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Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

50th Anniversary of Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Why in the News?

March 26, 2025, marked the 50th anniversary of the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.

About the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

  • The BWC also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty aimed at banning biological and toxin weapons.
  • It prohibits activities related to the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons.
  • Negotiation and Adoption:
    • Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1969 to 1971.
    • Draft versions were tabled by the USA and USSR in August 1971.
    • The treaty was opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
    • It entered into force on March 26, 1975, after the required ratifications.
  • Key Provisions:
    • Article I: Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
    • Article II: Requires destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons to peaceful purposes before joining.
    • Article III: Prohibits transfer or assistance in acquiring biological weapons.
    • Article VI: Allows states to file complaints with the UN Security Council about treaty violations.
    • Article X: Promotes the exchange of materials and information for peaceful purposes.
  • Structure and Membership:
    • Depositaries: United States, United Kingdom, and Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
    • Membership: As of February 2025, 188 states are parties to the treaty, with 4 states having signed but not ratified, and 9 states have neither signed nor ratified.
    • Review Conferences: Held every 5 years to assess the treaty’s implementation and strengthen confidence-building measures.

India and the BWC:

  • India is a party to the BWC.
  • India has implemented national measures and established legal frameworks to comply with the provisions of the BWC, preventing the development or use of biological weapons.
[UPSC 2017] With reference to the Biological Weapons Convention, consider the following statements:

1.It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling or use of biological and toxin weapons.

2. It has a verification mechanism to check compliance by member States.

3. It is an umbrella treaty under the aegis of the United Nations.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

15th Century Copper Plates from the Vijayanagara Empire discovered

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire

Why in the News?

A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

About the Sangama Dynasty 

  • The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
  • They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
  • The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
  • The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.

Notable Rulers

  • Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
  • Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
  • Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
  • Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
  • Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.

Downfall

  • Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
  • The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.

Key Features of the Copper Plates

  • These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
    • The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
    • The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
  • They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
  • The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Historical Significance:

  • Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
  • It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
[UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?

(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha

 

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

What is the Green Credit Programme?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Green Credit Programme

Why in the News?

The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.

About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)

  • The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
  • It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
  • Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
  • These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
  • It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
  • The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.

Criticisms of the Program:

  • Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
  • Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
  • Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
  • Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
[UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?

(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm

 

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RBI Notifications

RBI celebrates 90 years

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy

Why in the News?

The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.

RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935

  • On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
  • The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.

Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy

  • Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
    • The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
    • The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
  • Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
    • The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
    • Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
    • The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
  • Exchange Rate Management
    • In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
    • This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
  • Disputes Between Government and RBI
    • The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
    • This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
    • The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.

About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

  • The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
  • Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
  • Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
  • He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
  • It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
  • RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
  • Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.

Functions and Initiatives:

  • Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
  • Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
  • Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
  • Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
  • Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
  • Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
  • Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.

Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:

  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
  • These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.

 

[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:

1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.

2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Indian Army Updates

[pib] Exercise Tiger Triumph

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Exercise Tiger Triumph

Why in the News?

The 4th edition of Exercise Tiger Triumph, a bilateral tri-service Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) exercise, will be held on the Eastern Seaboard of India, with activities taking place in Visakhapatnam and Kakinada.

About Exercise Tiger Triumph

  • The exercise was first announced by then U.S. President Donald Trump during the Howdy Modi event in Houston on September 22, 2019.
  • The inaugural exercise took place from November 13 to 21, 2019.
  • It involved approximately 1,200 Indian personnel and 500 U.S. military members, with key participation from the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Pacific.
    • Harbour Phase: Held in Visakhapatnam, including training visits, expert exchanges, and social interactions.
    • Sea Phase: Conducted in Kakinada, focusing on practical HADR operations like field hospital setups and evacuation drills.
  • Subsequent Editions:
    • 2022 Edition: Emphasized disaster relief coordination, with tabletop simulations to improve operational readiness.
    • 2024 Edition: Focused on refining standard operating procedures (SOPs) and included a battalion group from the Indian Army.

Important Features:

  • Interoperability Enhancement: The exercise aims to improve the coordination between Indian and U.S. forces during disaster response situations, ensuring rapid deployment and effective collaboration.
  • Humanitarian Assistance Focus: The exercise simulates responses to natural disasters like super-cyclones, refining diplomatic, operational, and logistical efforts in such crises.
  • Strengthening Bilateral Ties: Joint drills and exchanges during the exercise serve to fortify the strategic partnership between India and the U.S., focusing on shared best practices and operational capabilities.
[UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

 

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NITI Aayog’s Assessment

[pib] NITI NCAER States Economic Forum

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: NITI NCAER States Economic Forum

Why in the News?

The Finance Minister is set to launch the “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal.

About the NITI NCAER States Economic Forum Portal

  • The “NITI NCAER States Economic Forum” portal is a comprehensive digital platform developed by NITI Aayog in collaboration with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER).
  • It serves as a centralized repository of data, research reports, and expert commentary on state-level finances and social, economic, and fiscal parameters spanning from 1990-91 to 2022-23.
  • The portal aims to facilitate evidence-based policymaking by providing users with easy access to key trends and insights on state performance.
  • Its features include:
    1. State Reports: Summarizes the macro and fiscal landscape of 28 Indian states. Structured around indicators on demography, economic structure, socio-economic, and fiscal parameters.
    2. Data Repository: Access to a comprehensive database categorized into 5 verticals: Demography; Economic Structure; Fiscal Data; Health; Education.
    3. State Fiscal and Economic Dashboard: Provides graphical representations of key economic variables over time; Includes summary tables and raw data for easy reference.
    4. Research and Commentary: Offers in-depth research reports and expert commentary on state finances, fiscal policy, and financial management; Supports long-term academic and policy research.

Significance:

  • Benchmarking Capabilities: it enables comparison of state performance with national averages, fostering a competitive and cooperative approach to development.
  • Data Accessibility: it bridges data accessibility gaps, ensuring that policymakers, researchers, and academics can make informed decisions based on reliable and comprehensive data.
  • Promotes Transparency: By offering open access to detailed data, the portal enhances fiscal transparency and encourages cooperative federalism.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

1.The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Review Committee Report has recommended a debt to GDP ratio of 60% for the general (combined) government by 2023, comprising 40% for the Central Government and 20% for the State Governments.

2.The Central Government has domestic liabilities of 21% of GDP as compared to that of 49% of GDP of the State Governments.

3.As per the Constitution of India, it is mandatory for a State to take the Central Government’s consent for raising any loan if the former owes any outstanding liabilities to the latter.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Majorana 1 Chip and the Pursuit of Quantum Computing

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip, Majorana particles

Why in the News?

In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.

About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind

  • Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
  • This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
  • Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
  • This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
  • This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
  • Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
    • This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
    • They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
    • Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.

Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):

  • Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:
  1. Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
  2. Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.
  • What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
    • If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
    • This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.

AMoRE Experiment:

  • The AMoRE experiment is being conducted in South Korea to detect this rare 0vßß decay.
  • The experiment uses molybdenum-100 (Mo-100), which is known to undergo double beta decay. The team is measuring the energy differences in electron emissions to detect the 0vßß decay.
  • While no evidence has been found yet, the experiment continues to improve its sensitivity by using 100 kg of Mo-100 for more accurate measurements.

Scientific Significance:

  • The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
  • Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.
[UPSC 2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

(a) Cloud Services (b) Quantum Computing (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

Why in the News?

SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

  • The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
  • The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
  • Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
  • Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
  • The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
  • The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

Features and Significance:

  • Unique Orbital Path:
    • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
    • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
  • Scientific Research:
    • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
    • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
  • Climate Change Research:
    • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

The Satellite Oceansat-2 launched by India helps in

1. estimating the water vapour content in the atmosphere.

2. predicting the onset of monsoons.

3. monitoring the pollution of coastal waters.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

IISc’s Bacteria-Based Technique for Lunar Habitat Construction

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Bacterial Brick

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc.) have developed a bacteria-based technique to repair bricks used in lunar habitats, designed to withstand the harsh conditions of the moon’s environment.

About the Bacterial Brick:

  • The bacterial brick is an innovative material designed for building durable, eco-friendly structures in lunar habitats.
  • It is created using lunar soil simulants combined with Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacteria that binds soil particles together, forming a solid material suitable for construction on the moon.
  • How is it made?
    • The bacteria Sporosarcina pasteurii converts urea and calcium into calcium carbonate crystals, which bind soil particles together to create a brick-like substance.
    • The process is further enhanced with guar gum, which serves as a natural adhesive, making it a low-cost, eco-friendly alternative to energy-intensive cement-based manufacturing.
    • The researchers also explored sintering, where a mixture of soil simulants and polyvinyl alcohol is heated to high temperatures, creating stronger, more pressure-resistant bricks.

Significance for Lunar Surface Conditions:

  • The moon’s surface experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, ranging from 121°C to -133°C, causing bricks to crack and become brittle.
  • A bacteria-based repair technique using Sporosarcina pasteurii helps address these cracks.
    • When mixed with lunar soil simulant and guar gum, the bacteria effectively adhere to cracks, improving durability and enabling the bricks to withstand temperatures from 100°C to 175°C.
  • This approach offers a sustainable solution by allowing on-site construction with local lunar materials, reducing the need for Earth-based materials.
    • It ensures long-term structural integrity for lunar habitats, contributing to the sustainability of space missions.
[UPSC 2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

1. They use living organisms as catalysts (often including bacteria) to generate electricity from certain substrates.

2. They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.

3. They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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[1st April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Why are tensions high in the Arctic?

PYQ Relevance:

Question: “If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years. [UPSC 2021]

Linkage: The broader context of competition for influence in the continent. 

 

Mentor’s Comment:  The Arctic has been isolated for centuries, but climate change is melting ice, which leads to opening access to valuable resources like oil, gas, and rare earth metals. Melting ice is also creating new trade routes. Unlike Antarctica, the Arctic has no strong legal protections, leading to territorial claims and military activity, increasing global tensions.

Today’s editorial discusses the geopolitical impact of climate change in the Arctic. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and GS Paper 3 (Environment).

_

Let’s learn!

Why in the News?

Global experts are concerned about increasing tensions in the Arctic, cautioning that if not controlled, they might cause conflict in the area.

arctic

What are the key factors driving increased geopolitical tensions in the Arctic?

  • Climate Change & Melting Ice: The Arctic ice cap is shrinking, making previously inaccessible natural resources and trade routes viable. Example: The opening of the Northeast Passage along Russia’s coast could significantly reduce shipping times between Asia and Europe.
  • Competition for Natural Resources: The region holds an estimated 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of untapped natural gas, along with rare earth minerals. Example: Greenland has significant deposits of rare earth elements, attracting interest from China and the U.S.
  • Territorial Disputes & Overlapping Claims: Countries are extending their maritime boundaries under UNCLOS to claim more of the Arctic seabed. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge, a key Arctic seabed area.
  • Military Posturing & Strategic Control: Nations are increasing their military presence to assert dominance and protect interests. Example: Russia has expanded its Arctic military bases and deployed nuclear-powered icebreakers, while NATO has increased Arctic exercises.
  • New Maritime Trade Routes & Geopolitical Rivalry: The melting ice is opening faster, alternative shipping lanes, bypassing traditional routes like the Suez Canal. Example: China is promoting the Polar Silk Road via the Northeast Passage, while Russia maintains strict control over Arctic navigation.

Who are the primary stakeholders controlling different regions of the Arctic?

  • Arctic Coastal Nations (Arctic Council Members): Eight countries control Arctic land and territorial waters: Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the U.S. Example: Russia has the largest Arctic coastline and controls key ports, while Canada claims sovereignty over the Northwest Passage.
  • International Governance & UNCLOS: The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates maritime claims, allowing nations to extend seabed claims if proven as a continental shelf extension. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark have all submitted overlapping claims to the Arctic seabed under UNCLOS.
  • Non-Arctic Global Powers & Observers: Non-Arctic nations like China, India, the UK, and the EU monitor Arctic developments due to strategic interests in trade routes and resources. Example: China declared itself a “Near-Arctic State” in 2018 and is investing in icebreaker ships to influence Arctic shipping lanes.

Where do territorial disputes and conflicting claims arise among Arctic nations?

  • Competing Seabed Claims under UNCLOS: Arctic nations claim extended seabed areas beyond their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) by proving geological extensions of their continental shelves. Example: Russia, Canada, and Denmark (via Greenland) have overlapping claims to the Lomonosov Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean.
  • Northwest Passage Dispute (Canada vs. U.S.): Canada considers the Northwest Passage part of its internal waters, granting it control over navigation. The U.S. and other nations claim it is an international strait, allowing free passage. Example: The U.S. has conducted “freedom of navigation” operations in the passage, challenging Canada’s sovereignty.
  • Svalbard Archipelago (Norway vs. Russia): Norway administers Svalbard under the Svalbard Treaty (1920), granting access to signatory nations for commercial activities. However, Russia argues for broader rights. Example: Russia continues to expand mining operations in Svalbard and has politically challenged Norway’s restrictions on military activity there.
  • Greenland Sovereignty & U.S. Interest (Denmark vs. U.S.): The U.S. has questioned Denmark’s sovereignty over Greenland and previously attempted to purchase the island due to its strategic location and rare earth minerals. Example: In 2019, then-U.S. President Donald Trump expressed interest in buying Greenland, leading to diplomatic tensions with Denmark.
  • Barents Sea & Arctic Borders (Norway vs. Russia): Russia and Norway have had disputes over their maritime boundary in the Barents Sea, an area rich in oil, gas, and fisheries. Example: A 2010 agreement settled much of the dispute, but tensions persist, especially with increasing Russian military activity near Norwegian waters.

Why is the Arctic considered strategically important for global powers?

  • Rich Natural Resources: The Arctic is estimated to hold 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of its untapped natural gas, along with rare earth elements, phosphates, and fisheries. Example: Russia has significantly invested in Yamal LNG projects, while Greenland has attracted interest from China and the U.S. for its rare earth deposits.
  • New Trade Routes Due to Melting Ice: The Northeast Passage (along Russia’s coast) and the Northwest Passage (through Canada) could drastically reduce global shipping distances, saving billions in transportation costs. Example: China’s “Polar Silk Road” seeks to use the Northeast Passage for trade, reducing travel time between East Asia and Europe by 40% compared to the Suez Canal route.
  • Military & Geopolitical Significance: The Arctic provides strategic military advantages, including submarine deployment zones, early warning radar systems, and missile defense capabilities. Example: Russia has established new Arctic military bases, the U.S. has expanded its Thule Air Base in Greenland, and NATO has increased military exercises in the region.

How are nations like Russia, China, and NATO asserting their influence in the Arctic region?

  • Russia: Militarization and Territorial Claims: Russia has the largest Arctic military presence, including nuclear-powered icebreakers, air bases, and missile defense systems. It has also made territorial claims under UNCLOS to extend its control over the Arctic seabed.
    • Example: In 2007, Russia planted its flag on the Arctic seabed at the North Pole and continues to expand its Arctic military bases, such as in Franz Josef Land and the Kola Peninsula.
  • China: Economic Investments and Strategic Partnerships: China, though not an Arctic nation, calls itself a “Near-Arctic State” and is expanding its influence through investments in Arctic infrastructure, scientific research, and trade routes (Polar Silk Road).
    • Example: China has invested in Arctic mining projects in Greenland and collaborated with Russia on LNG projects, like the Yamal LNG plant. It is also building nuclear-powered icebreakers.
  • NATO: Strengthening Military Presence and Alliances: NATO has intensified military exercises and surveillance in the Arctic, especially after Finland and Sweden joined the alliance following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
    • Example: In 2024, NATO conducted large-scale Arctic military drills near the Russian border in Finland and strengthened defense ties with Canada and Norway.

Way forward: 

  • Strengthening Arctic Governance & Diplomacy: Enhance international cooperation through the Arctic Council and UNCLOS to manage territorial disputes, resource exploration, and environmental challenges. Example: Establish legally binding agreements for sustainable Arctic resource extraction and conflict resolution mechanisms to prevent geopolitical tensions.
  • Balancing Economic Development with Environmental Protection: Promote responsible Arctic development by enforcing strict environmental regulations while ensuring indigenous rights and sustainable economic activities. Example: Encourage renewable energy projects, scientific research, and eco-friendly shipping practices to mitigate the impact of Arctic exploitation.

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Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

Among Ministries, Home Affairs ‘dropped’ most assurances

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Assurances in Parliament;

Why in the News?

Since 2014, the Ministry of Home Affairs made 421 assurances in the Lok Sabha and 338 in the Rajya Sabha. However, it dropped about 15% of the assurances in the Lok Sabha and 12% in the Rajya Sabha, which is the highest among all the ministries in both houses.

What is an ‘Assurance’ in the parliamentary process, and how is it tracked?

  • An assurance in the parliamentary process is a commitment made by a Ministry or the executive during a parliamentary session, where the government undertakes to take further action or report back on a matter raised by a Member of Parliament (MP).
    • Example: If an MP asks about the status of a government project, and the Minister promises to provide an update or take further action, that promise becomes an assurance.
  • Tracking of Assurances: Assurances are tracked by the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs using the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS). The system keeps records of whether assurances are fulfilled, pending, or dropped. If an assurance is not fulfilled within three months, the Ministry must apply for an extension or request that it be dropped.
    • Example: A query about the status of the Adani ports, raised by Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore in 2023, resulted in an assurance, but as of 2024, the assurance remains pending.

Why has the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the highest number of assurances in Parliament?

  • Lack of Follow-up on Critical Issues: The Ministry often fails to follow through on assurances related to significant national security issues, leading to unfulfilled promises.
    • For example, a question on the state-wise number of terrorist attacks and the number of terrorists arrested and killed, raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal in 2014, was left unanswered, and the assurance was dropped.
  • Delayed Response to Investigative Matters: The Ministry often fails to follow up on assurances related to complex investigations. An example is the question raised by MP Asaduddin Owaisi in 2014 regarding ‘out of turn promotions’ and ‘gallantry awards’ given to policemen involved in fake encounters, which remained unanswered and was eventually dropped.
  • Inability to Fulfill Commitments on Security Incidents: The Ministry has been slow in responding to assurances related to major security incidents. For instance, questions raised by MP Manish Tiwari in 2019 and 2020 regarding the Pulwama terror attack investigation were not fully addressed, resulting in these assurances being dropped.

Which ministries have the most pending and dropped assurances in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha?

  • Ministry of Home Affairs: The Ministry of Home Affairs has the highest number of dropped assurances across both the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. For example, questions regarding terrorist attacks and the status of security-related investigations, like the one raised by former MP Sirajuddin Ajmal about terrorist attacks, have not been answered, leading to the dropping of the assurance.
  • Other Ministries with High Numbers: Besides the Home Ministry, other ministries like Finance, Law and Justice, Road Transport and Highways, and Railways also feature among the top ministries with the most dropped assurances. For example, the assurance related to the investigation of the Adani Group, raised by MP Mahua Moitra in 2021, was dropped by the Finance Ministry despite the promise of further details on foreign investments and SEBI’s inquiry.

How does the Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) help in tracking government assurances?

  • Tracking and Monitoring: The Online Assurance Monitoring System (OAMS) allows for real-time tracking of assurances made by the government in Parliament. It records and publishes the status of each assurance, ensuring that the government is held accountable for its commitments.
    • For example, the OAMS portal shows that nearly 65% of the assurances made in 2024 in the Lok Sabha were still pending as of March 24, 2024.
  • Transparency and Accountability: OAMS provides transparency by making the status of all assurances accessible to the public. This helps track whether ministries are fulfilling their promises in a timely manner or whether they request extensions.
    • For example, it highlighted the pending status of the assurance regarding the Adani Group’s ports, made in 2023, which has still not been addressed.

What are some notable examples of assurances that remain pending or were dropped between 2014 and 2024?

  • Adani Group Ports Assurance: In 2023, Congress MP B. Manickam Tagore asked about the status of government-constructed ports and the volume of trade at Adani-owned ports compared to state-owned ventures. The assurance given in response to this question remains pending as of 2024.
  • Investigation into the Adani Group: In 2021, MP Mahua Moitra raised the issue of investigating the Adani Group and foreign portfolio investors owning stakes in the company. The Finance Ministry provided some details but later dropped the assurance, leaving the matter unresolved.
  • Pulwama Terror Attack Assurances: Congress MP Manish Tiwari raised questions about the Pulwama terror attack in 2019 and 2020, but the Ministry of Home Affairs dropped the assurances related to those questions, leaving the issues without a formal follow-up.

Way forward: 

  • Strengthening Follow-Up Mechanisms: To improve accountability, there should be a more robust system for tracking and following up on assurances. Ministries should be mandated to provide periodic updates, and a dedicated parliamentary committee could be formed to ensure timely resolution.
  • Enforcing Deadlines for Assurance Fulfillment: The government should consider setting stricter deadlines for fulfilling assurances, with consequences for non-fulfillment.

Mains PYQ:

Question: “Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.” [UPSC 2024]

Linkage: Counter-terrorism efforts and the situation in Jammu and Kashmir, both significant areas of responsibility for the MHA. In response to such a question, the MHA might give assurances about specific measures being taken, data on their impact, or future plans.

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Electoral Reforms In India

Delimitation: Thinking beyond Population Count

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Mains level: Issues related delimitation;

Why in the News?

The discussion on delimitation and financial distribution has caused worries in Parliament and State Assemblies, as it could affect India’s federal system, especially with the upcoming end of the freeze on parliamentary seats.

What are the key concerns in delimitation and financial devolution?

  • Impact on Federalism: The redistribution of seats may reduce representation for some states, especially those with better demographic management, affecting their political influence. Example: Southern states like Tamil Nadu and Kerala may lose seats relative to northern states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
  • Population vs. Representation Imbalance: States with high population growth could gain more seats, while those that controlled their population may be underrepresented. Example: The 2026 delimitation may increase seats in northern states, reducing the share of states like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
  • Financial Allocation Disparity: The shift from the 1971 population base to the 2011 census for financial devolution may disadvantage states that effectively controlled population growth. Example: The 15th Finance Commission’s formula increased the weight of population (from 0.15 to 0.27), benefiting larger states like Uttar Pradesh.
  • Challenges of Caste and Gender-Based Reservations: Any redistribution must ensure that marginalized communities continue to receive fair representation despite demographic changes. Example: The Women’s Reservation Bill and SC/ST reserved seats need careful adjustments post-delimitation to maintain proportional representation.

Why are peninsular States anxious about delimitation?

  • Reduction in Lok Sabha Seats: States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka have controlled population growth, whereas states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have higher birth rates.Example, If seats are redistributed based on 2026 population projections, peninsular states may lose seats while northern states gain more representation.
  • Unfair Distribution of Financial Resources: The 15th Finance Commission shifted to using the 2011 Census for fund allocation, benefiting high-population states. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, despite better governance, receive fewer funds compared to Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, which have weaker social indicators.
  • Penalty for Development Success: Southern states invested in education, healthcare, and family planning, successfully controlling their population. Example: Kerala’s high literacy rate and Tamil Nadu’s low fertility rate may lead to fewer seats, reducing their voice in national decision-making.

How did the 15th Finance Commission adjust population weightage?

  • Shift from 1971 to 2011 Census Data: The 15th Finance Commission replaced the 1971 Census with the 2011 Census for financial devolution, increasing the weightage of states with larger populations. Example: Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, with high population growth, received a greater share of central funds.
  • Incorporation of Demographic Performance: To balance the impact on states with controlled population growth, the commission introduced a demographic performance criterion. Example: Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which successfully reduced fertility rates, were given some weightage to offset their lower population share.
  • Increased Weightage for Population Component: The weightage for population in financial devolution increased from 15% (in previous commissions) to 27% under the 15th Finance Commission. Example: Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, with high population growth, benefited more from this adjustment.

What is the role of demographic performance in allocation and representation?

  • Balancing Population Growth with Development: Demographic performance considers not just population size, but how well a state has managed population growth, improving socio-economic indicators like fertility rates and life expectancy.
    • Example: Kerala, which has a low birth rate due to effective family planning policies, might not see a drastic population increase but still deserves fair representation based on its demographic success.
  • Addressing Disparities in Development: States with high population growth but poor demographic performance (e.g., high fertility rates, poor health outcomes) may receive less weight in allocation to balance out the disparity with better-performing states.
    • Example: Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, which have high population growth but relatively poor health and education indicators, may see their representation balanced with the inclusion of demographic performance factors.
  • Promoting Equity in Resource Allocation: Demographic performance allows for a more equitable distribution of resources by considering how well states manage their population and its needs. This ensures that states with better demographic indicators, like lower infant mortality or higher literacy rates, are not unfairly penalized in devolution and allocation.
    • Example: Tamil Nadu, which has effectively reduced its population growth while improving key development metrics, should be rewarded with adequate representation despite its smaller population size compared to more populous states like Madhya Pradesh.

Which alternatives to absolute population can guide representation? (Way forward)

  • Population Density-Based Representation: Instead of using absolute population, population density (people per square kilometer) can be a guiding factor to ensure fair representation. Example: The Northeastern states (e.g., Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland) have smaller populations but are allocated seats based on geographical and density considerations.
  • Demographic Performance as a Criterion: States that have successfully controlled population growth should not be penalized; demographic performance (such as fertility rates and health indicators) can be factored in. Example: Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which have lower fertility rates, could be granted additional weightage to compensate for their lower population growth.

Mains PYQ:

Question: What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that unequal distribu- tion of benefits of development on regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? [UPSC 2016]

Linkage: Focusing solely on national population figures might mask significant regional disparities that need to be addressed through differentiated policies and resource allocation.

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya

Why in the News?

Since February 2025, Buddhists across India have been protesting, demanding the repeal of the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949.

Mahabodhi Temple, Gaya 

Controversy surrounding the Bodh Gaya Temple Act (BTA), 1949:

  • The BTA was enacted after disputes between the Hindu and Buddhist communities regarding control of the temple.
  • Prior to this, the temple was under Hindu control, especially after the Mughal Empire in 1590 and following the Pala decline.
  • The BTA created an 8-member management committee for the temple with equal representation from Hindus and Buddhists.
  • However, the District Magistrate (usually from the Hindu community) was the ex-officio chairperson, giving Hindus a majority.
  • This has been a point of contention for the Buddhist community, leading to calls for reform.
  • The Supreme Court petition filed by monks in 2012 is yet to be heard, further fuelling their cause.

About the Mahabodhi Temple:

Details
About
  • Bodh Gaya, Bihar, 96 km from Patna, 15 km from Gaya
  • The temple marks the spot where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in 531 BCE.
  • Designated in 2002 for its religious, historical, and architectural importance.
Architectural Features
  • Early example of brick architecture.
  • Features two large shikhara towers, tallest being 55 meters high.
  • Houses Vajrasana (Seat of Enlightenment).
  • Sculptural reliefs depicting scenes from Buddha’s life.
Sacred Sites within the Temple Complex
  • Bodhi Tree (descendant of original tree planted by Buddha)
  • Animeshlochan Chaitya (Second Week of Buddha’s meditation)
  • Ratnachakrama (Third Week of Buddha’s meditation)
  • Ratnaghar Chaitya (Fourth Week)
  • Ajapala Nigrodh Tree (Fifth Week)
  • Lotus Pond (Sixth Week)
  • Rajyatana Tree (Seventh Week)
Historical Timeline
  • First temple built by Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BCE.
  • Current structure from 6th century CE with restorations during Pala period.
  • Hiuen Tsang visited in 629 AD.
Key Features and Preservation
  • Built with brick and stucco.
  • Large Buddha statue in meditative posture.
  • Stone railings relocated to nearby museum.
  • Actively preserved and restored as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

 

[UPSC 2023] In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located?

(a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe

Why in the News?

The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

Why the Parker Solar Probe is trying to ‘touch’ the Sun?

About Parker Solar Probe

  • The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
  • It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
  • The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
  • This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
    • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
  • The primary goals are:
    • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
    • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
    • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
    • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
  • The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
    • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
    • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
    • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
    • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
    • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

  • Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
  • Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
  • New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
  • Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
  • Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.
[UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

1.        GPS and navigation systems could fail.

2.        Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

3.        Power grids could be damaged.

4.        Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

5.        Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

6.        Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

7.        Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only

(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only

(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Sarhul Festival Celebrations in Jharkhand

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Sarhul Festival

Why in the News?

On April 1, 2025, tribals in Jharkhand and the larger Chhotanagpur region will celebrate Sarhul, marking both the New Year and the arrival of spring.

About Sarhul Festival

  • Sarhul is a significant Adivasi festival celebrated in Jharkhand and the Chhotanagpur region, covering parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Bihar.
  • It is celebrated in the Hindu month of Chaitra, typically three days after the appearance of the new moon.
    • It marks the new year and celebrates the arrival of spring.
  • It is celebrated by various tribes, including Oraon, Munda, Santal, Khadia, and Ho, each with its own unique customs.
  • The Sal tree (Shorea robusta) is venerated as the abode of Sarna Maa, the deity who protects the village from natural calamities and misfortunes.
  • The festival symbolizes the union of the Sun and Earth.
    • The pahan (male priest) represents the Sun, while his wife, the pahen, symbolizes the Earth. This union is essential for sustaining life, emphasizing the connection between sunlight and soil.
  • It also marks the renewal of life.
  • After the rituals, Adivasis begin ploughing their fields, sowing crops, or gathering produce from the forest.

Cultural Significance of Sarhul

  • Sarhul evolved from a hunting festival to one that celebrates agriculture, reflecting the changing lifestyle of the Adivasi communities.
  • Sarhul is a cultural movement to preserve Adivasi heritage amidst urbanization and modernization, helping reinforce tribal identity.
  • Over time, Sarhul has become a platform for Adivasi political assertion, with some groups using the festival to demand the recognition of Sarna religion and its inclusion in India’s caste census.
  • Sarhul has also become a means for advocating tribal rights and social justice, particularly through the leadership of Baba Karthik Oraon.
[UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition State

1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

 

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Over 1,000 species of Fungi threatened with extinction: IUCN

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :

Prelims level: Fungi

Why in the News?

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List now includes 1,300 fungi species, of which 1000 species are at risk of extinction due to various environmental pressures.

Important Species under Threat:

  • Fibrous Waxcap (Hygrocybe intermedia): A Vulnerable species of fungi found in Europe, facing threats from habitat loss and land-use changes.
  • 279 Species at Risk: Threatened by deforestation, agricultural expansion, and urban development, leading to habitat loss.
  • 91 Species Threatened by Pollution: Nitrogen and ammonia runoff from fertilizers and industrial activities.
  • 50+ Species at Risk Due to Fire Patterns: Changes in fire cycles, especially in USA, making certain fungi species vulnerable in forest ecosystems.

About Fungi:

  • Fungi belong to the kingdom Fungi, distinct from animals, plants, and bacteria. They are eukaryotic organisms and include moulds, yeasts, mushrooms, and mildews.
  • Key Properties:
    • Fungi have chitin in their cell walls and form hyphae that create a mycelium network.
    • They are heterotrophic, absorbing nutrients from organic material.
    • They reproduce sexually and asexually through spores.
  • Types of Fungi:
    • Molds: Multicellular, fuzzy fungi.
    • Yeasts: Unicellular fungi used in fermentation.
    • Mushrooms: Fruiting bodies of certain fungi, often edible.
  • Ecological Role: Fungi are crucial in decomposition and nutrient cycling. Some form beneficial relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) to aid in nutrient absorption.
  • Uses:
    • Medicines: Fungi like penicillin have revolutionized medicine.
    • Food: Edible fungi include mushrooms and truffles.
    • Beverages: Yeasts are key in bread, beer, and wine production.
[UPSC 2021] Which of the following have species that can establish symbiotic relationship with other organisms?​

1. Cnidarians​

2. Fungi ​

3. Protozoa​

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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