coal-fired thermal plants(2014).
India relies on coal for 65% of its electricity due to its low cost and large reserves. Coal-fired power plants release harmful gases like CO₂, SOx, NOx, and particulate matter, causing pollution and climate issues. Using Low NOx Burners with Over Fire Air technology can reduce NOx emissions by 45-80% without affecting power generation.
Today’s editorial discusses pollution caused by coal-fired power plants in India. This information is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
New research from Stanford University in the US shows that coal-fired power plants are reducing India’s rice and wheat production, causing up to a 10% loss in several states.
Why did the researchers focus on nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) emissions?
- Phytotoxic Effects on Crops: NO₂ is phytotoxic, meaning it directly harms plant health by interfering with cellular functions and enzymatic activities. Example: In agricultural areas near coal plants, NO₂ exposure leads to lower chlorophyll levels, reducing plant vitality and yield.
- Formation of Secondary Pollutants: NO₂ contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, which further damages crops by limiting photosynthesis and causing oxidative stress. Example: Increased ozone formation near coal hubs like Chhattisgarh exacerbates crop loss during peak growing seasons.
- Limited Existing Research in India: While global studies link NO₂ to agricultural damage, there was no systematic study at the power-plant level in India. Example: This research fills the gap by connecting NO₂ emissions from coal plants directly to wheat and rice yield losses.
- Satellite Data Availability: Advanced satellites like TROPOMI allow precise tracking of NO₂ concentrations, making it easier to study the pollutant’s widespread effects. Example: Researchers used satellite-derived vegetation indices (NIRv) to measure crop health across polluted regions.
- High Contribution from Coal Plants: Coal-fired power plants are a major source of NO₂ emissions, especially in industrial and agricultural belts. Example: In Chhattisgarh, around 19% of monsoon-season NO₂ comes from coal plants, causing significant crop damage.
How does this pollutant impact plant health and crop yield?
- Disruption of Photosynthesis: NO₂ reduces the amount of sunlight available for photosynthesis by forming secondary pollutants like particulate matter. This limits energy production in plants. Example: In areas near coal plants, reduced sunlight exposure leads to a 5-10% decline in rice and wheat yields in states like West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh.
- Cellular and Enzymatic Damage: NO₂ interferes with crucial cellular processes and enzymatic functions, weakening plant growth and reducing their ability to absorb nutrients. Example: Crops exposed to high NO₂ levels in Chhattisgarh show slower growth and lower productivity, especially during peak seasons.
- Ozone Formation and Oxidative Stress: NO₂ contributes to ground-level ozone, which causes oxidative stress in plants, leading to leaf damage and reduced crop yields. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, where overall NO₂ levels are high, wheat crops suffer significant losses due to ozone-induced stress during the winter season.
Which states show the highest agricultural losses?
- Chhattisgarh: The most affected region with the highest share of NO₂ pollution from coal plants (19% during the monsoon and 12.5% in winter). It is a major hub for coal-fired power generation, leading to severe air pollution and crop yield losses.
- West Bengal: There are significant NO₂ exposure from coal plants that affects 5.7% of cropland, with yield losses between 5-10% and even greater than 10% in some areas. The proximity of coal plants to fertile agricultural zones increases the impact on rice and wheat production.
- Madhya Pradesh: About 5.9% of cropland near coal plants experiences 5-10% yield losses, while 11.9% of agricultural land could face losses exceeding 10%.
- Uttar Pradesh: High overall NO₂ pollution, but only a small portion originates from coal-fired power plants. The other industrial sources dominate NO₂ emissions, yet coal plants still add to the burden on winter wheat yields.
- Tamil Nadu: Low overall NO₂ levels but a large share comes from coal plants, disproportionately affecting local agriculture. The concentration of coal-fired power plants contributes a substantial portion of the region’s air pollution.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
- Increased Budget Allocation for Coal Sector: The 2025-2026 Union Budget has increased the allocation for the Ministry of Coal by 255% over the revised estimates of FY 2024-2025, reflecting a focus on managing coal resources and addressing environmental concerns.
- Pollution Control Mandates: The government has introduced emission norms for coal-fired power plants, requiring the installation of pollution control equipment like Flue Gas Desulphurization (FGD) to reduce nitrogen oxides (NO₂) and other pollutants.
- Renewable Energy Promotion: Policies such as the National Solar Mission and incentives for renewable energy aim to reduce coal dependency and minimize air pollution while promoting cleaner energy alternatives.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Emission Regulations: Implement stricter NO₂ emission limits for coal-fired power plants, enforce regular monitoring, and expedite the adoption of advanced pollution control technologies like selective catalytic reduction (SCR).
- Promote Sustainable Agriculture and Clean Energy: Support farmers in NO₂-affected regions with resilient crop varieties and promote a transition to renewable energy through increased investment in solar and wind infrastructure.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Legal Maternity Benefit;
Why in the News?
All pregnant women in India are entitled to maternity benefits, yet the majority have not received any financial support in recent years.
What are the legal maternity benefit provisions under the National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013?
- Universal Entitlement (Except Formal Sector): All pregnant and lactating women (excluding those already receiving maternity benefits in the formal sector) are legally entitled to receive ₹6,000 per child to support nutrition and health.
- Objective of Nutrition and Health Support: The provision aims to improve maternal and child health by ensuring better access to nutrition, rest, and medical care during pregnancy and after childbirth.
- Legal Obligation for Central Government: It is the legal duty of the central government to ensure maternity benefits are provided without arbitrary reductions or restrictions.
How do they compare to the benefits provided under the Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY)?
- Coverage Scope
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- NFSA 2013: Provides ₹6,000 per child to all pregnant and lactating women (excluding those in the formal sector).
- PMMVY: Provides ₹5,000 only for the first child (recently extended to the second child if it is a girl), violating the universal entitlement under NFSA.
- Implementation Efficiency
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- NFSA 2013: Mandates universal coverage without restrictive conditions to ensure access for all eligible women.
- PMMVY: Imposes strict conditions (e.g., Aadhaar verification) and complex processes, leading to low disbursement rates and exclusion of many entitled women.
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What are the issues related to Scant information?
- Minimal Data Disclosure: The Ministry of Women and Child Development provides limited information on PMMVY, violating Section 4 of the RTI Act, which mandates proactive disclosure of public data. For example, basic details like the number of beneficiaries and payment status are not available.
- RTI-Driven Insights: Information on PMMVY coverage is only accessible through RTI queries. For instance, RTI data revealed that effective coverage dropped from 36% in 2019-20 to just 9% in 2023-24, highlighting the program’s declining reach.
- Budgetary Secrecy: There is little transparency about financial allocations and expenditures. For example, official records do not openly explain why central government spending fell to ₹870 crore in 2023-24—just one-third of the amount five years earlier.
Why has the effective coverage of the PMMVY declined sharply since 2019-20?
- Software-Related Issues and Technical Glitches: In 2023-24, major changes in the PMMVY’s software and implementation processes caused frequent system failures, delaying or blocking payments. Officials admitted to facing software issues “every day,” leading to a reduced disbursement rate despite consistent applications.
- Restrictive Eligibility and Complex Documentation: PMMVY limits benefits to only the first child (and a second child if a girl), violating the universal entitlement under the NFSA. Strict Aadhaar-based verification and other conditions exclude migrant workers and women in remote areas who struggle to complete the paperwork.
- Budget Cuts and Reduced Government Spending: Central government spending on PMMVY fell to ₹870 crore in 2023-24, just one-third of the amount five years earlier. This underfunding directly reduced the number of eligible women receiving maternity benefits.
How do the maternity benefit schemes in Tamil Nadu and Odisha differ from the PMMVY?
- Higher Financial Assistance: Tamil Nadu provides ₹18,000 per child (with a promise to increase it to ₹24,000), and Odisha offers ₹10,000 per child. In comparison, PMMVY provides only ₹5,000 for the first child (and a second child if a girl), which is below the ₹6,000 mandated by the NFSA.
- Inclusive Eligibility Criteria: Tamil Nadu and Odisha offer benefits for every childbirth without restrictive conditions. PMMVY, however, limits benefits to the first child (with a recent extension to the second child if a girl), excluding many eligible women.
- Better Implementation and Coverage: Tamil Nadu achieved 84% coverage in 2023-24, and Odisha covered 64% of births in 2021-22. In contrast, PMMVY’s effective coverage fell to just 9% in 2023-24 due to software glitches, reduced spending, and complex documentation.
What role did software-related problems play in further reducing disbursements in 2023-24?
- Frequent System Failures: Major changes in PMMVY’s software and implementation processes in 2023-24 caused regular technical glitches, disrupting the payment system and delaying disbursements. Officials reported encountering software issues daily.
- Reduced Disbursement Rate: Despite consistent applications, technical problems led to a sharp decline in the actual release of benefits. The disbursement rate dropped significantly, contributing to a fall in effective coverage to just 9% in 2023-24.
Way forward:
- Simplify Implementation and Strengthen Technology Infrastructure: Ensure robust, user-friendly software systems with regular maintenance to prevent glitches. Simplify application processes and reduce bureaucratic hurdles for timely disbursement.
- Expand Coverage and Increase Funding: Align PMMVY benefits with NFSA provisions by providing ₹6,000 for every child. Increase budgetary allocations to ensure universal access and include marginalized groups like migrant workers.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the salient features of the National Food Security Act, 2013? How has the Food Security Bill helped in eliminating hunger and malnutrition in India? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to PwDs;
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) plans to complete public consultations on the draft Rules for the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, by March 5. Meanwhile, disability rights activists are urging changes to a key provision of the Act.
Why are persons with disabilities concerned about a certain provision in the draft Rules of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023?
- Infringement on Autonomy and Decision-Making Capacity: Section 9(1) clubs adult PwDs with children, requiring consent from a legal guardian for processing personal data. This undermines their ability to make independent decisions.
- Example: An adult with a physical disability wanting to access online banking may be restricted if the platform requires guardian consent.
- Lack of Clarity and Ambiguity in Implementation: The Act does not clearly outline how consent should be obtained across various disabilities and degrees of severity, leading to confusion.
- Example: A person with limited cognitive impairment under “limited guardianship” may still be treated as entirely incapable.
- Conflict with UNCRPD Principles: The provision conflicts with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), which emphasizes supported decision-making over substituted decision-making.
- Example: Under the RPWD Act, a PwD may receive assistance only when necessary, but the DPDP Act assumes total incapacity if a legal guardian exists, contradicting the UNCRPD framework.
- Concerns About Privacy and Data Security: Platforms may need to collect sensitive information (like whether a user has a disability) to verify guardianship status, raising privacy concerns.
- Exclusion from Digital Services: The additional procedural burden on PwDs and data fiduciaries could lead to exclusion from essential digital platforms.
How do guardianships for Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) function?
- Governed by Two Laws:
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016: Allows for limited guardianship, where PwDs are supported in making specific legal decisions. This aligns with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) by preserving decision-making autonomy.
- National Trust (NT) Act, 1999: Provides for full guardianship for individuals with autism, cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities, or multiple disabilities. This model is more paternalistic and conflicts with the UNCRPD’s emphasis on autonomy.
- Practical Challenges: Although the RPWD Act emphasizes limited guardianship, PwDs often report that their guardians control all aspects of their lives. The NT Act’s rigid framework assumes a lack of decision-making capacity without defining clear standards for assessing it.
How are legal guardians defined under the draft rules?
- legal guardians: Under the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025, legal guardians are defined as individuals appointed through specific legal frameworks to act on behalf of persons with disabilities (PwDs).
- Data Fiduciaries are required to verify the guardian’s appointment by a court of law, designated authority, or local-level committee under applicable guardianship laws.
Who are data fiduciaries and data principals?
- Data Fiduciaries: Entities (organizations, companies, or individuals) that collect, store, and process personal data while determining the purpose and means of such processing under the Digital Personal Data Protection (DPDP) Act, 2023.
- Data principals: Individuals whose personal data is being collected, processed, or stored. This term generally refers to users, consumers, or citizens under the DPDP Act.
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Where does the conflict lie?
- Presumption of Incapacity vs. Legal Recognition of Capacity: The DPDP Act assumes adult PwDs lack the capacity to give consent if a guardian is involved, whereas the RPWD Act recognizes their legal capacity and promotes their right to make decisions.
- Example: A person with mild intellectual disability working in a corporate setting may need guardian approval for routine data-related tasks, despite their ability to understand and consent.
- Data Privacy vs. Intrusive Verification: The DPDP Act may require platforms to collect and verify sensitive disability information, potentially breaching privacy rights, while the UNCRPD emphasizes the right to privacy without discrimination.
- Example: An online service requiring disability verification for consent could store unnecessary sensitive data, increasing risks of unauthorized access or misuse.
Way forward:
- Adopt a Supported Decision-Making Model: Align the DPDP Act with the RPWD Act and UNCRPD by recognizing limited guardianship and allowing PwDs to provide independent consent with appropriate support when needed.
- Ensure Privacy and Minimize Data Collection: Limit the collection of sensitive disability information to essential cases, ensuring purpose limitation and data minimization while protecting PwDs’ privacy rights.
Mains PYQ:
Q Impact of digital technology as a reliable source of input for rational decision-making is a debatable issue. Critically evaluate with a suitable example. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tea Horse Road
Why in the News?
Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.
About the Tea Horse Road
- The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
- Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
- By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
- The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
- The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:
- Yunnan Route: Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
- Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.
- Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
- The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.
Historical Significance:
- Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
- Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
- Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
- Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
- Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.
PYQ:
[2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.
[2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of
(a) African Union
(b) Brazil
(c) European Union
(d) China |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA
Why in the News?
Researchers have discovered a reason why certain segments of the human and mouse genomes (Tra2b gene) have remained unchanged for 80 million years. These segments, known as ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), play a vital role in regulating protein production
What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?
- Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) are long, highly conserved DNA sequences (200+ base pairs) that have remained unchanged for millions of years across multiple species, including humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish.
- Key Characteristics:
- Found in both coding (gene) and non-coding (regulatory) regions of the genome.
- Do not tolerate mutations, meaning they remain identical across species for tens of millions of years.
- Many UCEs do not code for proteins but play crucial roles in gene regulation and cellular function.
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- Evolutionary Significance: Their extreme conservation suggests they are essential for survival, as any mutation would likely be harmful.
- Gene Regulation: UCEs may function as enhancers or silencers, controlling when and where genes are activated.
- Developmental Roles: They are often linked to brain development, fertility, and immune response.
- Disease Prevention: UCEs may protect against genetic disorders and cancers by stabilizing gene expression.
Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?
- Humans and mice share a common mammalian ancestor that lived around 80 million years ago.
- Genomic Similarity:
- Around 85% of mouse genes have direct counterparts in humans.
- Nearly 500 UCEs are identical between humans and mice, despite millions of years of evolution.
- Many fundamental processes like cell division, metabolism, and brain function are similar between species, necessitating high conservation of crucial DNA regions.
- Medical Research:
- Because of these similarities, mice serve as a model organism for studying human genetics, diseases, and drug responses.
- UCEs help scientists understand gene function across species, leading to insights into evolution and biomedical advancements.
PYQ:
[2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred
1. across different species of plants
2. from animals to plants
3. from microorganisms to higher organisms
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Why in the News?
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) survey on agricultural transactions reveals that cash remains the primary mode of payment among farmers, although digital payments are gradually increasing. Despite the rise of Unified Payments Interface (UPI) and mobile banking, over 70% of Indian farmers still rely on cash for selling their produce.
Key Findings of the RBI Survey
- In 2019, 88% of farmers used cash for transactions. By 2022, this figure dropped to 79% and further declined to 72% in 2024.
- However, this transition is slow compared to other sectors of the economy.
- The share of farmers using electronic payments has increased from 8% in 2019 to 18% in 2024.
- Among traders, the adoption of digital payments has been faster, rising from 8% in 2019 to 31% in 2024.
- Among retailers, the usage of electronic payments increased from 3% in 2019 to 22% in 2024.
Reasons behind low Digital Adoption
- 55% of farmers rely on traders to determine market prices, up from 47% in 2019. 47% depend on fellow farmers, while fewer than 10% use apps or websites to check market rates.
- Despite the growth of agri-tech platforms, most farmers still depend on word-of-mouth rather than digital sources for price information.
- Multiple intermediaries in the supply chain reduce farmers’ share in the final consumer price.
- 64% of farmers reported crop damage during the 2023-24 rabi season. Unseasonal rainfall was cited as the top reason (37%), followed by heatwaves (30%).
- As a result, 90% of farmers consider weather forecasts as the most important factor in crop-sowing/ harvesting decisions.
PYQ:
[2010] With reference to India, consider the following:
- Nationalisation of Banks
- Formation of Regional Rural Banks
- Adoption of village by Bank Branches
Which of the above can be considered as steps taken to achieve the “financial inclusion” in India?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2016] Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) is necessary for bringing unbanked to the institutional finance fold. Do you agree with this for financial inclusion of the poorer section of the Indian society? Give arguments to justify your opinion. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SPHEREx Telescope
Why in the News?
NASA is set to launch its latest space telescope, SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California.
What is the SPHEREx Telescope?
- SPHEREx is a new space telescope developed by NASA.
- It is designed to map the entire sky in infrared light and provide insights into the origins of the universe, galaxy formation, and the distribution of life-forming molecules.
- Its mission is expected to last 2 years, during which it will survey the sky 4 times.
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- Infrared Spectroscopy: Unlike traditional optical telescopes, SPHEREx will capture the universe in 102 infrared colors, which are invisible to the human eye.
- Wide-Sky Coverage: Unlike the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which focuses on narrow regions, SPHEREx will map the entire sky every 6 months.
- High Data Output: It will collect data on one billion galaxies, 100 million stars, and 10,000 asteroids, creating an unprecedented cosmic map.
- Study of Cosmic Inflation: SPHEREx will analyze the earliest moments after the Big Bang, helping scientists understand how the universe expanded rapidly in its infancy.
- Search for Life-Forming Molecules: The telescope will identify biogenic molecules like water, carbon dioxide, and methanol in the Milky Way galaxy, revealing where the building blocks of life exist.
How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?
- Spectroscopic Imaging: SPHEREx will divide light from celestial objects into 96 infrared bands, significantly more than previous sky-mapping telescopes.
- Mapping Galactic Evolution: By observing 450 million galaxies, SPHEREx will reveal how they evolved over cosmic history.
- Identifying Cosmic Ice: The telescope will detect frozen water and organic molecules in interstellar dust clouds, essential for understanding planetary formation.
- Unprecedented Infrared Insights: Unlike Hubble, which focuses on optical light, and JWST, which targets deep-space infrared observations, SPHEREx will capture broad infrared spectra across the entire sky, revealing hidden cosmic structures.
PYQ:
[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:
- It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
- It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.
- It is buried deep in the ice.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Veer Savarkar
Why in the News?
Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.
About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy
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Details |
| Who was Veer Savarkar? |
• Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra.
• Founded Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) for armed resistance.
• Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society.
• Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
• Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943).
• Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death. |
| His Contributions |
• Advocated armed revolution against British rule.
• Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion.
• Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity.
• Championed military nationalism over passive resistance.
• Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements. |
| Literary Works |
• The First War of Indian Independence (1909): Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle.
• Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva.
• My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail.
• Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders. |
| Controversies |
• Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence.
• Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising.
• Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favored military strength over civil disobedience.
• Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity. |
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