Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
Why in the News?
March 26, 2025, marked the 50th anniversary of the entry into force of the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.
About the Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)
- The BWC also known as the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty aimed at banning biological and toxin weapons.
- It prohibits activities related to the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons.
- Negotiation and Adoption:
- Negotiated in Geneva, Switzerland, from 1969 to 1971.
- Draft versions were tabled by the USA and USSR in August 1971.
- The treaty was opened for signature on April 10, 1972, in London, Moscow, and Washington, D.C.
- It entered into force on March 26, 1975, after the required ratifications.
- Key Provisions:
- Article I: Prohibits development, production, stockpiling, and use of biological weapons.
- Article II: Requires destruction or conversion of biological agents, toxins, and weapons to peaceful purposes before joining.
- Article III: Prohibits transfer or assistance in acquiring biological weapons.
- Article VI: Allows states to file complaints with the UN Security Council about treaty violations.
- Article X: Promotes the exchange of materials and information for peaceful purposes.
- Structure and Membership:
- Depositaries: United States, United Kingdom, and Russian Federation are the depositary governments.
- Membership: As of February 2025, 188 states are parties to the treaty, with 4 states having signed but not ratified, and 9 states have neither signed nor ratified.
- Review Conferences: Held every 5 years to assess the treaty’s implementation and strengthen confidence-building measures.
India and the BWC:
- India is a party to the BWC.
- India has implemented national measures and established legal frameworks to comply with the provisions of the BWC, preventing the development or use of biological weapons.
| [UPSC 2017] With reference to the Biological Weapons Convention, consider the following statements:
1.It prohibits the development, production, stockpiling or use of biological and toxin weapons.
2. It has a verification mechanism to check compliance by member States.
3. It is an umbrella treaty under the aegis of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vijayanagara Empire
Why in the News?
A set of copper plates from the early 15th Century, dating back to the reign of Devaraya I of the Sangama Dynasty, were recently unveiled by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
About the Sangama Dynasty
- The Sangama Dynasty was the first ruling dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, founded in the 14th century by brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
- They were the sons of Bhavana Sangama, a chieftain from a pastoralist community with Yadava descent.
- The Sangama Dynasty was established in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, who founded the city of Vijayanagara on the south bank of the Tungabhadra River.
- The early rulers focused on building the foundations of the empire, both administratively and culturally.
Notable Rulers
- Harihara I: Known for founding the empire and laying its initial foundations.
- Bukka Raya I: Expanded the empire’s territories significantly, ruling from 1343 to 1379 CE.
- Harihara II: Conquered coastal Andhra and important Indian ports like Goa, continuing his predecessor’s expansion.
- Deva Raya I: Ruled from 1404 to 1422 CE, further expanding the empire.
- Deva Raya II (Krishnadeva Raya): Regarded as one of the greatest rulers of the dynasty, he expanded the empire and promoted art, literature, and diplomacy from 1422 to 1446 CE.
Downfall
- Internal conflicts, particularly succession disputes, and external pressures from the Bahmani Sultanate and neighboring kingdoms weakened the dynasty.
- The final blow came when Narasimha of the Saluva Dynasty usurped the throne in 1485 CE, marking the end of the Sangama Dynasty’s reign.
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Key Features of the Copper Plates
- These plates are unique, dating back to the coronation of King Devaraya I of the Vijayanagara Empire.
- The king granted the village of Gudipalli, along with the hamlets Rajendramada and Udayapalli, during his coronation.
- The village was renamed Devarayapura-agrahara and divided into 61 shares allocated to various Brahmins with expertise in Vedas and Shastras.
- They are written in Sanskrit, Kannada and Nagari characters.
- The seal features an image of Vamana, rather than the usual Varaha (boar), which is the royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Historical Significance:
- Dated to Saka 1328 (November 5, 1406 CE), the plates provide insights into the Sangama Dynasty.
- It helps trace the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to the five sons of King Harihara: Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.
| [UPSC 2023] Who among the following rulers of Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal-cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from the river to the capital city?
(a) Devaraya I (b) Mallikarjuna (c) Vira Vijaya (d) Virupaksha |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Credit Programme
Why in the News?
The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.
About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)
- The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
- It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
- Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
- These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
- It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
- The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.
Criticisms of the Program:
- Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
- Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
- Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
- Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evolution of RBI's Monetary Policy
Why in the News?
The first monetary policy of RBI Governor Sanjay Malhotra in 2025 marks 90 years since the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) announced its inaugural monetary policy in 1935.
RBI’s First Monetary Policy in 1935
- On July 3, 1935, RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, reflecting the Imperial Bank’s rate.
- The CRR was set at 5% of demand liabilities and 2% of time liabilities on July 5, 1935.
Evolution of RBI’s Monetary Policy
- Bank Rate in Early RBI History:
- The bank rate was a key tool introduced by the RBI in 1935 to control credit and liquidity. On July 3, 1935, the RBI set the bank rate at 3.5%, mirroring the rate of its predecessor, the Imperial Bank of India.
- The RBI Act (1934) mandated its use for buying or re-discounting commercial paper, and it played a crucial role in India’s interest rate structure.
- Role of Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR):
- The CRR, introduced by the RBI, required banks to maintain a percentage of their deposits as reserves.
- Influenced by the Federal Reserve Act of the USA, the CRR helped stabilize the banking system, especially during failures.
- The CRR was set at 5% for demand liabilities and 2% for time liabilities in 1935, with adjustments made over time.
- Exchange Rate Management
- In 1935, the RBI managed the exchange rate of the 1 Indian rupee at 1 shilling and 6 pence.
- This caused friction between nationalists, who favoured a lower exchange rate to boost exports, and the British, who preferred a higher rate to facilitate cheaper imports.
- Disputes Between Government and RBI
- The RBI’s decision to reduce the bank rate in 1935 was opposed by the government, fearing rupee depreciation.
- This led to a conflict, resulting in the resignation of Osborne Smith, the first RBI Governor.
- The incident highlighted tensions between the RBI’s monetary autonomy and government priorities.
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About Reserve Bank of India (RBI)
- The RBI is the central bank and monetary authority of India established on April 1, 1935, under the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.
- Its idea was incepted from the recommendations of the Hilton Young Commission.
- Sir Osborne Arkell Smith, an Australian, served as the inaugural Governor.
- He was succeeded by Sir C D Deshmukh, the first Indian to hold the position.
- It is a centralized institution for India to effectively regulate its monetary and credit policies.
- RBI had its initial headquarters in Kolkata, later moving permanently to Mumbai in 1937.
- Initially, the RBI operated as a privately owned entity until its full nationalization in 1949.
Functions and Initiatives:
- Monetary Authority: The RBI controls the supply of money in the economy to stabilize exchange rates, maintain a healthy balance of payment, and control inflation.
- Issuer of Currency: Sole authority to issue currency and combat circulation of counterfeit notes.
- Banker to the Government: Acts as a banker to both the Central and State governments, providing short-term credit and financial advisory services.
- Lender of Last Resort: Provides emergency liquidity assistance to banks during crises.
- Custodian of Foreign Exchange Reserves: Manages foreign exchange reserves and administers the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA).
- Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems: Oversees payment and settlement systems in the country, ensuring efficiency and security.
- Credit Control and Developmental Role: Promotes credit availability to productive sectors and fosters financial infrastructure development.
Dr. Ambedkar’s Role in the Establishment of RBI:
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s contributions were particularly notable during the Hilton Young Commission discussions in 1926, where he presented his recommendations based on his book “The Problem of the Rupee – Its Origin and Its Solution.”
- These discussions laid the foundation for establishing the RBI on April 1, 1935.
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| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements:
1. Reserve Bank of India was nationalized on 26 January 1950.
2. The borrowing programme of the Government of India is handled by the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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