PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.
Linkage: The Pahalgam attack occurred in Jammu and Kashmir. This question directly addresses strategies for building trust and resolving conflict in terrorism-affected regions, which is a crucial aspect of responding to such attacks in the long term. |
Mentor’s Comment: The terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, is not just an act of violence; it’s a calculated political move, carefully timed to cause both human casualties and strategic disruption. The attack took place shortly after the Kashmir Valley started welcoming tourists for the season and while U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance was visiting India. This is not a random attack, but part of a long-standing pattern of cross-border terrorism supported by Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies. At a time when Pakistan had faded from India’s diplomatic focus, it has now returned, aiming to disrupt what India holds dear.
Today’s editorial analyzes the recent terrorist attack in the Baisaran meadows of Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir. This discussion will be useful for GS Paper 2 on International Relations and GS Paper 3 on Border Management.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On April 22, 2025, terrorists attacked a group of tourists in the Baisaran meadows of Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, killing dozens and injuring many others. This was the first major attack on civilians in Kashmir since the government removed the region’s special status in 2019.
Why is the Pahalgam attack seen as a political signal beyond terrorism?
- Strategic Timing: The attack was carefully timed to coincide with major diplomatic events, aiming to internationalize the Kashmir issue and undermine India’s global image. Eg: It occurred during U.S. Vice-President J.D. Vance’s visit to India, drawing global attention and signaling instability in Kashmir.
- Undermining Normalcy: Targeting a tourist destination was meant to damage the perception of peace, hurt local livelihoods, and instill fear among potential visitors. Eg: The attack happened in Baisaran near Pahalgam, a scenic spot often described as ‘mini Switzerland’, during peak tourism season.
- Proxy Warfare: It reflects Pakistan’s continued reliance on non-state actors to wage asymmetric warfare against India while maintaining deniability. Eg: The Resistance Front (TRF), linked to Lashkar-e-Taiba and ISI, claimed responsibility—mirroring past attacks like the 2019 Pulwama bombing.
What intelligence and security lapses does the attack reveal?
- Failure of Local Intelligence Gathering: Security forces lacked timely and actionable intelligence about militant movement in a high-tourist zone. Eg: Despite a large number of tourists in Pahalgam, there were no alerts about possible threats in the area prior to the attack.
- Inadequate Perimeter Surveillance: The attackers exploited gaps in area surveillance and patrol routines around tourist spots. Eg: The militants attacked near Baisaran meadow—an open and vulnerable area with limited surveillance despite being a tourist hotspot.
- Weak Coordination Among Agencies: Lack of seamless coordination between intelligence, police, and paramilitary forces led to poor threat anticipation and response. Eg: Local police reportedly had not received central alerts, reflecting weak inter-agency information sharing.
- Overreliance on Static Security Checks: Security was concentrated at checkpoints, but attackers used off-road routes to bypass these. Eg: Militants avoided heavily guarded roads and struck a moving vehicle, indicating knowledge of patrol patterns.
- Neglect of Civilian Vulnerability Mapping: No dynamic assessment of soft targets such as unescorted tourist groups in sensitive areas. Eg: The victims were on a pony ride, unprotected, with no security escort in a forested zone open to ambush.
How does Pakistan’s instability under Gen. Munir fuel cross-border terrorism?
- Military-Civil Power Struggle: The weakening of civilian institutions and dominance of the military creates an environment where the Army uses external conflicts to maintain control. Eg: Gen. Munir’s growing influence post-Imran Khan’s ousting has coincided with increased militant activity in Kashmir to divert attention from domestic unrest.
- Use of Terrorism as Strategic Depth: The Pakistani military views proxy groups as tools to counterbalance India without engaging in direct war. Eg: Groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed have resurged in training and logistics activities near the LoC.
- Diverting Attention from Internal Crises: Facing economic collapse and political chaos, Pakistan’s deep state stokes tensions with India to unify the populace and distract from internal failures. Eg: After IMF bailout troubles and mass protests, there was a spike in infiltration attempts into J&K.
- Weak Civilian Oversight on Terror Networks: Political instability weakens civilian checks on terror outfits, allowing the military and ISI to operate with impunity. Eg: Banned terror outfits continue to function under new names and operate training camps openly in PoK and Punjab regions.
- ISI’s Tactical Shift Toward Lone Wolf or Hybrid Militants: The ISI, under Munir’s tenure as ex-ISI chief, has adapted to deploy hard-to-trace, localised operatives, making it harder for India to track networks. Eg: Attacks like Pahalgam have shown signs of hybrid militancy—locals radicalised online but supported logistically from across the border.
How can India align its external stance with internal outreach in Kashmir?
- Promote Development as a Security Strategy: Emphasize infrastructure, education, and employment to win hearts locally and showcase progress internationally. Eg: The Srinagar Smart City project and new medical colleges can be highlighted in diplomatic forums to counter negative narratives.
- Empower Local Governance: Strengthen democratic institutions like Panchayats and urban bodies to demonstrate political normalization. Eg: Conducting timely local body elections and empowering DDCs reflects ground-level participation, reinforcing India’s democratic image globally.
- Consistent Narrative Management: Maintain a unified communication strategy to counter misinformation from hostile actors. Eg: India’s MEA and J&K administration issuing joint statements during crises can reduce confusion and reinforce India’s position internationally.
- Engage Diaspora and Global Media: Leverage Indian diaspora and media outreach to project a balanced narrative on Kashmir reforms and security. Eg: Indian embassies organizing Kashmir-focused briefings in the US/EU to highlight post-Article 370 investments and peace-building.
- Cultural and Religious Diplomacy: Promote Kashmir’s syncretic traditions like Sufism to counter radical narratives. Eg: Organizing international Sufi festivals or Buddhist circuit promotion in Ladakh can portray Kashmir as culturally inclusive and peaceful.
What steps has taken by the Indian Government?
- Diplomatic Measures: India has downgraded its diplomatic and logistical ties with Pakistan.Eg: The Indus Waters Treaty has been suspended, the Attari-Wagah border crossing has been closed, and Pakistani defense advisors have been expelled. Additionally, Pakistani nationals in India under regional visas have been given 48 hours to leave, and India’s embassy staff in Islamabad has been reduced.
- Security Enhancements: The Indian government has increased security measures in Jammu and Kashmir. Eg: Security forces are conducting a major manhunt in the region to apprehend the perpetrators of the attack. The government is also reviewing and strengthening security protocols to prevent future incidents.
Way forward:
- Enhanced Security Infrastructure: Strengthen intelligence networks and surveillance systems in vulnerable regions like Jammu and Kashmir to preempt cross-border terrorism and ensure rapid response capabilities.
- Diplomatic Pressure on Pakistan: Intensify international diplomatic efforts to isolate Pakistan by leveraging global platforms, pressing for accountability, and fostering stronger alliances to counter terrorism.
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Why in the News?
Millions of people die early because of dirty air. But where does this air pollution come from?
Where do the majority of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions in India come from?
- Energy Production: The largest source of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions in India is energy production, primarily from coal-fired power plants. Eg, coal contains sulphur impurities that are released when it is burned, contributing significantly to SO2 pollution.
- Industrial Activities: Industries like cement production, steel manufacturing, and chemical plants also release SO2. Eg, the cement industry, which uses fossil fuels, is a major emitter of this pollutant.
What are the main sources of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions?
- Transportation: The largest source of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions is transportation, particularly from the exhaust of cars and trucks. Eg, diesel-powered vehicles, which burn fuel less efficiently, produce higher NOx emissions.
- Energy Production: The burning of coal and gas for electricity generation also significantly contributes to NOx emissions. Eg, power plants that burn coal release large amounts of NOx during the combustion process.
- Industrial Activities: Industrial processes such as manufacturing and chemical production also emit NOx. Eg, refineries and other heavy industries use high-temperature processes that release NOx as a byproduct.
What sectors are the biggest contributors to methane (CH4) emissions?
- Agriculture: The largest source of methane emissions, particularly from livestock digestion (enteric fermentation) and rice paddies. Eg, cows and other ruminants produce methane during digestion, and flooded rice fields emit methane as organic matter decomposes anaerobically.
- Waste Management: Methane is released from organic waste decomposing in landfills under anaerobic conditions. Eg, food waste rotting in landfills produces significant methane emissions.
- Fossil Fuel Extraction: Methane is emitted during the extraction, transport, and use of fossil fuels, especially natural gas. Eg, methane leaks from oil and gas pipelines, as well as from coal mines, contributing to atmospheric emissions.
How does agriculture contribute to ammonia (NH3) emissions and their health impacts?
- Agriculture: The application of nitrogen-based fertilizers is a major source of ammonia emissions. Eg, the use of urea fertilizers in crop fields results in ammonia volatilization when applied to the soil, contributing to air pollution.
- Livestock Waste: Ammonia is released from animal manure, especially from large-scale livestock farming. Eg, in intensive dairy and poultry farms, ammonia is emitted from urine and feces, leading to air and water pollution.
- Health Impacts: Ammonia contributes to the formation of fine particulate matter (PM2.5), which can cause respiratory issues, asthma, and premature deaths. Eg, exposure to ammonia-laden air in farming areas has been linked to increased health risks such as lung diseases and cardiovascular problems.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, NCAP aims to reduce particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) pollution in 102 cities by 20-30% by 2024, with strategies focusing on controlling emissions from key sectors like transport, industries, and construction.
- Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This initiative aims to replace traditional biomass cooking methods with clean cooking technologies, such as LPG, to reduce black carbon emissions in rural areas.
- BS-VI Norms for Vehicles: The Indian government has enforced the Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) emission standards from April 2020, which are aimed at significantly reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate emissions from vehicles.
- Pollution Control Measures in Power Plants: The government has set deadlines for coal-fired power plants to comply with stricter emission norms for sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and particulate matter.
- Air Quality Monitoring and Data Collection: The government has set up a network of air quality monitoring stations across cities under the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and is working to improve real-time data collection on air quality.
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Way forward:
- Shift to Clean Energy: Expand renewable energy use and enforce cleaner technologies in the power and industrial sectors to cut SO₂ and NOₓ emissions.
- Strengthen Enforcement & Awareness: Ensure strict implementation of air quality norms and raise public awareness on pollution-reducing practices.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss in detail the photochemical smog, emphasising its formation, effects and mitigation.
Linkage: Formation of a significant type of air pollution, photochemical smog, which is formed from primary pollutants like Nitrogen oxides (from transport and industry) reacting in the presence of sunlight [209, external knowledge]. Understanding the formation requires knowing the precursor pollutants and their sources.
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Why in the News?
Recently, a number of court rulings have led many people to question the powers and intentions of the Supreme Court. Although criticism of the judiciary is not new, it has increased.
What is the significance of judicial review in the Indian Constitution?
- Upholds Constitutional Supremacy: Judicial review ensures that all laws and actions by the government are in line with the Constitution. Eg: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme Court held that Parliament cannot alter the basic structure of the Constitution, reinforcing constitutional supremacy.
- Protects Fundamental Rights: It provides a mechanism for individuals to challenge laws or executive actions that violate their fundamental rights. Eg: In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978), the court ruled that the right to life and personal liberty under Article 21 cannot be violated without just, fair, and reasonable procedure.
- Maintains Checks and Balances: Judicial review prevents arbitrary use of power by the legislature or executive, maintaining the balance of power among the three branches of government. Eg: In Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980), the court struck down parts of the 42nd Amendment that tried to limit the power of judicial review itself, preserving the judiciary’s role as a check on Parliament.
How is it related to Article 13?
- Declares Inconsistent Laws Void: Article 13(1) & (2) state that any law that violates Fundamental Rights is void to the extent of the violation. This empowers the judiciary to review and strike down such laws. Eg: In A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950), although the court upheld the Preventive Detention Act, the case established the judiciary’s power to examine laws under Article 13.
- Forms the Basis for Judicial Review: Article 13 acts as the foundation for judicial review by mandating that all laws (past and future) must conform to Fundamental Rights. Eg: In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973), the court used Article 13 to assert that even constitutional amendments are subject to judicial review if they violate the basic structure or Fundamental Rights.
- Ensures Protection Against State Actions: Article 13 defines “law” to include ordinances, orders, bye-laws, rules, regulations, etc., thereby subjecting all state actions to judicial scrutiny. Eg: In State of West Bengal v. Committee for Protection of Democratic Rights (2010), the court affirmed that Article 13 covers all state actions, ensuring their consistency with Fundamental Rights.
How did the Supreme Court’s activism during the Emergency impact its role in protecting democracy?
- Judicial Abdication in the ADM Jabalpur Case: The Court failed to protect civil liberties by ruling that even the right to life could be suspended during the Emergency. Eg: ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976) – The majority held that citizens had no remedy if the state detained them illegally during Emergency, weakening democratic safeguards.
- Erosion of Public Faith in Judiciary: The decision in ADM Jabalpur was widely criticized and seen as the Court yielding to executive pressure, leading to a decline in public confidence. Eg: Justice H.R. Khanna’s lone dissent defending civil liberties became a symbol of judicial integrity, but the majority judgment damaged the Court’s image.
- Shift Towards Judicial Activism Post-Emergency: In response to its failure, the Court later adopted a more proactive role in defending rights through Public Interest Litigations (PILs). Eg: Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978) – The Court expanded the scope of Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty), overturning its narrow view in earlier cases.
- Strengthening of Basic Structure Doctrine: After the Emergency, the judiciary reinforced its role as a guardian of the Constitution, making it clear that even Parliament cannot amend the basic structure. Eg: Minerva Mills v. Union of India (1980) – The Court reaffirmed that judicial review is a part of the basic structure and cannot be taken away.
- Restoration of Accountability and Civil Rights: The Court became more vigilant in ensuring that executive actions respect democratic principles and individual freedoms. Eg: The growth of PILs in the 1980s allowed the judiciary to directly address the grievances of the marginalized and hold the state accountable.
Why is the Supreme Court’s power under Article 142 considered essential?
- Ensures Complete Justice in Exceptional Situations: Article 142 empowers the Supreme Court to pass any decree or order necessary for doing “complete justice” in any case before it, even if no specific law exists. Eg: Union Carbide Case (Bhopal Gas Tragedy, 1989) – The Court invoked Article 142 to ensure compensation for victims, overriding procedural hurdles.
- Fills Legislative or Procedural Gaps Temporarily: It allows the Court to address legal voids until Parliament or the executive acts, ensuring justice is not delayed due to technicalities. Eg: Supreme Court guidelines on sexual harassment at workplaces (Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, 1997) – The Court framed guidelines under Article 142 in absence of legislation.
What are the concerns surrounding its misuse?
- Overreach and Violation of Separation of Powers: There is a risk that the Court might overstep its boundaries, encroaching on the domain of the executive or legislature, thus undermining the principle of separation of powers.Eg: Judicial intervention in policy matters – If the Court starts making decisions on matters that should be left to the government, like executive policies, it can be seen as an overreach.
- Potential for Arbitrary Decisions: The broad discretion granted by Article 142 can sometimes lead to arbitrary decisions, which may not align with established legal principles or may be seen as politically motivated. Eg: Judgment in the Babri Masjid Case (2019) – The Court’s intervention in the Babri case was criticized for favoring peace over legal principles, potentially opening doors for biased interpretations.
How does the judiciary uphold the Constitution without overstepping the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive?
- Judicial Review with Restraint: The judiciary exercises judicial review carefully, ensuring it only intervenes in cases where constitutional violations or fundamental rights are at stake, and refrains from delving into policy decisions better left to the executive or legislature. Eg: Right to Privacy Case (2017) – The Supreme Court upheld the right to privacy as a fundamental right, checking executive overreach but refraining from interfering with legislative or executive policy decisions.
- Respect for Legislative and Executive Domains: The judiciary respects the roles and powers of the legislature and executive, ensuring that it does not encroach on their function while interpreting the law within its constitutional framework. Eg: Constitutionality of the GST (2017) – The Supreme Court reviewed the constitutional validity of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) but did not interfere with the operational execution, leaving implementation to the executive.
Way forward:
- Ensure Judicial Independence: Strengthen mechanisms to safeguard the judiciary from executive and legislative influence, ensuring impartiality and constitutional integrity.
- Foster Collaborative Governance: Encourage constructive dialogue between the judiciary, legislature, and executive to maintain balance and prevent unnecessary judicial overreach.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Starting from inventing the ‘basic structure’ doctrine, the judiciary has played a highly proactive role in ensuring that India develops into a thriving democracy. In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by judicial activism in achieving the ideals of democracy.
Linkage: In this article, evaluate judicial activism. Some people see it as essential for protecting the Constitution, while others think it goes too far, interfering with the roles of the legislature and executive, and might even lead to judges having too much power.
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Why in the News?
In response to the Pahalgam Terror Attack, India has officially announced the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) with Pakistan.
About the Indus Water Treaty (IWT)
- IWT was signed between India and Pakistan on September 19, 1960, with mediation from the World Bank.
- The treaty allocates the Western rivers (Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum) to Pakistan, and the Eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) to India.
- Approximately 80% of the water is allocated to Pakistan, with 20% to India.
- The Permanent Indus Commission was established to facilitate communication and dispute resolution.
- The treaty includes a three-step process for resolving disputes, which involves the Permanent Indus Commission, Neutral Experts (appointed by World Bank), and a Court of Arbitration if needed.
Implications of Suspension:
- India’s Opportunities:
- Though not immediately, but India can now control the water flow from the Indus River system, allowing it to divert, stop, or alter the flow of water.
- India can expand hydroelectric projects on the Western rivers, such as the Kishanganga and Ratle Hydroelectric Projects, with more projects under scrutiny.
- Impact on Pakistan:
- Agriculture: Pakistan’s agricultural sector heavily depends on the Indus River, and any disruption could cause food insecurity and economic distress for millions of farmers.
- Power Supply: Pakistan’s hydroelectric power generation depends on the water flow, with Tarbela Dam (on the Indus River) and Mangla Dam (on the Jhelum River) facing reduced water supplies, leading to electricity shortages.
Alternatives for Pakistan:
- No Legal Exit: No legal exit clause in the treaty; also, India cannot unilaterally suspend it.
- Dispute Resolution: Pakistan can approach the Permanent Indus Commission, request Neutral Experts, or escalate to the World Bank’s Court of Arbitration.
- International Diplomacy: Pakistan may seek diplomatic solutions through international forums, including leveraging support from other nations.
| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. The Baglihar Power Project had been constructed within the parameters of the Indus Water Treaty.
2. The project was completely built by the Union Government with loans from Japan and the World Bank.
Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus River system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:
Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej |
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Why in the News?
Two decades since the demolition of Bamiyan Buddha, the Afghan Taliban are now convinced to restore it.
About Bamiyan Buddha:
- The Bamiyan Buddhas were located in the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan, about 130 km northwest of Kabul.
- The Western Buddha (Salsal) stood 55 meters tall, and the Eastern Buddha (Shah Mama) stood 38 meters tall, making them two of the largest standing Buddha statues in the world before their destruction.
- Construction:
- Built around 600 CE during the rule of the Hephthalites.
- Carved directly into sandstone cliffs with features made from mud and straw, and painted with bright colors, including carmine red for the larger Buddha.
- The style blends Greco-Buddhist art, Sasanian Persia, and Byzantine Empire influences.
- Historical Significance:
- Represented Vairocana and Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha).
- Served as a major Buddhist religious centre along the Silk Road, hosting monasteries and playing a crucial role in religion, philosophy, and art.
- Survived invasions, including by Genghis Khan (1221) and Aurangzeb (17th Century).
- In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the statues, following orders from Mullah Muhammad Omar. The Buddhas had previously survived multiple attacks.
- The site is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its immense historical, religious, and cultural significance.
| [UPSC 2014] Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
1. Avanti 2. Gandhara 3. Kosala 4. Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 3 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
India has introduced Akshvi, a unique e-digital wallet aimed at assisting in disaster relief and improving the accuracy of loss reporting.
About Akshvi: The E-Digital Wallet for Disasters
- Akshvi (Aapda Kshati Vivaran) is a unique e-digital wallet developed by SEEDS India to assist disaster-stricken communities in India.
- The platform allows people to self-report economic and non-economic losses during climate-induced events.
- It bridges the data gap in disaster reporting and enhancing relief distribution and climate resilience.
Key Features of Akshvi:
- Self-Reporting Mechanism: It enables affected communities to log their losses during disasters such as floods, droughts, heatwaves, and landslides, ensuring accurate and timely assessments.
- Localized Data Collection: The platform collects hyperlocal data, which is vital for tailoring disaster management strategies and relief efforts to the specific needs of affected communities.
- User-Friendly Interface:
- IVRS: Allows voice recording of losses.
- WhatsApp Chatbot: For tech-savvy users to log data.
- Assisted Data Entry: Available for those needing help with information entry.
- Traceability: The platform tracks the progress of relief, ensuring that aid reaches the affected households transparently.
- Integration with Government Schemes: Akshvi’s data links to social welfare schemes and index-based insurance programs, improving disaster response efforts.
| [UPSC 2004] In which one of the following countries did hundreds of people die in 2004 due to Tropical Storm Jeanne?
Options: (a) Colombia (b) Haiti (c) Sudan (d) Ghana |
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Why in the News?
A recent report by the Central Zoo Authority (CZA), highlights the absence of any breeding programme for musk deer.
About Musk Deer:
- The Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus leucogaster) is an endangered species native to the Himalayas, found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, and China.
- It inhabits altitudes of 2,200 to 4,300 meters, primarily in alpine forests and scrublands.
- Behaviour: Solitary, nocturnal, and territorial. Males have long, curved canine teeth and a musk gland, which is highly valued and targeted by poachers.
- It plays a key role in seed dispersal, helping maintain the balance of the alpine ecosystem.
- Threats: Poaching for their musk glands, habitat loss from deforestation, and genetic issues due to fragmented populations.
Conservation Initiatives:
- Protection Status:
- It is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
- It is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, offering the highest protection under Indian law.
- Protected Areas:
- Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary: Established in 1972, covering 975 km² in the western Himalayas, crucial for musk deer conservation.
- Askot Musk Deer Sanctuary: Located in Uttarakhand, dedicated specifically to musk deer conservation.
- Himalayan Musk Project (1982): Aimed at captive breeding within Kedarnath Sanctuary but faced setbacks due to disease, snake bites, and poor survival rates. The project was shut down in 2006.
| [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary
2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Manas National Park
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
New research by CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Hyderabad suggest that lipids (along with DNA), particularly in mitochondrial membranes, are not just structural elements but play an integral role in the function and evolution of proteins.
About Lipids and RC1 in Cells:
Lipids:
- Lipids, including fats, phospholipids, and sterols, make up to 30% of the dry weight of cells.
- They are crucial for membrane integrity and various biological processes.
- They vary in fatty acid composition and length, influenced by genetics, diet, and environmental factors.
- They form a bilayer in membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails inward, providing stability and enabling protein function.
- Role of Lipids in Cells:
- Lipids form the bilayer, providing flexibility and stability for membrane proteins that perform functions like receptor binding and ion channelling.
- They like cardiolipin stabilize RC1 and other respiratory complexes, aiding energy production.
RC1 (Respiratory Complex 1):
- RC1 is a protein complex in the mitochondrial membrane, crucial for cellular respiration and energy production.
- It is composed of 44 proteins, some synthesized in the cytoplasm and others in mitochondria.
- Mutations in RC1 lead to diseases due to its vital role in respiration.
Lipid-Protein Co-evolution as per new Research:
- New research highlights the co-evolution of proteins and lipids, especially in mitochondrial membranes, where proteins interact with specific lipids from their own kingdom (plant or animal).
- Plant lipids, richer in polyunsaturated fatty acids, are more flexible, aiding stress resistance, while animal lipids evolve differently to meet their needs.
- Lipid-protein co-evolution adds complexity to cellular evolution, with implications for human health and disease treatment.
| [UPSC 2001] Which of the following cell organelles play the most significant role in protein synthesis?
Options: (a) Lysosome and Centrosome (b) Endoplasmic reticulum and Ribosome* (c) Golgi apparatus and Mitochondria (d) Lysosome and Mitochondria |
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