PYQ Relevance:
Question: How does the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC 2021)
Reason: It addresses the broader impact of melting ice on weather patterns and human activities, a theme relevant to the permafrost thaw in the Himalayas. |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains usually focus on the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers (2021) and the melting of Himalayan glaciers in 2020.
Permafrost, frozen for millennia, is now thawing due to global warming, releasing stored carbon, including methane, a potent greenhouse gas, leading to severe climatic and ecological consequences. It’s melting poses a growing environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalayas, endangering 193 km of roads, 2,415 households, 903 alpine lakes, and eight hydropower projects.
Today’s editorial discusses melting permafrost and its impacts, which is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A study by researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay, published in Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, found that permafrost covers 64.8% of J&K and Ladakh in different forms.
What is Permafrost?
Permafrost is ground—comprising soil, rock, or sediment—that remains continuously frozen for at least two years. It is found in high-altitude and polar regions, stores carbon, and supports unique ecosystems. However, rising global temperatures are causing it to thaw, leading to infrastructure damage, greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental disruptions. |
What are the major environmental and infrastructural challenges associated with permafrost melting in the Kashmir Himalayas?
- Increased Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Thawing permafrost destabilizes moraines, increasing the likelihood of sudden lake outbursts. Example: The South Lhonak Lake outburst in Sikkim (October 2023) and the Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand (February 2021).
- Damage to Roads and Infrastructure: Melting permafrost weakens the ground, causing landslides and road subsidence, disrupting connectivity. Example: Strategic roads in Ladakh, crucial for military operations, are at risk due to thaw-induced ground instability.
- Threat to Hydropower Projects: Permafrost degradation affects water availability and increases sediment flow, damaging dams and power plants. Example: 8 hydropower projects in J&K and Ladakh are vulnerable to thaw-induced landslides and reduced water flow.
- Loss of Permafrost-Dependent Ecosystems: Thawing disrupts alpine ecosystems, affecting vegetation, wildlife, and water cycles. Example: Decline of cold-adapted species and changing river flow patterns impacting local biodiversity.
- Release of Greenhouse Gases: Thawing permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accelerating climate change. Example: Increased methane emissions in permafrost-rich Ladakh contribute to global warming.
Where is permafrost most extensively found in Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh?
- Ladakh Plateau & Karakoram Range: Cold-arid climate with high-altitude plateaus and glaciated mountains supports extensive permafrost. Example: Nubra Valley and Changthang Plateau have widespread permafrost due to sub-zero temperatures year-round.
- Drass & Zanskar Region: Known as the “Gateway to Ladakh,” Drass is one of the coldest inhabited places in India. Example: Drass (often recording temperatures below -30°C) and Zanskar Valley exhibit permafrost in high-altitude zones.
- Upper Indus River Basin: The cold, high-altitude valleys along the Indus River, particularly in the Leh region, have significant permafrost. Example: Permafrost is found in areas along the Indus near Leh, impacting groundwater storage and hydrology.
- Siachen Glacier & Surrounding Areas: One of the highest and coldest battlefields in the world, sustaining year-round permafrost. Example: Permafrost is critical in maintaining the stability of the Siachen Glacier and surrounding military outposts.
- Higher Reaches of Kargil: Some parts of Kargil, particularly in remote high-altitude areas, experience permafrost conditions. Example: Permafrost is found in higher elevations of Kargil, but lower valleys may lack continuous permafrost.
Which regions lack permafrost coverage?
- Kashmir Valley (Srinagar, Anantnag, Baramulla): Relatively lower altitude with temperate climate prevents permafrost formation. Example: Srinagar, despite cold winters, does not have permafrost due to warmer summer temperatures.
- Jammu Region (Jammu, Udhampur, Kathua): Lower altitude and subtropical climate make permafrost formation impossible. Example: Jammu city has hot summers and mild winters, ruling out any permafrost presence.
- Pir Panjal Range: Lower altitude than the Greater Himalayas, experiencing seasonal snow rather than permanent permafrost. Example: Gulmarg and Poonch receive heavy snowfall but do not sustain permafrost.
- Chenab and Jhelum River Valleys: Warmer valley temperatures prevent permafrost formation, though higher peaks may have seasonal ice. Example: Areas like Pahalgam and Kupwara experience snow cover but lack permafrost due to fluctuating temperatures.
- Lower Altitudes of Kargil and Leh: While upper reaches have permafrost, lower valleys experience enough summer warmth to prevent it. Example: Kargil town itself does not have permafrost, but surrounding mountains do.
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What are the causes of the thawing of permafrost?
- Rising Global Temperatures (Climate Change): Increased greenhouse gas emissions lead to higher atmospheric temperatures, accelerating permafrost thaw. Example: In Ladakh, rising temperatures have led to permafrost degradation in the Changthang Plateau, impacting traditional grazing lands.
- Infrastructure Development & Human Activities: Roads, buildings, and military installations generate heat, disrupting the thermal balance of permafrost. Example: The construction of roads like the Zojila Tunnel and military bases in Siachen has contributed to localized permafrost thaw.
- Reduced Snow Cover & Glacial Retreat: Snow acts as an insulating layer, preventing permafrost from direct exposure to warming air. Reduced snowfall accelerates melting. Example: The retreat of glaciers in Zanskar Valley has exposed underlying permafrost to warmer temperatures, leading to faster thawing.
- Increased Rainfall & Changing Precipitation Patterns: More rainfall instead of snowfall leads to surface warming, infiltrating the soil and speeding up permafrost thaw. Example: Parts of Drass have seen changing precipitation patterns, where more rain in summer accelerates permafrost degradation.
- Forest Fires & Loss of Vegetation Cover: Vegetation helps insulate the ground; its loss due to deforestation or fires exposes permafrost to direct heat. Example: In Ladakh, overgrazing by livestock in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary has led to soil erosion, increasing permafrost vulnerability.
What are the steps taken by the government?
- Monitoring and Research Initiatives: The Indian government, in collaboration with research institutions like the Defence Geoinformatics Research Establishment (DGRE) and Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), is conducting studies on permafrost dynamics in Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir. Example: DGRE has set up monitoring stations in Drass, Kargil, and Siachen to study permafrost stability and assess risks to infrastructure.
- Climate Resilient Infrastructure Development: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) is adopting new engineering techniques, such as thermosyphons and insulated road layers, to prevent permafrost degradation in road and tunnel construction. Example: In the construction of the Zojila Tunnel, special insulation techniques are being used to minimize heat impact on permafrost.
- Afforestation and Sustainable Land Management: Programs under CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority) and National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) aim to restore vegetation cover, which helps maintain permafrost stability. Example: Reforestation efforts in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary and Ladakh’s high-altitude areas help in reducing soil erosion and insulating the permafrost layer.
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Way forward:
- Integrating Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Planning: Adopt permafrost-friendly construction techniques, such as thermosyphons and passive cooling methods, in strategic roads, hydropower projects, and military installations to minimize thawing-related damage.
- Strengthening Monitoring and Adaptive Strategies: Expand permafrost monitoring networks, enhance research on thaw impacts, and implement community-based adaptation measures, such as sustainable grazing and afforestation, to mitigate long-term environmental risks.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India’s policy towards China and USA;
Why in the News?
India is adopting a conciliatory approach towards China, with improving ties since the 2020 border clashes.
Why has India adopted a more conciliatory stance towards China in recent months?
- De-escalation of Border Tensions: India and China have gradually disengaged from multiple friction points along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) since the 2020 Galwan clashes. Example: In October 2023, both sides agreed to withdraw troops from the last two major standoff points in eastern Ladakh.
- Economic Considerations: China remains India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching record levels despite political tensions. Example: In 2023, India’s imports from China exceeded $100 billion, highlighting the economic interdependence.
- Strategic Uncertainty in U.S. Policy: With the U.S. showing unpredictability under the Trump administration, India may seek to hedge its bets by stabilizing ties with China. Example: Trump’s reluctance to support Ukraine and potential shifts in U.S. Asia policy raise concerns about long-term American commitments.
- Focus on Domestic Growth and Development: India aims to maintain economic stability and avoid prolonged military confrontations that could divert resources from development. Example: Infrastructure projects like “Make in India” and semiconductor manufacturing require a stable geopolitical environment.
- Maintaining Diplomatic Leverage: A balanced approach allows India to engage with multiple global powers while keeping strategic options open. Example: While signaling reconciliation with China, India continues military exercises with the Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia) to maintain leverage.
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How does the shifting U.S. foreign policy under the Trump administration impact India’s strategic choices regarding China?
- Uncertainty Over U.S. Security Commitments: Trump’s ambiguous stance on global security, including reduced support for Ukraine, raises doubts about America’s reliability in countering China’s aggression. Example: The U.S. halted intelligence sharing on Russian missile threats to Ukraine, signaling potential unpredictability in military alliances.
- Possibility of a U.S.-China Grand Bargain: Trump’s transactional diplomacy suggests he may prioritize economic deals with China over strategic containment, potentially sidelining India’s concerns. Example: His approach to Russia—offering compromises for economic gains—hints at a similar possibility with China, affecting Indo-U.S. strategic alignment.
- Pressure on India to Strengthen Self-Reliance: With the U.S. potentially scaling back its role in Asia, India must enhance its military capabilities and deepen partnerships with other allies. Example: India has intensified defense cooperation with Japan, Australia, and France while increasing indigenous military production (e.g., Tejas fighter jets, submarine projects).
What military limitations has India faced in recent years despite rising security challenges?
- Delayed Modernization and Declining Defense Budget: India’s defense spending as a share of GDP has steadily declined over the past decade, limiting critical investments in military modernization. Example: The Indian Air Force still operates outdated MiG-21 fighters, with delays in acquiring Rafale jets and indigenous Tejas aircraft.
- Slow Progress in Indigenous Defense Manufacturing: Despite initiatives like Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), India remains dependent on foreign arms suppliers, leading to procurement delays. Example: The Project 75I submarine program has seen repeated delays, affecting the Navy’s ability to counter China’s growing maritime presence.
- Limited Military Buildup Despite Border Tensions: After the 2020 Ladakh standoff, India disengaged from key incursion sites but did not significantly increase troop deployments or infrastructure in vulnerable areas. Example: While China rapidly built roads, bridges, and airstrips near the Line of Actual Control (LAC), India’s infrastructure development in border areas has lagged.
Who are India’s key partners in military cooperation?
- United States (U.S.): India and the U.S. have strengthened defense ties through agreements like COMCASA, BECA, and LEMOA, facilitating intelligence sharing and logistics support. Example: India participates in the Malabar naval exercise with the U.S., enhancing interoperability in the Indo-Pacific region.
- Russia: Russia remains a key defense supplier, providing advanced weaponry, including fighter jets, submarines, and missile systems. Example: India procured the S-400 air defense system from Russia despite U.S. pressure and CAATSA sanctions concerns.
- France: France is a crucial partner in aerospace and naval defense cooperation, supplying high-end military equipment. Example: India acquired Rafale fighter jets from France and is collaborating on Scorpene-class submarines under Project 75.
- Israel: India-Israel defense ties focus on advanced technology, particularly in missile defense, drones, and cyber warfare. Example: India procured Barak-8 missile defense systems and Heron UAVs from Israel for border security.
- Quad Partners (Japan & Australia): India’s partnerships with Japan and Australia focus on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and defense exercises. Example: The India-Japan 2+2 ministerial dialogue and AUSINDEX naval exercise with Australia boost strategic ties in the Indo-Pacific.
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How can operational coordination help strengthen India’s strategic position? (Way forward)
- Enhanced Interoperability with Allies: Regular joint exercises improve coordination between India and its military partners, ensuring seamless cooperation in real-world conflicts. Example: The Malabar Naval Exercise with the U.S., Japan, and Australia enhances India’s naval capabilities in the Indo-Pacific.
- Force Multiplication through Intelligence Sharing: Coordinated intelligence sharing provides India with real-time situational awareness, helping in threat assessment and strategic planning. Example: BECA agreement with the U.S. enables India to access geospatial intelligence, improving precision targeting and surveillance.
- Deterrence Against Aggression: Strengthened operational coordination signals military preparedness, discouraging adversaries from engaging in aggressive actions. Example: Joint patrols with France in the Indian Ocean demonstrate India’s extended reach and deterrence capabilities.
Mains PYQ:
Question: ‘The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question directly addresses the strategic implications of China’s rise and India’s potential role in countering it, which is relevant to the theme of deterrence.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Food wastage and its impact;
Why in the News?
The UNEP’s Food Waste Index Report 2024 shows that 1.05 billion tonnes of food were wasted in 2022, about 20% of the world’s food. India is a major contributor, making this a serious environmental and ethical issue.
What are the key differences between food waste and food loss as per the Food Waste Index Report (FWIR) 2024?
- Food Waste: It includes both edible and inedible parts discarded at the consumer and retail levels (households, restaurants, supermarkets, etc.). It happens due to over-purchasing, poor storage, and cultural habits of excess food preparation.
- Food Loss: It occurs earlier in the supply chain (from production to retail) due to inadequate storage, transportation, handling, and infrastructure failures.
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Why does the food waste in India pose a significant environmental and social challenge?
- Worsens Hunger and Food Insecurity: Despite being a major food producer, over 20 crore Indians go to bed hungry while 78 million tonnes of food are wasted annually. Example: Tons of edible surplus food from weddings and restaurants are discarded instead of being redistributed to the needy.
- Increases Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Food waste in landfills decomposes and releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than CO₂. Example: India’s food waste contributes 10%-12% of total municipal waste, significantly impacting climate change.
- Wastage of Natural Resources: Food production requires land, water, and energy. Wasting food means wasting these scarce resources. Example: It takes 1,800 liters of water to produce just 1 kg of rice—if wasted, all that water is also wasted.
- Economic Loss and Financial Burden: Wasting food leads to huge financial losses for households, businesses, and the economy. Example: Retailers discard unsold perishable foods like dairy and fruits due to short shelf life, leading to billions of rupees in losses annually.
- Aggravates Climate Change and Natural Disasters: Increased food demand due to waste leads to deforestation, soil degradation, and excessive water usage, worsening environmental crises. Example: Rising extreme weather events (droughts, floods) impact crop production, making food security more vulnerable.
Where in the food supply chain do inefficiencies lead to high levels of food wastage in India?
- Post-Harvest Losses (Farm Level): Poor harvesting techniques and lack of proper drying/storage cause significant losses. Example: Grains left in open fields get damaged by rain, pests, or rodents due to inadequate storage facilities.
- Storage and Transportation Issues: Inadequate cold storage and poor transportation infrastructure lead to spoilage, especially for perishable goods. Example: Fruits and vegetables rot in transit due to a lack of refrigerated trucks, particularly in rural areas.
- Retail and Market-Level Losses: Supermarkets and local markets discard unsold food due to short shelf life, improper handling, and strict quality standards. Example: Bruised or oddly shaped vegetables and fruits are rejected and thrown away by vendors, even if they are edible.
- Household-Level Waste: Over-purchasing, improper meal planning, and poor storage lead to significant food waste in homes. Example: Families discard leftovers or expired groceries because they were not consumed in time.
- Food Service Industry (Hotels, Restaurants, and Caterers): Large-scale food preparation for events, hotels, and restaurants results in excess food being thrown away. Example: Buffet-style dining in weddings and hotels often leads to tons of uneaten food being discarded instead of redistributed.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- “Save Food, Share Food” Initiative: A program launched to redistribute surplus food from individuals, businesses, and organizations to the needy. Example: Collaboration with NGOs and food banks ensures excess food from weddings, hotels, and events is shared rather than wasted.
- Strengthening Cold Storage and Supply Chain Infrastructure: Investment in cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport to reduce post-harvest losses. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana supports food processing industries to improve storage and preservation.
- Amendments in Food Safety and Standards Regulations: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) encourages supermarkets and restaurants to donate surplus food instead of discarding it.Example: The Food Sharing Guidelines (2019) enable food redistribution through certified food banks and NGOs.
- Awareness Campaigns and Behavioral Change Initiatives: Government-led campaigns promote responsible food consumption, meal planning, and waste reduction. Example: The Indian Food Sharing Alliance (IFSA), launched by FSSAI, connects food businesses and NGOs to reduce waste.
- Support for Food Processing and Preservation: Encouraging food processing industries to convert surplus produce into value-added products like dried, frozen, or packaged foods. Example: The government provides subsidies and incentives for food processing units under schemes like the Mega Food Parks Scheme to reduce waste.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Food Redistribution Networks: Expand and streamline food donation mechanisms through digital platforms connecting surplus food sources (hotels, supermarkets, households) with NGOs and food banks. Example: A nationwide food-sharing app can help track surplus food and ensure efficient redistribution to the needy.
- Improving Supply Chain Efficiency with Technology: Leverage AI, IoT, and blockchain for real-time monitoring of food storage, transport conditions, and expiry tracking to reduce wastage. Example: Smart sensors in cold storage and logistics can alert businesses to temperature fluctuations, preventing spoilage of perishable items.
Mains PYQ:
Question: Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2017)
Reason: This question connects climate change to food security, a situation that could be exacerbated by food wastage.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)
Why in the News?
The 20th meeting of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20) is currently underway in Rome.
About Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)
- The CGRFA is the only permanent intergovernmental body addressing all components of biodiversity-related to food and agriculture.
- It was established in 1983 as the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
- It operates under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
- It aims to create international consensus on managing biodiversity in food systems and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from these genetic resources.
- Membership: 179 countries (including India) and the European Union
- Focus: Coordinates global efforts on biodiversity affecting agriculture, forestry, livestock, and aquatic species, including pollinators, soil organisms, and other vital species for food production.
Structure and Mandate
- Structure:
- Governed by a biennial session where member countries discuss and make decisions.
- A bureau, elected by member states, guides the Commission’s work.
- The CGRFA Secretariat, hosted by FAO, offers technical and logistical support.
- Mandate:
- Policy Formulation: Develops global action plans, codes of conduct, and policy instruments for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
- Global Assessments: Guides preparation of periodic assessments to monitor the status and trends of genetic resources and biodiversity.
- Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Promotes biodiversity use for food security, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation.
- Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, especially plant materials under international treaties.
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- International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Adopted in 2001, it recognizes farmers’ contributions to crop diversity and provides a global system for accessing plant genetic materials for breeders, farmers, and scientists.
| [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:
1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
3. The World Heritage Convention
Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Farakka Barrage
Why in the News?
It was nearly 50 years ago, that India had completed the construction of the Farakka Barrage.
About Farakka Barrage
- The Farakka Barrage is located on the Ganges River in Murshidabad District, West Bengal, India, about 18 km from the Bangladesh border.
- The barrage measures 2,304 meters (7,559 feet) in length.
- Its construction began in 1962 and was completed in 1970 at a cost of 1 billion dollars. It became operational on April 21, 1975.
- The Feeder Canal is approximately 42 km long, connecting the barrage to the Hooghly River.
- Purpose:
- It diverts water to the Hooghly River to maintain the navigability of Kolkata Port and to flush out sediment from the river.
- It diverts 1,800 cubic meters per second of water from the Ganges.
- Construction Details:
- Built by Hindustan Construction Company, it consists of 109 gates, with 108 over the river and one over low-lying land as a precaution.
- Supports the Farakka Super Thermal Power Station.
- The 1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty ensured fair water distribution:
- 70,000 cusecs or less: 50% to both India and Bangladesh.
- 70,000 – 75,000 cusecs: India gets 35,000 cusecs, Bangladesh the balance.
- 75,000 cusecs or more: India receives 40,000 cusecs, Bangladesh gets the remainder.
Significance in India-Bangladesh Water Sharing:
- The Farakka Barrage is crucial for irrigation in West Bengal, supporting agriculture during the dry season.
- Bangladesh, particularly Mongla and Khulna, depends on the Ganges for water.
- The diverted water has led to water scarcity, impacting agriculture, fisheries, and livelihoods in Bangladesh, causing diplomatic tensions.
- This treaty ensures equitable distribution and guarantees a minimum flow for Bangladesh.
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- Water diversion has led to salinization and soil degradation in Bangladesh, affecting agriculture and freshwater supplies.
- Biodiversity loss and damage to the Sundarbans mangrove forests have been significant environmental impacts.
| [UPSC 1997] The canal-carrying capacity of Farakka is:
(a) 40,000 cusecs (b) 60,000 cusecs (c) 80,000 cusecs (d) 100,000 cusecs |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Aikeyme
Why in the News?
India is set to strengthen its military and maritime ties with African nations through two significant initiatives—Exercise Aikeyme (Africa-India Key Maritime Engagement) and IOS Sagar (Indian Ocean Ship Sagar).
About Exercise Aikeyme
- Aikeyme is India’s first-ever multilateral naval exercise with 10 African nations, aimed at improving maritime cooperation, enhancing maritime security, and addressing regional threats.
- It will be held off Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, from April 13 to 18, 2025.
- The nations taking part include Tanzania (co-host), Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, and South Africa.
- It is aimed at increasing interoperability between the Indian Navy and African navies, with a focus on combating common threats like piracy and drug trafficking.
- The goal is to make this exercise a biennial event and expand participation in future editions to include West African nations.
- Key Features:
- Visit Board Search and Seizure (VBSS) drills.
- Arms firing exercises.
- Helicopter operations.
- Search and rescue missions.
- Table-top and command post exercises on anti-piracy operations and information-sharing.
IOS Sagar (Indian Ocean Ship) Initiative
- The IOS Sagar initiative focuses on deepening India’s maritime cooperation with IOR countries.
- It involves the deployment of the Indian Navy’s INS Sunayna, which will be manned by a combined crew of Indian sailors and 44 personnel from nine African countries.
- The initiative will take place from April 5 to May 8, 2025.
- Key Participating Countries: Sri Lanka, Maldives, Mauritius, Comoros, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Seychelles, and South Africa.
- Activities:
- The ship will undertake port calls at Dar-es-Salaam, Nacala, Port Louis, Port Victoria, and Male.
- The ship will also engage in joint surveillance of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of Tanzania, Mozambique, Mauritius, and Seychelles.
- The personnel will undergo two-week training capsules at Kochi, including sea training, watchkeeping, and other professional naval activities.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lapis Lazuli
Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in ‘The Hindu’.
About Lapis Lazuli
- Lapis lazuli is a deep-blue metamorphic rock prized for its vibrant colour, often used in jewellery and decorative items.
- It is composed mainly of lazurite, with other minerals like calcite and pyrite, which give it its characteristic golden specks.
- It is mainly found in Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, though it is also present in Chile, Russia, and the US.
- It has been valued since ancient times, particularly in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, and is known for its use in making pigments, especially ultramarine.
Lapis Lazuli in Indus Valley Civilization (IVC):
- The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (3300-1900 BC) had extensive trade with Mesopotamia and Afghanistan, where lapis lazuli was imported.
- It was used for beads and ornaments found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, underscoring its value in Indus jewellery.
- It was a sacred stone, often used in beads, pendants, and amulets, symbolizing spirituality and high social status.
- It was likely associated with religious ceremonies and used to represent the gods.
- The Indus people were skilled at bead-making, often combining lapis lazuli with other stones, such as gold.
- The intricate designs, including incised or painted beads, reflect their technical expertise.
Other Semi-Precious Stones Found in IVC:
Several semi-precious stones were used by the IVC to create jewellery and ornaments:
- Carnelian beads were made into pendants and rings, valued for their reddish-orange hue and durability.
- Amethyst beads, a purple quartz variety, were also used, likely imported from other regions.
- Jasper, a chalcedony variety, was used for beads and pendants, valued for its earthy tones.
- Turquoise was used in beads, often combined with lapis lazuli and carnelian.
- Steatite (Soapstone) was used for seals and beads, often engraved with animal motifs or symbols.
- Crystal and quartz were used for translucent beads, adding a mystical quality to jewelry.
- Gold, combined with semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise, was extensively used in necklaces, bracelets, and earrings.
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| [UPSC 2023] Lothal, a significant site of the Indus Valley Civilization, was particularly well-known as a:
(a) major agricultural centre
(b) centre for textile production
(c) major trade hub for beads, gems, and ornaments
(d) site with extensive fire altars |
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