PYQ Relevance:
Q) Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC CSE 2020) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc (2020) and WTO has to survive in the present context of ‘Trade War’ (2018).
During Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s U.S. visit on February 13, 2025, India and the U.S. agreed to begin talks on a multi-sector Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) by fall 2025. As both countries are WTO members, the agreement must follow WTO rules. While details remain unclear, the agreement’s content matters more than its label.
Today’s editorial discusses how the ongoing Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) negotiations may affect both countries. This information is useful for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Since both the U.S. and India are members of the World Trade Organization, their trade agreements must follow WTO rules.
What are the key legal challenges India and the U.S. may face while negotiating a Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA) under WTO law?
- Violation of the Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Principle: WTO law mandates that any trade advantage granted to one member must be extended to all members (Article I of GATT). A BTA providing preferential tariffs only to India or the U.S. may violate this principle.
- Example: If the U.S. lowers tariffs on Indian textiles under the BTA without extending the same benefit to other WTO members like China, it breaches the MFN principle.
- Meeting the “Substantially All Trade” Requirement: Article XXIV.8(b) of GATT requires that Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) must cover “substantially all trade.” A limited-scope BTA focusing only on select sectors (e.g., pharmaceuticals or agriculture) may not satisfy this condition.
- Example: If the India-U.S. BTA only includes technology and defense products while excluding key areas like agriculture, it may not qualify as a valid FTA under WTO law.
- Notification and Transparency Obligations: WTO members must notify the organization of any new regional trade agreements (RTAs) or BTAs and demonstrate compliance with Article XXIV of GATT. Failure to provide transparent schedules may lead to legal disputes.
- Example: If India and the U.S. do not submit a clear implementation timeline for tariff reductions under an interim BTA, other WTO members could challenge the agreement.
- Bound Tariff Commitments: Both countries have pre-committed to maximum tariff limits (bound tariffs) under WTO rules. Any preferential treatment exceeding these limits may violate their commitments.
- Example: If India agrees to reduce tariffs on American agricultural imports below its bound tariff rates, it could be accused of breaching its WTO commitments.
- Misuse of the “Interim Agreement” Clause: Article XXIV.5 allows “interim agreements” only if they lead to a full FTA within a reasonable period (usually 10 years). Using an interim BTA to delay full liberalization may face legal scrutiny.
- Example: If the India-U.S. BTA remains a partial agreement for an extended period without progressing toward an FTA, it could be deemed a violation of WTO norms.
Why is the “most favoured nation” (MFN) principle significant in evaluating the legality of the proposed India-U.S. BTA?
- Prevents Discrimination Between Trading Partners: The MFN principle under Article I of GATT ensures that any trade advantage (e.g., lower tariffs) given to one WTO member must be extended to all members. A BTA offering exclusive benefits violates this core principle.
- Example: If the U.S. reduces tariffs on Indian pharmaceuticals but does not extend the same reduction to other countries like Vietnam, it breaches the MFN rule.
- Limits Preferential Bilateral Deals: WTO law only allows exceptions to the MFN rule through comprehensive trade agreements covering “substantially all trade” under Article XXIV of GATT. A narrowly focused BTA risks legal challenges.
- Example: If India and the U.S. sign a BTA that only includes high-tech products while excluding major sectors like agriculture, it may not qualify for an MFN exemption.
- Ensures Transparency and Fair Competition: The MFN principle promotes a transparent, rule-based trading system where no country receives hidden advantages, ensuring fair market access for all WTO members.
- Example: If India provides exclusive tariff cuts on American dairy products without offering similar terms to New Zealand, it would violate WTO transparency obligations.
- Prevents Trade Fragmentation: Upholding the MFN principle avoids trade fragmentation by ensuring consistent rules for all members. Bilateral deals that bypass MFN could undermine the multilateral trade system.
- Example: If the U.S. grants Indian textiles preferential access through a BTA but not to countries like Bangladesh, it could distort global supply chains.
- Requires WTO Notification and Review: Any departure from the MFN principle through a BTA must be notified to the WTO and subjected to legal scrutiny under Article XXIV to confirm its compliance.
- Example: If the India-U.S. BTA is not notified to the WTO or lacks a clear transition plan toward an FTA, it may be legally contested by other members like China or the EU.
How can the proposed BTA be structured as an “interim agreement” under Article XXIV of the GATT without violating WTO norms?
- Commitment to Full Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union: The BTA must outline a clear plan to eventually form a Free Trade Area (FTA) or Customs Union within a reasonable time frame (generally within 10 years).
- Example: The India-Mauritius Comprehensive Economic Cooperation and Partnership Agreement (CECPA) started as an interim agreement with the goal of expanding into a broader trade framework.
- Transparency and Notification to WTO: The parties must notify the WTO of the interim agreement and submit detailed information on trade coverage, timelines, and implementation steps for review by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).
- Example: The European Union (EU)-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was notified to the WTO during the Brexit transition, ensuring compliance with Article XXIV.
- Non-Discriminatory Transition: The interim agreement must not create unjustifiable discrimination against other WTO members, and the removal of trade barriers should cover substantially all trade between the parties.
- Example: The US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) complies with this by covering a broad range of goods and services, ensuring that trade barriers are progressively reduced.
Way forward:
- Ensure Comprehensive Coverage and Timely Transition: Design the BTA to cover substantially all trade sectors with a clear roadmap toward a full Free Trade Area (FTA) within the 10-year WTO guideline to comply with Article XXIV.
- Enhance Transparency and Legal Compliance: Notify the WTO promptly, providing detailed schedules on tariff reductions and implementation timelines, ensuring non-discrimination and regular compliance reviews by the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements (CRTA).
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Regulation in education institutions;
Why in the News?
Various groups have raised concerns about the Draft UGC Regulations, 2025, which outline qualifications for appointing and promoting university teachers and aim to maintain standards in higher education.
What are the primary reservations expressed regarding the Draft UGC Regulations, 2025?
- Reduced Role of State Executives in V-C Appointments: The draft regulations limit the State government’s involvement in the search-cum-selection process, despite State universities being funded and established by State legislatures. Example: In the Gambhirdan K. Gadhvi vs State of Gujarat (2019) case, the Supreme Court ruled that State executive members cannot be part of the V-C selection committee, reducing their influence.
- Broadening of Eligibility Criteria for Vice-Chancellors: Expanding the eligibility to include individuals from public policy, government, and private sectors may dilute academic rigor and expertise. Example: Between 2010 and 2018, the UGC regulations required 10 years of professorship or equivalent academic experience, ensuring a focus on research-based qualifications.
Why has the Supreme Court of India ruled against the involvement of the State executive in the selection process of Vice-Chancellors?
- Ensuring Compliance with UGC Regulations: The Court upheld the UGC’s 2018 regulations, which specify that only a UGC representative, not a State executive member, should be included in the search-cum-selection committee. Example: In Professor (Dr.) Sreejith P.S vs Dr. Rajasree M.S. (2022), the Court invalidated the V-C’s appointment because the selection process did not follow UGC norms.
- Preventing Arbitrary Appointments: The Court held that allowing State executives to influence the selection process could lead to biased or politically motivated appointments, compromising merit-based selection. Example: In Dr. Premachandran Keezhoth vs The Chancellor, Kannur University (2023), the Court declared the V-C appointment void due to the involvement of the State executive, reinforcing the need for an independent selection process.
- Preserving Autonomy and Neutrality: The Court emphasized that the Vice-Chancellor’s appointment process should be free from political or administrative influence to maintain the academic institution’s autonomy and impartiality. Example: In Gambhirdan K. Gadhvi vs State of Gujarat (2019), the Court ruled that State executive members cannot be part of the selection committee to prevent undue influence.
Who are the key stakeholders affected by the proposed changes in the search-cum-selection process?
- State Governments and State Universities: The reduced role of State executives limits their ability to shape the leadership of State-funded universities, affecting regional educational priorities and innovation. Example: State governments argue that universities play a critical role in addressing local development needs, which may be overlooked if the selection process is centralized.
- University Governance Bodies: University executive bodies lose direct influence over the V-C selection, reducing their ability to align leadership with institutional goals and academic vision. Example: Central University statutes follow a similar model where the Chancellor, UGC, and university bodies are key decision-makers, excluding executive government officials.
- Academic and Non-Academic Professionals: The broadened eligibility criteria open leadership positions to individuals from non-academic backgrounds, changing the traditional focus on academic excellence. Example: The draft regulations allow candidates with experience in public policy or industry, which some argue may dilute the focus on academic scholarship.
Which options should be suggested to balance the State executive’s concerns? (Way forward)
- State Nominee with Specific Criteria: Permit the State executive to nominate one member to the search-cum-selection committee, provided the nominee is a distinguished academic with no active government role. Example: Similar to the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) guidelines, the nominee could be a retired academic leader who is free from political affiliations.
- Increased Consultation Mechanism: Introduce a pre-selection consultation phase where the State executive provides inputs on regional needs without directly influencing the final selection. Example: The university executive could hold formal discussions with the State to ensure the selected V-C aligns with local educational and developmental goals.
Mains PYQ:
Q The quality of higher education in India requires major improvement to make it internationally competitive. Do you think that the entry of foreign educational institutions would help improve the quality of technical and higher education in the country. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to employment;
Why in the News?
According to PLFS reports, employment in India is increasing, but the real wages of salaried workers have remained unchanged since 2019.
What are the key reasons behind the stagnation of real wages for salaried workers in India since 2019?
- Inflation Outpacing Wage Growth: Rising consumer prices (CPI) have eroded the purchasing power of salaries despite nominal wage increases. For example, Real wages for salaried workers in India were 1.7% lower in the June 2024 quarter compared to the June 2019 quarter (PLFS data).
- Excess Labour Supply and Declining Returns to Education: An oversupply of qualified workers has reduced the premium for higher education, limiting salary growth. For example, the share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, indicating a shift from salaried roles due to a lack of opportunities.
- Depressed Private Sector Investment: Reduced corporate investment leads to slower job creation and wage stagnation. For example, India’s private sector investment-to-GDP ratio declined from 28% in 2011-12 to 21.1% in 2022-23 (Reserve Bank of India).
- Policy Shocks (Demonetisation and GST Impact): Economic disruptions from demonetisation (2016) and GST (2017) weakened small and medium enterprises (SMEs), affecting formal employment. For example, Formal employment fell, and salaried employment as a share of total workers dropped from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data).
- Shift Toward Informal and Contractual Work: Companies increasingly rely on temporary and gig workers, offering lower pay and fewer benefits. For example, Casual labour wages increased by 12.3% (real terms) between 2019 and 2024, while salaried wages stagnated, reflecting a rise in informal work.
Why is the increase in wages for casual labour not considered a net positive for the economy?
- Lower Productivity Contribution: Casual labour typically involves low-skilled, irregular work with limited productivity gains. While wages may rise, the overall economic output does not grow proportionately.
- For example, the agriculture sector, which employs a large share of casual labour, contributed only 16% to India’s GDP in 2023-24 despite employing over 45% of the workforce (Economic Survey 2023-24).
- Informal Nature of Work: Casual jobs lack social security, health benefits, and job stability, leading to long-term economic insecurity despite wage increases.
- In India, 93% of the workforce remains in the informal sector with minimal social protection, contributing to economic vulnerability (ILO report, 2023).
- Wage-Price Spiral Risk: Rising wages in low-skilled sectors can increase the cost of goods and services, driving inflation without improving living standards.
- For instance, wage increases for casual farm labour contribute to higher food prices, intensifying retail inflation (CPI rose by 7.44% in July 2024, RBI).
- Limited Skill Development and Upward Mobility: Casual work offers fewer opportunities for training or career advancement, trapping workers in low-wage cycles despite nominal wage growth.
- The Periodic Labour Force Survey (2023-24) shows that only 2.4% of India’s workforce received formal vocational training, limiting skill-based upward mobility.
- Depressed Consumption and Savings Rates: Casual labourers typically earn subsistence-level wages, leaving little room for savings or significant consumption, which hampers long-term economic growth.
- Household savings as a share of GDP declined from 23.6% in 2011-12 to 18.1% in 2022-23, reflecting weak wage-driven consumption (RBI report).
When did real wages for self-employed workers begin to recover after the pandemic?
Real wages for self-employed workers in India began to recover after the pandemic in the quarters. Despite this recovery, as of the June 2024 quarter, real wages remained 1.5% lower than in the June 2019 quarter.
- Rural vs. Urban Disparities:
- Rural Areas: In rural regions, self-employed workers experienced a 3.02% increase in real wages during the same period.
- Urban Areas: Conversely, urban self-employed workers saw a decline of 5.2% in real wages compared to pre-pandemic levels.
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How have policy decisions like demonetization and the implementation of GST affected wage growth and employment patterns?
- Disruption of Informal and Small-Scale Enterprises: Both demonetisation and GST disrupted cash-dependent small and medium enterprises (SMEs), leading to job losses and reduced wage growth in the informal sector. Example: The share of salaried workers declined from 22.9% in 2019-20 to 21.7% in 2023-24 (PLFS data), indicating a shift away from formal employment.
- Shift Toward Informal and Gig Work: Policy shocks accelerated the transition from stable salaried jobs to informal, gig-based, and self-employed work, which generally offers lower pay and fewer benefits. Example: The share of self-employed workers increased from 53.5% in 2019-20 to 58.4% in 2023-24, reflecting a rise in informal employment (PLFS data).
- Slower Wage Growth and Employment Stagnation: Compliance burdens from GST and cash shortages from demonetisation constrained business operations, leading to slower wage increases across sectors. Example: Real wages for salaried workers were 1.7% lower in June 2024 compared to June 2019 (PLFS data), indicating stagnant wage growth despite economic recovery.
Way forward:
- Enhance Formal Employment and Skill Development: Promote labour-intensive sectors and incentivize formal job creation through targeted tax benefits and reduced compliance burdens.
- Strengthen Social Security and Wage Policies: Implement comprehensive social protection schemes for informal workers to ensure income stability and healthcare benefits.
Mains PYQ:
Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India's Arms Imports, Make in India
Why in the News?
India remained the second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports between 2015-19 and 2020-24 a/c to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) Report.
About SIPRI
- The SIPRI is an independent organization established in 1966, based in Stockholm, Sweden, conducting research on conflict, arms control, and disarmament.
- SIPRI provides comprehensive data on global arms imports, exports, and military expenditures, tracking defense trends and geopolitical conflicts worldwide.
- It analyzes ongoing wars, nuclear proliferation, cybersecurity threats, and environmental security, offering policy recommendations for international peace and stability.
- SIPRI publishes flagship reports such as the SIPRI Yearbook, Arms Transfers Database, and Military Expenditure Database, which are widely used by governments, researchers, and policymakers.
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India’s Arms Imports: Trends and Shifts
- India remained the world’s second-largest arms importer, despite a 9.3% decline in imports from 2015-19 to 2020-24.
- Russia accounted for 36% of India’s arms imports in 2020-24, significantly LOWER than 55% in 2015-19 and 72% in 2010-14.
- India has reduced dependence on Russia and increased arms deals with France, the U.S., and Israel.
- India became France’s largest arms importer (28%), with 36 Rafale fighter jets and six Scorpene submarines already contracted.
- India is finalizing agreements for 26 Rafale-M jets and three additional Scorpene submarines.
Global Arms Trade Highlights
- Ukraine – The Largest Importer: Due to the ongoing war, Ukraine’s arms imports surged nearly 100 times in 2020-24 compared to 2015-19.
- The U.S. accounted for 45% of Ukraine’s imports, followed by Germany (12%) and Poland (11%).
- U.S. dominance in exports: The U.S. expanded its global arms market share to 43%, reinforcing its position as the top exporter.
- Russia’s decline: Russian arms exports fell by 64%, dropping to 7.8% of global exports, behind France (9.6%).
- European rearmament: European arms imports surged by 155% in response to rising security threats from Russia.
- Pakistan’s growing imports: Pakistan’s arms imports grew by 61%, with China supplying 81% of its weapons, up from 74% in 2015-19.
- China’s self-reliance: For the first time since 1990-94, China dropped out of the top 10 arms importers, reflecting its expanding domestic defense industry.
- Italy’s rise in arms exports: Italy climbed from 10th to 6th place, with a 4.8% share of global arms exports.
PYQ:
[2020] What is the significance of Indo-US defence deals over Indo-Russian defence deals? Discuss with reference to stability in the Indo-Pacific region. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Preventive Detention
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court recently ruled against the Preventive Detention of a couple in Nagaland, emphasizing that constitutional safeguards must be strictly followed, and preventive detention cannot override fundamental rights.
Court’s Key Observations: Preventive Detention as a ‘Draconian Measure’
- Violation of Rights: The court ruled that depriving individuals of liberty without trial requires strict adherence to legal safeguards.
- Lack of Justification: Authorities failed to prove that the detainees posed a credible future threat, rendering the detention unjustified.
- Language Barrier: Detention orders were in English, a language the detainees did not understand, violating their right to be informed in an accessible manner.
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What is Preventive Detention?
- Preventive detention is the detention of an individual without trial to prevent them from engaging in activities that may threaten national security, public order, or foreign relations.
- Unlike punitive detention, it aims to prevent future crimes rather than punish past offenses.
- Under Article 22 of the Constitution, preventive detention is allowed but with safeguards:
- Time Limit: Maximum three months, extendable only if an Advisory Board (comprising High Court judges) approves.
- Rights of the Detainee: Must be informed of reasons for detention (unless against public interest) and given the right to challenge it.
- Judicial Review: Courts can strike down unjustified detentions.
- Major Preventive Detention Laws:
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- Public Safety Act (PSA), 1978: Used in J&K; detention up to two years.
- National Security Act (NSA), 1980: Up to one year for threats to national security.
- Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act (PITNDPS Act), 1988: For drug trafficking cases.
- Conservation of Foreign Exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities Act (COFEPOSA), 1974: For economic offenses & smuggling.
Supreme Court’s Landmark Rulings
- Ameena Begum Case (2023): Preventive detention is an exception, not a routine measure.
- Ankul Chandra Pradhan Case (1997): It aims to prevent threats, not punish individuals.
- Harikisan vs Maharashtra (1962): Detention orders must be in a language the detainee understands.
- Gold Smuggling Case (2024): Authorities must consider bail conditions before imposing detention.
PYQ:
[2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:
- Judicial custody means an accused is in the custody of the concerned magistrate and such an accused is locked up in a police station, not in jail.
- During judicial custody, the police officer in charge of the case is not allowed to interrogate the suspect without the approval of the court.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise KHANJAR-XII
Why in the News?
The 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise KHANJAR-XII is set to be held in Kyrgyzstan.
About Exercise KHANJAR-XII
- KHANJAR-XII is the 12th edition of the India-Kyrgyzstan Joint Special Forces Exercise, aimed at enhancing counter-terrorism and special operations capabilities.
- It is a bilateral military exercise held annually since 2011, alternately hosted by India and Kyrgyzstan.
- The 2025 edition is being conducted in Kyrgyzstan.
- Participants:
- Indian Contingent: Parachute Regiment (Special Forces).
- Kyrgyzstan Contingent: Kyrgyz Scorpion Brigade.
- The primary objective is to strengthen military cooperation, improve joint operational capabilities, and enhance interoperability between the two nations’ Special Forces.
Key Features:
- Counter-Terrorism Focus: Training in urban and high-altitude warfare to counter modern security threats.
- Special Forces Interoperability: Strengthening coordination in joint military operations.
- Mountain Warfare & Survival Skills: Enhancing operational effectiveness in challenging terrains.
- Military Technology Exchange: Sharing expertise on weapons systems, surveillance, and intelligence gathering.
- Reinforcing India’s Central Asia Outreach: Strengthening India’s engagement with Central Asian nations under its Connect Central Asia policy.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator
Why in the News?
The United Nations Statistical Commission has introduced a new global indicator on Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) to monitor progress towards Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2: Zero Hunger.
About Minimum Dietary Diversity (MDD) Indicator
- The MDD indicator measures whether individuals consume a variety of foods within a 24-hour period to assess dietary quality.
- It tracks progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) and helps identify micronutrient deficiencies in populations.
- It was adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 56th session (March 4-7, 2025, New York) and developed by Switzerland, FAO, UNICEF, and WHO.
- The indicator records whether an individual has consumed at least 5 out of 10 food groups in the last 24 hours.
- It is measured for children (6-23 months old) and women of reproductive age (15-49 years) to ensure adequate nutrition.
- 10 Food Groups: It monitors intake from grains, white roots and tubers, pulses, nuts and seeds, milk products, meat, poultry and fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, and other vegetables and fruits.
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- It addresses hidden hunger, malnutrition, and non-communicable diseases by promoting nutrient-rich diets.
- The indicator strengthens long-term diet monitoring and ensures dietary diversity remains a global priority beyond 2030.
SDG 2: Zero Hunger – The Larger Goal
- Adopted in 2015, SDG 2 aims to eliminate hunger and promote sustainable agriculture.
- Recognizes interconnections between food security, rural development, and nutrition.
- Hunger remains a global crisis:
- 757 million people faced hunger in 2023 (nearly 10% of the world population).
- One in nine people worldwide sleeps hungry each night.
- 20 million people are at immediate risk of famine in South Sudan, Somalia, Yemen, and Nigeria.
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PYQ:
[2016] Which of the following is/are the indicator/indicators used by IFPRI to compute the Global Hunger Index Report?
- Undernourishment
- Child stunting
- Child mortality
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3 only |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness. (UPSC CSE 2021) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the women in the higher judiciary (2021), and appointment of judges of higher judiciary (2017).
Women in law have made significant progress in India over the past 100 years. Cornelia Sorabji became the first woman lawyer to practice in 1924. Since then, the number of women lawyers has increased, with many becoming Senior Advocates and judges in lower courts. However, their representation in the higher judiciary remains very low.
Today’s editorial highlights the reasons for the low representation of women in the Indian judiciary. This content is useful for GS Papers 1 and 2 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The gender gap in India’s judiciary is evident in the low representation of women, especially in higher courts.
What is the status of women in the Indian Judiciary?
- Supreme Court: Women make up about 9.3% of judges in the Supreme Court, with only a few women judges currently serving.
- High Courts: As of August 2024, women constitute about 14% of High Court judges, with only 106 women judges out of a total of 754 judges across all High Courts. There are only two women Chief Justices among all High Courts.
- Subordinate Judiciary: Women have a higher representation in subordinate courts, constituting about 36.3% of judges as of recent data.
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What are the main reasons for the underrepresentation of women in the higher judiciary in India?
- Systemic Gender Bias and Stereotypes: Women are often viewed as less capable of handling complex legal matters or leadership roles. Example: Justice Indira Banerjee, a former Supreme Court judge, highlighted how women must work harder to prove their competence compared to male counterparts.
- Opaque Collegium System: The collegium lacks transparency in the selection process and does not prioritize gender diversity. Example: Since 2021, 28 judges have been appointed to the Supreme Court, but none of them have been women.
- Limited Senior Women Advocates: Fewer women reach the level of Senior Advocate, which reduces the pool of candidates for higher judicial positions. Example: Only one woman, Justice Indu Malhotra, has been elevated directly from the Bar to the Supreme Court in its history.
- Delayed Appointments and Age Disparity: Women are appointed to the Bench later than men, limiting their tenure and chances of becoming Chief Justices. Example: The average appointment age for women is 53 years, while for men, it is 51.8 years.
- Government’s Selective Confirmation: Women’s names recommended by the collegium are more likely to be delayed or rejected by the government. Example: Since 2020, nine women were recommended for High Court appointments, but five of these names were rejected.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Reservation for Women in Lower Judiciary: Several states like Bihar, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh have introduced 30-35% reservations for women in the lower judiciary to encourage female participation at the entry level. Example: Bihar introduced a 35% reservation for women in judicial services to increase their representation.
- Promotion of Gender Sensitization: The government supports initiatives to train judges and judicial staff on gender sensitivity and equality. Example: The National Judicial Academy conducts gender sensitization workshops for judicial officers.
- Encouragement of Collegium Recommendations: The government has urged the collegium to consider gender diversity when recommending names for judicial appointments. Example: The Law Minister has emphasized the need for more women judges in parliamentary discussions.
- Increased Representation in Policy Discussions: The government includes women’s voices in law commissions and judicial reform committees. Example: Justice R. Banumathi was part of the committee on criminal law reforms focusing on gender issues.
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How can the collegium system be reformed to ensure greater transparency and gender diversity in judicial appointments?
- Establish Clear and Transparent Selection Criteria: Implement publicly available guidelines specifying the qualifications, experience, and evaluation methods for judicial appointments. Example: The United Kingdom’s Judicial Appointments Commission uses clear, published criteria to promote transparency and diversity in judicial selection.
- Mandate Gender Representation in Recommendations: Introduce a formal quota or commitment to ensuring that at least one-third of the recommended candidates are women. Example: Countries like Canada follow a diversity mandate to ensure that judicial appointments reflect gender and ethnic representation.
- Open Application Process for Judicial Aspirants: Allow eligible lawyers to apply for judgeship through a transparent process rather than relying solely on collegium nominations. Example: South Africa invites applications publicly and conducts open interviews, ensuring broader participation, including women candidates.
Way forward:
- Institutionalize Gender Diversity in Judicial Appointments: Implement a binding policy requiring the collegium to prioritize gender diversity, ensuring a minimum percentage of women in judicial recommendations. This can be reinforced by periodic audits and public reports on gender representation.
- Mentorship and Capacity Building for Women Lawyers: Establish structured mentorship programs to support women lawyers in advancing to senior positions and encourage their participation in judicial roles. This should include targeted training for leadership and judicial skills to expand the pool of qualified women candidates.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-Mauritius relation;
Why in the News?
Prime Minister Modi will visit Mauritius on March 11-12, 2025, to strengthen relations with the new government and confirm India’s support for the island’s security and growth.
What are the key historical and cultural ties between India and Mauritius?
- Indentured Labor Heritage (1834 Onwards): Nearly 70% of Mauritians are of Indian origin, descendants of indentured laborers brought by the British to work on sugar plantations. Example: The Aapravasi Ghat in Port Louis, a UNESCO World Heritage site, marks the arrival point of Indian laborers.
- Shared Freedom Struggles: Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, Mauritius’ first Prime Minister, worked closely with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose during Bose’s stay in London (1919-21). Example: Sir Ramgoolam proofread Bose’s famous book “ The Indian Struggle” and received an autographed copy in appreciation.
- Linguistic and Cultural Preservation: Various Indian languages, including Bhojpuri, Tamil, Telugu, and Marathi, are actively spoken and preserved through cultural institutions. Example: The Mahatma Gandhi Institute (established in 1976) promotes Indian languages, arts, and culture in Mauritius.
- Religious and Festival Ties: Hinduism is practiced by over 48% of the population, and Indian festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Thaipusam are widely celebrated. Example: The Ganga Talao (Grand Bassin) pilgrimage site is considered sacred and draws thousands during Maha Shivaratri.
- Institutional and Diplomatic Links: India actively supports Mauritius through diplomatic and cultural outreach programs. Example: Mauritius hosts the World Hindi Secretariat, which is supported by India to promote the Hindi language globally.
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Why is maritime security cooperation between India and Mauritius crucial?
- Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean: Mauritius lies at a key maritime crossroads in the western Indian Ocean, making it vital for monitoring international shipping lanes and securing regional trade. Example: The Colombo Security Conclave (including India, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Bangladesh) enhances cooperation to ensure maritime safety.
- Countering China’s Expanding Influence: With China increasing its presence in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) through infrastructure projects and naval activities, India’s partnership with Mauritius helps balance regional power. Example: India’s Agaléga Island redevelopment supports surveillance and counters China’s maritime ambitions.
- Securing Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs): Mauritius has an EEZ of 2.3 million sq. km, rich in marine resources. Collaboration ensures these areas are protected from illegal activities like fishing and piracy. Example: India’s INS Sarvekshak recently completed an ocean survey of 25,000 sq. km in Mauritius’ EEZ to enhance maritime mapping and security.
- Joint Surveillance and Intelligence Sharing: Surveillance cooperation enhances maritime domain awareness and secures trade routes against piracy, trafficking, and other threats. Example: Mauritius has access to India’s Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram for real-time maritime intelligence.
- Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR): Close maritime ties enable swift disaster response and the delivery of humanitarian aid in times of crisis. Example: India provided naval assistance to Mauritius during the MV Wakashio oil spill disaster in 2020.
Where has India invested in maritime infrastructure and security cooperation with Mauritius?
- Agaléga Island Development: India is redeveloping Agaléga Island to establish airstrips and port facilities for joint surveillance and maritime domain awareness. Example: This facility enhances monitoring of maritime traffic and strengthens anti-piracy and anti-smuggling operations.
- Coastal Radar Surveillance Network: India has installed a network of coastal radar stations in Mauritius to improve maritime security and real-time surveillance of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR). Example: This system helps track illegal maritime activities like smuggling and unauthorized fishing.
- Access to the Information Fusion Centre (IFC-IOR): India provides Mauritius access to its Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR), which enables intelligence sharing and coordinated maritime operations. Example: Mauritius can monitor maritime traffic, enhancing its ability to protect its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and respond to emerging threats.
What role does the Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA) play in their economic partnership?
- Facilitating Foreign Investments: The DTAA between India and Mauritius prevents double taxation on income, encouraging foreign investments to flow through Mauritius into India. Example: As of March 2024, Mauritius remained India’s fourth-largest source of FPI, contributing ₹4.19 lakh crore, accounting for 6% of India’s total FPI of ₹69.54 lakh crore.
- Strengthening Mauritius as a Financial Hub: The agreement has helped Mauritius become a major international financial centre, particularly for investments into India and African markets. Example: Many private equity and venture capital funds use Mauritius as a base to invest in Indian businesses due to favorable tax treatment.
- Impact of Treaty Amendments on Investment Flows: In March 2024, India and Mauritius revised the DTAA to include the Principal Purpose Test (PPT), aiming to prevent treaty abuse and tax evasion. Following these amendments, FPIs withdrew ₹8,671 crore from Indian equities in April 2024, reflecting concerns over the revised tax implications.
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Way forward:
- Enhance Maritime Security Collaboration: There is a need to strengthen joint surveillance, intelligence sharing, and capacity-building initiatives to secure the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) and safeguard maritime trade routes.
- Deepen Economic and Financial Cooperation: The Government should adapt the DTAA framework to maintain investor confidence while fostering transparent, sustainable investment flows between the two nations.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why was indentured labour taken by the British from India to their colonies? have they been able to preserve their cultural identity over there? (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Semiconductor Industry;
Why in the News?
At the World Economic Forum in January, Electronics and IT Minister Ashwini Vaishnaw announced that India will produce its first locally made semiconductor chip this year.
What is the primary goal of India’s Semicon India Programme?
- Reduce Import Dependency: To decrease reliance on foreign countries for semiconductor chips used in electronics, automobiles, and communication devices.
- Boost Domestic Manufacturing and Innovation: To establish a strong domestic ecosystem for semiconductor fabrication, assembly, testing, and packaging (ATP). Example: Construction of the Dholera semiconductor fabrication facility in Gujarat by Tata Electronics in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation.
- Enhance India’s Position in the Global Supply Chain: To integrate India into the global semiconductor value chain and attract investments from global tech giants. Example: The Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test facility in Morigaon, Assam, is part of India’s effort to develop advanced chip packaging capabilities and reduce external reliance.
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How will it reduce import dependency on semiconductor chips?
- Local Production of Semiconductor Chips: Domestic manufacturing of chips will reduce the need to import critical components used in electronics and communication. Example: India’s first indigenously manufactured semiconductor chip is expected to be produced in 2024, cutting reliance on imports from countries like China and South Korea.
- Building Fabrication (Fab) Facilities: Establishing semiconductor fabrication plants allows India to produce advanced chips domestically. Example: The Dholera fabrication facility in Gujarat by Tata Electronics, in collaboration with Taiwan’s Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation will reduce the need for importing high-end chips.
- Developing Assembly, Testing, and Packaging (ATP) Capabilities: Setting up ATP units enables India to process raw semiconductor wafers into finished products locally. Example: The Tata Semiconductor Assembly and Test facility in Morigaon, Assam, will handle large-scale chip assembly and packaging, decreasing dependence on foreign ATP services.
- Diversifying Supply Chains and Strengthening Indigenous Innovation: Promoting research and development will encourage innovation in chip design and technology. Example: Investments in EDA software (Electronic Design Automation) and Core IP (patents) will enable India to design proprietary chips instead of relying on external technologies.
- Attracting Global and Domestic Investments: Incentives and policy support under the Semicon India Programme will attract both domestic and foreign semiconductor companies to manufacture locally. Example: Government partnerships with industry leaders like Tata Electronics and Foxconn encourage private investment in chip manufacturing, reducing future import needs
Where are the major semiconductor manufacturing and assembly facilities being constructed under the Semicon India Programme?
- Tata-PSMC Semiconductor Fab, Dholera, Gujarat: ₹91,000 crore investment for a fabrication unit with a capacity of 50,000 wafer starts/month, producing 28 nm compute and power management chips for EVs, telecom, defense, and consumer electronics.
- Tata TSAT ATMP Unit, Morigaon, Assam: ₹27,000 crore investment in an advanced packaging unit handling 48 million chips/day, catering to automotive, EV, telecom, and consumer electronics sectors.
- CG Power-Renesas-Stars ATMP Unit, Sanand, Gujarat: ₹7,600 crore investment for specialized chip manufacturing with a capacity of 15 million chips/day, focusing on consumer, industrial, automotive, and power applications.
- Micron Technology ATMP Unit, Sanand, Gujarat: $2.75 billion investment for a memory and storage chip assembly plant, expected to deliver the first chip by 2025, primarily for export.
- Kaynes Semicon OSAT Facility, Sanand, Gujarat: ₹3,307 crore investment in an outsourced assembly and test unit, aiming to produce 200 million chips annually by March 2025, focusing on power electronics and industrial uses.
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Why has the actual spending under the Semicon India Programme consistently fallen?
- Delays in Project Approvals: Lengthy evaluation and approval processes for semiconductor projects have slowed fund disbursement. For instance, the Tata and Micron projects faced regulatory and environmental clearance delays.
- High Capital-Intensive Nature: Semiconductor manufacturing requires significant upfront investment, and the government has struggled to allocate sufficient funds. For example, the revised estimate for FY24 dropped to ₹1,503.36 crore from the budgeted ₹3,000 crore due to financial constraints.
- Limited Domestic Expertise: India’s lack of advanced technological expertise in areas like chip design and fabrication has slowed implementation, resulting in underutilized budgets.
- Complex Global Partnerships: Collaboration with international firms, such as Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation, involves lengthy negotiations and compliance with global standards, delaying fund utilization.
- Infrastructure Bottlenecks: Inadequate supporting infrastructure (like power and water supply) at manufacturing sites has caused delays. For example, the Dholera facility required significant investments in infrastructure before full-scale construction could begin.
Way forward:
- Streamline Approval Processes and Policy Support: Implement faster clearance mechanisms and provide consistent policy incentives to accelerate project approvals and fund disbursement.
- Invest in Skill Development and Infrastructure: Enhance domestic expertise through specialized training programs and improve infrastructure at manufacturing hubs to ensure timely project execution.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Spice Organisation (WSO)
Why in the News?
Despite being the largest producer and exporter of spices in the world, India’s share in the global seasoning market remains only 0.7%, compared to China’s 12% and the USA’s 11%, according to the World Spice Organisation (WSO).
About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)
- WSO was established in 2011 in Kochi, Kerala, India’s spice capital.
- It is registered as a Not-for-Profit organization under the Travancore Cochin Literary, Scientific, and Charitable Societies Act, 1956.
- It works towards food safety, sustainability, and market development for the spice industry.
- It engages with farmers, processors, industry leaders, academia, and global spice associations.
- It works with organizations like Spices Board India, Rainforest Alliance, GIZ (Germany), and IDH (Netherlands).
- Partners with global spice trade bodies like:
- American Spice Trade Association (ASTA)
- European Spice Association (ESA)
- International Pepper Community (IPC)
- Participates in national and international food safety regulations, including:
- FSSAI (India’s food safety authority)
- BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
- ISO (International Standards Organization)
- Codex Alimentarius (Global food safety standards)
- It serves as the technical partner for the All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF).
Present Scenario of Spices
- India currently exports 1.5 million tonnes of spices worth $4.5 billion, accounting for one-fourth of the $20 billion global spice market. However, only 48% of these exports are value-added products, with the rest being whole spices.
- 85% of India’s spices are consumed domestically, leaving limited surplus for exports.
- Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, and China are emerging as strong competitors in the spice trade.
- Production:
- Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
- During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
- India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
- Major Produced and Exported Spices by India:
- Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
- Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
- Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
- Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
- Export:
- In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
- India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.
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PYQ:
[2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?
(a) Spices
(b) Fresh fruits
(c) Pulses
(d) Vegetable oils |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW)
Why in the News?
India’s Delegation led by Union Minister for Women and Child Developments will participate in the 69th session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW).
About United Nations Commission on the Status of Women (UNCSW):
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Details |
| Establishment and Mandate |
- Founded in 1946 by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) through Resolution 11(II).
- Initially focused on women’s political, economic, civil, social, and educational rights.
- Expanded in 1996 to include monitoring the Beijing Declaration and integrating gender perspectives into UN activities.
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| Structure and Membership |
- Composed of 45 member states elected by ECOSOC based on geographical representation.
- 13 from Africa, 11 from Asia, 9 from Latin America and the Caribbean, 8 from Western Europe and other States, 4 from Eastern Europe.
- Members serve a four-year term.
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| Key Roles and Responsibilities |
- Policy Formulation: Establishes global norms and standards for gender equality.
- Monitoring Progress: Reviews gender-related commitments, including the Beijing Declaration.
- Advocacy and Awareness: Conducts research, publishes reports, and promotes women’s rights globally.
- Collaboration: Works with UN entities, NGOs, and civil society organizations to strengthen gender equality.
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| Major Contributions |
Drafted key conventions like:
- Convention on the Political Rights of Women (1953)
- Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (1957)
- Convention on Consent to Marriage (1962)
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (1979).
- Influenced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948).
- Led preparatory work for the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995).
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| Annual Sessions and Key Themes |
- Held annually at UN Headquarters, New York.
- Engages member states, NGOs, and UN agencies in discussions on gender-related policies.
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PYQ:
[2009] With reference to the United Nations, consider the following statements:
- The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN consists of 24 member States.
- It is elected by a 2/3rd majority of the General Assembly for a 3-year term.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Brahmastra' Missile
Why in the News?
Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).
About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM):
- Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
- It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
- With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
- The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.
Features of Brahmastra:
- It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
- Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
- The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
- Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
- It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
- It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
- Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.
PYQ:
[2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.
2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.
3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Anchar Lake
Why in the News?
Anchar Lake, a vital water body in Kashmir, is renowned for producing Nadru (lotus stem), an aquatic delicacy that holds cultural, culinary, and economic significance in the region.
About Anchar Lake
- Anchar Lake is situated in Soura, Srinagar near Ganderbal.
- It is connected to Dal Lake via Amir Khan Nallah, which passes through Gilsar and Khushal Sar Lakes.
- The lake is a part of the Sindh River Delta and plays a crucial role in supporting local aquatic ecosystems.
- It is an integral part of the Shallabugh Wetland, which covers 1,675 hectares and serves as a designated bird sanctuary.
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- It provides an essential habitat for migratory birds and various native aquatic species.
- It functions as a flood-control reservoir, receiving excess water from Dal Lake during heavy rainfall.
- It is home to the Hanji community, whose livelihood traditionally depended on fishing and other lake-based activities.
PYQ:
[2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?
(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)
(b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)
(c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)
(d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh) |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Appropriate local community level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain. (UPSC CSE 2018) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the ‘Health for All’ (2018) and primary health structure is a necessary precondition (2021).
No students enrolled in postgraduate (PG) medical pre-clinical courses like anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, forensic medicine, microbiology, and pharmacology at Vydehi Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre (VIMS), Bengaluru, until the second round of PG-NEET counselling.
Today’s editorial discusses the issues related to postgraduate medical seats. This content would help in GS Paper 2 and 3 in the mains paper.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Many postgraduate medical seats are vacant this year because students are choosing pre-clinical courses.
Why are postgraduate medical students reluctant to choose pre-clinical courses in Karnataka?
- Lack of Job Opportunities: Pre-clinical graduates cannot practice as doctors and are limited to working in laboratories, diagnostic centers, or as faculty. Example: Despite reducing tuition fees and offering job guarantees, private institutions like the Vydehi Institute of Medical Sciences struggle to fill pre-clinical seats due to limited employment avenues.
- Lower Salary Compared to Clinical Courses: Pre-clinical roles offer significantly lower remuneration than clinical practice, making them financially unattractive. Example: A clinical doctor can earn a higher salary working in hospitals or private practice, while pre-clinical graduates face salary stagnation in academic or lab-based roles.
- Limited Career Progression and Mobility: Clinical course graduates have the flexibility to work globally and in various healthcare sectors, while pre-clinical graduates are restricted to teaching or research roles. Example: An MD in General Medicine can practice as a physician anywhere, whereas an MD in Anatomy primarily qualifies for academic positions.
- High Capital Requirement for Self-Employment: Establishing independent diagnostic centers requires significant investment, which deters pre-clinical graduates from entrepreneurial ventures. Example: Diagnostic centers with advanced technology demand substantial startup costs, making it challenging for pre-clinical graduates to become self-employed.
- Persistent Seat Vacancies Reflect Low Demand: Consistent under-enrollment over the years signals a long-term disinterest in these courses. Example: In 2024-25, only 6 out of 104 MD Anatomy seats were filled in Karnataka, despite five rounds of counselling and reduced cut-off percentages.
What is the trend of student enrollment in PG medical courses at the all-India level?
- Substantial Increase in PG Medical Seats: The number of PG medical seats has risen from 31,185 before 2014 to 70,645 by the 2023-24 academic year, marking a 127% increase.
- Growth in Medical Colleges: The total number of medical colleges has expanded by 82%, from 387 before 2014 to 704 in 2023. This expansion has contributed to the increased availability of both undergraduate (UG) and PG medical seats.
- Rising Demand for Medical Education: The number of candidates aspiring to study MBBS grew from 16 lakh in 2019 to 24 lakh in 2024, reflecting a heightened interest in medical education.
- Improved UG to PG Seat Ratio: The ratio of UG to PG medical seats improved from 2.1:1 in 2018-19 to 1.9:1 in 2022-23, indicating better alignment between the number of medical graduates and available PG training opportunities.
- Emerging Challenges: Despite the increase in seats, challenges such as geographic disparities in seat distribution and concerns about the quality of education persist.
- For example, Karnataka has the highest number of PG medical seats, totaling 5,984, with a significant contribution from private institutions, but States like Arunachal Pradesh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Mizoram, and Nagaland currently do not offer PG medical seats.
What is the significance of pre-clinical courses?
- Foundation for Advanced Medical Practice: Pre-clinical courses (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry) provide the scientific basis for understanding human biology and disease mechanisms. Example: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the importance of biochemistry in vaccine development and understanding viral behavior.
- Essential for Medical Education and Training: These courses are crucial for training future doctors, ensuring they understand the human body before clinical practice. Example: Medical schools worldwide adopted virtual anatomy labs during the pandemic, enhancing remote learning and maintaining education continuity.
- Innovation in Diagnostic and Therapeutic Techniques: Pre-clinical research drives advancements in diagnostic tools and medical treatments. Example: Advances in physiology have contributed to wearable health devices like continuous glucose monitors for diabetic patients.
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How has the National Medical Commission (NMC) addressed the issue of unfilled PG medical seats in Karnataka?
- Reduction of NEET-PG Cut-off Scores: In an unprecedented move, the NEET-PG 2023 cut-off was reduced to zero, making all candidates who appeared for the exam eligible for PG medical programs. This decision aimed to expand the pool of eligible candidates and fill vacant seats across various specialties.
- Guidelines for Interstate Posting Under District Residency Programme: The NMC issued directives emphasizing strict adherence to the Post-Graduate Medical Education Regulations, 2023.
- These guidelines facilitate the interstate posting of PG medical students under the District Residency Programme, ensuring a more even distribution of medical professionals and addressing regional disparities in seat occupancy.
- Monitoring and Rectifying Seat Allocation Discrepancies: The NMC has been proactive in addressing discrepancies between its records and those of state authorities. For instance, admissions to 23 PG medical seats in Bengaluru were put on hold due to mismatches between NMC and Directorate of Medical Education (DME) lists. Such actions ensure that seat allocations are transparent and accurate.
- Annual Increase of PG Seats: The NMC has facilitated the process for medical institutions to apply for an increase in PG seats for the academic year 2025-26. By inviting applications and setting clear guidelines, the commission aims to enhance the availability of PG medical seats, thereby reducing the likelihood of vacancies.
Way forward:
- Enhance Pre-Clinical Career Prospects: Introduce incentives like research grants, industry collaborations, and fellowship programs to improve career progression and salary prospects for pre-clinical graduates.
- Targeted Seat Distribution and Quality Monitoring: Implement region-specific seat allocation policies and strengthen regulatory oversight to ensure quality education and equitable access across underserved states.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Natural disaster;
Why in the News?
Earlier this week, the Indian Army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police rescued 23 workers trapped under snow and ice after an avalanche in Mana village, Uttarakhand.
What were the key challenges faced by the rescue teams during the avalanche operation in Mana Village?
- Harsh Weather Conditions: The rescue teams operated under heavy snowfall and extreme cold at an elevation of 10,500 feet above mean sea level.
- Blocked Access Routes: Snow-blocked roads required the use of helicopters for evacuation, complicating logistics and delaying rescue efforts.
- Physical Exhaustion: Rescuers worked in near-continuous 60-hour shifts, demanding immense physical and mental stamina.
- Buried Structures: Containers housing workers were buried under several feet of snow, ice, and rock, making detection and extraction challenging.
- Limited Visibility and Navigation: Poor weather conditions hindered visibility, requiring the use of advanced technology like drone-based detection systems.
Why is Mana village particularly vulnerable to avalanches and other natural disasters?
- High-Altitude Location: Situated at 10,500 feet above sea level in the upper Himalayas, the village experiences heavy snowfall and extreme weather, increasing the risk of avalanches. Example: The recent avalanche buried containers under several feet of snow, making rescue operations challenging.
- Geological Instability: The Himalayan region is tectonically active, making the terrain prone to landslides, avalanches, and other natural hazards. Example: Frequent landslides during the monsoon season disrupt roads and infrastructure in Uttarakhand.
- Seasonal Climate Extremes: Harsh winters with severe snow accumulation create unstable snowpacks that can trigger avalanches. Example: Villagers traditionally migrate to lower areas like Gopeshwar during winter to avoid extreme weather risks.
- Construction and Human Activity: Ongoing infrastructure projects, such as road-building by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO), disturb the fragile environment and increase disaster risks. Example: Workers were caught in an avalanche while working on a BRO construction site.
- Proximity to Glacial Zones: Close to glacial areas where melting ice and shifting snowpacks heighten the probability of snow slides. Example: Melting glaciers in the region have previously triggered flash floods, like the 2021 Chamoli disaster.
What lessons can be learned from other hazardous environments?
- Enhanced Shelter Design for Safety: Use reinforced, insulated shelters designed to withstand extreme weather and heavy snow loads, similar to Antarctic research stations. Example: Antarctic research bases like the Amundsen-Scott Station use elevated, modular designs to prevent snow burial and provide long-term safety.
- Advanced Early Warning Systems: Implement real-time monitoring using satellite imaging, drones, and weather forecasting to detect potential avalanches and other hazards. Example: Switzerland’s avalanche warning system uses advanced sensors and weather models to alert communities and workers in mountainous areas.
- Comprehensive Safety Protocols and Training: Provide specialized safety training, emergency drills, and evacuation plans to workers in high-risk zones. Example: Oil platforms in the Arctic conduct regular safety drills and have rapid-response systems for extreme weather emergencies.
How could better infrastructure and safety measures reduce the risks faced by workers in high-altitude, disaster-prone areas? (Way forward)
- Improved Worker Shelters and Living Conditions: Construct insulated, avalanche-resistant shelters with emergency exits and heating systems to protect workers from harsh weather. Example: The Siachen Glacier military base uses reinforced prefabricated shelters designed to withstand extreme snow and sub-zero temperatures.
- Deployment of Real-Time Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: Use geospatial technology, drones, and automated weather stations to track snow accumulation and predict avalanches. Example: Japan’s snow monitoring system uses remote sensors to provide early warnings, reducing avalanche risks in mountainous areas.
- Enhanced Emergency Response Infrastructure: Establish permanent rescue facilities with specialized equipment (e.g., thermal detectors and rapid evacuation routes) for quicker disaster response. Example: The Alps region in Europe maintains well-equipped avalanche rescue stations, ensuring faster response times and reducing casualties.
Mains PYQ:
Q Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and Western Ghats. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Manufacturing sector;
Why in the News?
The rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) to 59 in February has brought relief to investors and policymakers.
What is the Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)?
- The Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI) is an economic indicator that measures the business activity in manufacturing and services sectors, indicating expansion if above 50 and contraction if below 50.
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What is the significance of the sharp rise in the services Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)?
- Indicator of Economic Expansion: A PMI reading above 50 signifies sectoral growth. The rise to 59 in February reflects a strong rebound in the services sector. Example: Increased demand for financial services and hospitality indicates higher consumer spending and business confidence.
- Boost to Investor Confidence: A higher PMI suggests a positive business environment, encouraging domestic and foreign investments. Example: Global investors may increase FDI in India’s technology and telecommunication sectors due to sustained growth signals.
- Job Creation and Income Growth: Growth in the services sector leads to higher employment opportunities and better wages. Example: The rise in IT services and healthcare sectors can create new jobs in software development and medical support.
- Balancing Manufacturing Weakness: A strong services PMI can offset slowdowns in manufacturing, ensuring overall economic stability. Example: Despite the manufacturing PMI falling to a 14-month low, growth in financial services has maintained economic resilience.
- Improved Fiscal Outlook: Higher activity in services increases tax revenues, improving the government’s ability to fund infrastructure and social programs. Example: Growth in e-commerce and logistics boosts GST collections, strengthening public finances.
Which major challenges to India’s services and manufacturing sectors?
As per the industry leaders and NASSCOM’s 2025 Strategic Review report, the major challenges are :
- Technological Disruption from Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI-driven solutions are transforming traditional business models, reducing revenue from new contracts, and reshaping hiring and training practices. Example: Automation in IT services is reducing the need for entry-level jobs, impacting employment growth.
- Global Protectionism and Rising Tariffs: Increasing reciprocal tariffs and trade barriers, particularly from major economies like the United States, pose a threat to export-oriented industries. Example: U.S. tariffs on Indian textiles and pharmaceuticals may reduce market competitiveness and profit margins.
- Slowdown in IT Sector Growth: India’s IT sector growth is expected to be 5.1% in FY25, a decline from its historical 16% CAGR, due to reduced demand and shifting client priorities. Example: Major IT firms report fewer large-scale outsourcing contracts as clients adopt in-house AI solutions.
- Geopolitical Uncertainty: Geopolitical tensions and supply chain disruptions increase business risks and operational costs. Example: Disruptions in the Red Sea trade route affect electronics and automotive supply chains.
- Potential U.S. Recession Risk: A U.S. economic slowdown could reduce export demand, significantly impacting both manufacturing and services, as the U.S. is India’s largest trading partner. Example: A U.S. recession may lead to fewer orders for Indian IT services, pharmaceuticals, and automotive components.
How could the reciprocal tariffs announced by the U.S. impact India’s manufacturing sector?
- Reduced Export Competitiveness: Higher import duties on Indian goods will increase prices in the U.S. market, making Indian products less competitive against local and other global manufacturers. Example: Indian textile exports to the U.S. could decline as higher tariffs make them more expensive compared to those from Vietnam or Bangladesh.
- Disruption of Supply Chains: Tariff barriers may affect cross-border supply chains, increasing production costs and causing delays in delivery. Example: Indian automotive components exported to U.S. manufacturers may face disruptions, affecting just-in-time production systems.
- Reduced Investment and Market Access: Tariffs create uncertainty, discouraging foreign direct investment (FDI) and limiting India’s access to the lucrative U.S. market. Example: Electronics manufacturers considering India as a production hub may shift investments to low-tariff countries to maintain U.S. market access.
Way forward:
- Diversify Export Markets: Strengthen trade ties with emerging economies (e.g., Africa, Southeast Asia) and regional blocs to reduce dependence on the U.S. market.
- Enhance Domestic Manufacturing Competitiveness: Promote Make in India, invest in advanced technologies, and offer export incentives to reduce costs and improve global market access.
Mains PYQ:
Q Do you agree that the Indian economy has recently experienced V-shaped recovery? Give reasons in support of your answer. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
Why in the News?
Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.
What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?
- The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
- It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
- It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
- The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
- It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.
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- It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
- It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
- It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
- The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
- Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.
Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?
- Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
- Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.
Key Findings of the New Research
A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:
- ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
- Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability.
- Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
- Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
- Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.
PYQ:
[2012] Consider the following factors:
1. Rotation of the Earth
2. Air pressure and wind
3. Density of ocean water
4. Revolution of the Earth
Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has acknowledged a serious issue regarding the lack of disabled-friendly infrastructure in prisons, following a petition citing the trauma and inhumane conditions faced by Professor G. Saibaba and Stan Swamy.
A bench comprising Justices Vikram Nath and Sandeep Mehta noted that even the Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) lacks a legal framework to safeguard the rights of disabled prisoners.
Challenges Faced by Disabled Prisoners:
- Inaccessible Infrastructure: Most prisons lack ramps, handrails, wheelchair-accessible cells, and essential assistive devices.
- Denial of Medical Care: Many disabled prisoners do not receive necessary medical treatment, physiotherapy, or even basic aids like hearing devices or walking supports.
- Psychological Distress: Isolation, lack of facilities, and mistreatment lead to anxiety, depression, and deteriorating mental health among disabled prisoners.
- Data Deficiency: No official records track the number or condition of disabled prisoners, making policy implementation difficult.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in Prisons)
- Article 14 guarantees equality before the law, ensuring that prisoners are not discriminated against based on disability.
- Article 21 upholds the right to life and dignity, including humane treatment for prisoners.
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 mandates accessible public spaces, medical care, and assistive devices for persons with disabilities, but implementation in prisons remains inadequate.
- Model Prison Manual, 2016 recommends disability-friendly infrastructure such as ramps and medical care provisions, yet many states have not adopted these reforms.
- Supreme Court Judgments:
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- In Upendra Baxi vs. State of U.P. (1983), the Supreme Court reaffirmed that prisoners are entitled to humane treatment.
- In Rama Murthy vs. State of Karnataka (1996), the Court highlighted the urgent need for prison reform, including facilities for disabled inmates.
- The Stan Swamy Case (2021) brought attention to the denial of essential assistive tools such as straws and sippers for Parkinson’s patients.
Past Committees on Prison Reform:
- Mulla Committee (1983):
- Recommended improved prison infrastructure, special provisions for disabled inmates, and measures to reduce overcrowding.
- Suggested protection against abuse and better training for prison staff.
- Krishna Iyer Committee (1987): Focused on the welfare of women prisoners, recommending separate facilities, healthcare, and special provisions for pregnant inmates.
- Justice A.N. Mulla Committee (1993): Emphasized the need for humane treatment and rehabilitation, along with stricter measures against custodial torture.
- Justice Krishna Iyer Report (2000): Called for legal aid for undertrial prisoners and mandatory inspections to monitor prison conditions.
- Model Prison Manual (2016):
- Provided guidelines for standardized prison reforms, including healthcare, accessibility, and rehabilitation programs.
- Despite being issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs, many states have failed to adopt its recommendations.
PYQ:
[2016] Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure effective mechanism for empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ‘AI Kosha’ Platform
Why in the News?
The Union Government has launched AI Kosha, a platform dedicated to non-personal datasets, marking a major step in India’s AI research and development efforts.
What is AI Kosha?
- AI Kosha is a government-backed platform for non-personal datasets to support Artificial Intelligence (AI) R&D in India.
- It serves as a centralized repository of structured datasets aimed at training AI models, particularly for Indian languages.
- The platform is a key part of the IndiaAI Datasets Platform, one of the seven pillars of the ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, which aims to democratize AI access and innovation.
- At launch, it hosts 316 datasets, with a significant portion focused on language translation tools for Indian languages.
- The government has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for AI research, up from 10,000 earlier this year.
- More computing power will be added quarterly to support advanced AI research and training.
Key Features of AI Kosha:
- AI Kosha aims to support India’s first foundational AI model, similar to China’s DeepSeek.
- Works alongside the Open Governance Data Platform (data.gov.in), which already hosts 12,000 datasets from various government agencies.
- Focuses on Indian languages, ensuring regional language AI development.
- Includes health records, satellite imagery, Census 2011 data, meteorological and pollution data.
- Supports AI development with access to high-performance computing (HPC) resources.
- Equipped with secure API access, data encryption, and real-time filtering for data protection.
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