Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Space sector;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched its Space Docking Experiment (SpaDeX) in space with a PSLV rocket.
What is SpaDeX mission?
- The SpaDeX mission, or Space Docking Experiment, is a significant initiative by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) aimed at demonstrating advanced in-space docking technology.
- Docking technology involves manoeuvring two spacecraft into the same orbit, aligning them precisely, and physically joining them to enable modular assembly, resupply, crew transfer, or sample return missions in space.
What is Space Docking?
- Space docking refers to the process where two spacecraft in orbit rendezvous and physically connect to form a single entity. It is a highly complex and precise maneuver essential for advanced space missions.
- Key Steps of Space Docking:
- Rendezvous: Involves bringing two spacecraft into the same orbit with minimal distance and velocity difference.
- Docking: Establishing a mechanical connection between the spacecraft using specialized docking systems.
- Power and Resource Sharing: Once docked, the spacecraft can transfer power, fuel, or crew to support joint operations.
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What is the significance of India’s achievement in space docking technology?
- Joining an Elite Club: With the successful completion of the SpaDeX mission, India becomes only the fourth country in the world, after the United States, Russia, and China, capable of conducting space docking operations. This positions India as a key player in global space exploration and technology.
- Foundation for Future Missions: The docking capability is crucial for various upcoming missions, including India’s plans for a lunar sample return mission (Chandrayaan-4) and establishing its own space station by 2035. The ability to dock spacecraft allows for complex missions that require multiple launches and assembly in orbit.
How does the SpaDeX mission contribute to India’s future space exploration goals?
- Support for Lunar Missions: SpaDeX is designed to demonstrate technologies necessary for future lunar missions, particularly for Chandrayaan-4, which will involve multiple components that need to be docked in space before proceeding to the Moon.
- Bharatiya Antariksh Station: The mission is a critical step towards building the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), which will consist of several modules that must be docked together in orbit. The first module is expected to launch by 2028.
- Satellite Servicing and Interplanetary Missions: The docking technology developed through SpaDeX will facilitate satellite servicing missions and interplanetary missions, enhancing India’s capabilities in space exploration.
What technological advancements were demonstrated through the SpaDeX mission?
- Innovative Docking Technology: The mission showcases advanced docking techniques using two small satellites (SDX01 and SDX02), which require high precision due to their smaller size compared to typical spacecraft. This necessitates more intricate maneuvering during the docking process.
- New Sensors and Systems: SpaDeX employs various new sensors such as Laser Range Finders and Rendezvous Sensors to ensure accurate measurements during docking.
- Additionally, it utilizes a new processor for determining relative positions and velocities, paving the way for future autonomous docking systems.
- Biological Experiments: For the first time, ISRO is conducting biological experiments in space with the CROPS (Compact Research Module for Orbital Plant Studies), which will study plant growth under microgravity conditions. This adds a new dimension to India’s space research capabilities.
Way forward:
- Enhancing Autonomous Docking Systems: Focus on developing fully autonomous docking capabilities for complex missions, enabling seamless execution of lunar, interplanetary, and modular space station operations.
- Strengthening Collaborative Ventures: Leverage international partnerships to exchange expertise and expand applications of docking technology in satellite servicing, resupply missions, and deep-space exploration.
Mains PYQ:
Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?(UPSC IAS/2019)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Digital transactions;
Why in the News?
In just eight years, UPI now handles nearly 80% of India’s digital transactions which valued at ₹20.60 lakh crore in August, despite challenges like PhonePe and Google Pay’s market dominance.
What are the implications of market concentration in the UPI ecosystem?
- Systemic Vulnerability: The dominance of two Third Party App Providers (TPAPs) for online transactions like UPI PhonePe and Google Pay, which together control over 85% of the market share, creates a risk of systemic failure.
- Any disruption in their services could significantly impact the entire UPI ecosystem, given that nearly 80% of transactions occur through these platforms.
- Reduced Competition and Innovation: The high market concentration discourages competition, leading to fewer incentives for innovation among existing players. Smaller or new entrants face significant barriers to entry due to the scale and resources of the dominant TPAPs, stifling diversity in service offerings.
- Foreign Dominance Risks: Both leading TPAPs are foreign-owned, raising concerns about data security and sovereignty. This foreign dominance can lead to potential vulnerabilities in terms of data protection and access to sensitive information about Indian users.
How effective are regulatory measures in addressing duopoly issues?
- Regulatory Challenges: The National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) has attempted to address market concentration by capping TPAP market shares at 30%. However, this measure has not been effectively enforced, with extensions granted that allow dominant players to maintain their substantial market positions.
- Limited Impact of Existing Regulations: Despite regulatory intentions, the continued growth of PhonePe and Google Pay indicates that existing measures have not sufficiently mitigated the risks associated with a duopoly. The potential increase in market share cap from 30% to 40% may further entrench the dominance of these platforms rather than promote a competitive landscape.
What strategies can smaller players adopt to compete in this landscape?
- Innovation and Niche Services: Smaller players can focus on niche markets or specialized services that cater to specific user needs, differentiating themselves from larger competitors. This could include unique features or localised services that appeal to underserved populations.
- Collaboration and Partnerships: Forming alliances with banks, fintech companies, or other service providers can help smaller players leverage resources and technology to enhance their offerings and reach a broader audience.
- User Education and Trust Building: Investing in user education about digital payments and building trust through transparent practices can attract users who may be hesitant to switch from established platforms. Emphasizing security features and customer support can also enhance user confidence.
What should the Indian Government do to reduce the dependency? (Way forward)
- Enforce and Strengthen Regulatory Caps: Mandate strict enforcement of market share caps for TPAPs and ensure timely compliance to prevent excessive concentration. Introduce penalties for non-compliance and avoid extensions to foster a competitive ecosystem.
- Promote Indigenous Development: Provide financial incentives, subsidies, and grants to Indian TPAPs to enhance their competitiveness. Encourage innovation through dedicated programs and regulatory frameworks that support startups in the payments space.
Mains PYQ:
Q Is inclusive growth possible under market economy? State the significance of financial inclusion in achieving economic growth in India. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Household Consumption Expenditure Survey, 2023-24
Why in the News?
The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2023-24 highlights key trends in consumption patterns across India. It is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every 5 years.
Important Highlights of HCES, 2023-24:
- Rural Spending: Monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE) increased by 9.3% to ₹4,122 in 2023-24 (from ₹3,773 in 2022-23); significantly higher than ₹1,430 in 2011-12.
- Urban Spending: MPCE rose by 8.3% to ₹6,996 (from ₹6,459 in 2022-23); up from ₹2,630 in 2011-12.
- Rural-Urban Gap: Narrowed to 69.7% in 2023-24, compared to 71.2% in 2022-23 and 83.9% in 2011-12.
- Food Expenditure: Share increased to 47.04% in rural and 39.68% in urban households, reversing a decades-long decline.
- Rural households spent most on beverages and processed food (11.09%), followed by milk products (8.44%) and vegetables (6.03%).
- Urban households spent most on beverages and processed food (9.84%), milk products (7.19%), and vegetables (4.12%).
- Decline in expenditure on sugar and salt, with rising spending on beverages and processed foods, signaling dietary shifts.
- Non-Food Expenditure: Accounted for the majority in both rural (52.96%) and urban areas (60.32%).
- Major rural non-food expenses: Conveyance (7.59%), medical expenses (6.83%), and clothing & bedding (6.63%).
- Major urban non-food expenses: Conveyance (8.46%), entertainment (6.92%), and durable goods (6.87%).
– Regional Variations:
- Highest MPCE: Sikkim (Rural – ₹9,377; Urban – ₹13,927) and Chandigarh (Rural – ₹8,857; Urban – ₹13,425).
- Lowest MPCE: Chhattisgarh (Rural – ₹2,739; Urban – ₹4,927).
- States with largest rural-urban gaps: Meghalaya (104%), Jharkhand (83%), and Chhattisgarh (80%).
- Consumption Inequality: Gini coefficient declined from 0.266 to 0.237 in rural areas and 0.314 to 0.284 in urban areas, indicating reduced income disparity.
Features and Significance
- Consumption Trends: Indicates rising food expenditure driven by inflation and evolving post-pandemic behaviors.
- Narrowing Rural-Urban Gap: Highlights improved rural consumption growth outpacing urban areas.
- Changing Diet Patterns: Increased preference for beverages and processed foods in both rural and urban households reflects dietary shifts.
- Regional Disparities: Offers insights into high- and low-spending regions, aiding targeted interventions.
- Policy Implications: Highlights the need for price stabilization for essentials, rural infrastructure investments, and urban employment growth to address income disparities and rising expenses.
PYQ:
[2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because:
(a) poverty rates vary from State to State
(b) price levels vary from State to State
(c) Gross State Product varies from State to State
(d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pangong Lake
Why in the News?
The Indian Army has installed a statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj on the bank of Pangong lake at an altitude of 14,300 feet, a region that is close to the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China in the eastern Ladakh sector.
About Pangong Lake (Pangong Tso)
- Its name is derived from the Tibetan term “Pangong Tso,” meaning “high grassland lake.” It is an endorheic (landlocked) lake with no outflow.
- Location & Size:
- Spans 134 km, divided between India (1/3) and the Tibetan Autonomous Region (2/3).
- Situated at an altitude of 4,350 meters, covers 604 sq. km, and is 5 km wide at its broadest point.
- Water & Climate:
- Brackish water that completely freezes in winter.
- The lake’s color shifts with sunlight and weather, displaying shades of blue, green, and red.
- Wildlife: Acts as a breeding ground for Bar-Headed Geese, Brahmini Ducks, and Radix freshwater snails.
- Strategic Importance: Located in the Chushul approach, a key route for potential Chinese offensives, and was a major site of conflict during the 1962 war.
Political Features:
- Border & Control: Lies on the Ladakh-China border, with the Line of Actual Control (LAC) passing through it.
- Contested Terrain: The northern bank is a hotspot due to differing boundary perceptions; China has built roads highlighting the lake’s strategic value.
- 1999 Incident: During Operation Vijay, China constructed a 5-km road inside Indian territory.
- 2020 Standoff:
- Began on May 5, 2020, following a clash in the Pangong Lake area.
- Disengagement on the north and south banks concluded in 2021.
- On October 21, 2024, India and China resolved the final friction points (Demchok, Depsang), ending a four-and-half-year border standoff.
PYQ:
[2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the
(a) East of Aksai Chin
(b) East of Leh
(c) North of Gilgit
(d) North of Nubra Valley |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise SURYA KIRAN
Why in the News?
The Indian Army contingent has departed for Nepal to participate in the 18th edition of the Battalion-Level Joint Military Exercise SURYA KIRAN.
About the Exercise Surya Kiran
- Exercise Surya Kiran is a bilateral joint military exercise conducted annually between India and Nepal since 2011.
- The 18th edition is being held in Saljhandi, Nepal, from 31st December 2024 to 13th January 2025.
- It alternates between India and Nepal as the host nation.
- The Indian Army contingent, consisting of 334 personnel, is led by a battalion from the 11th Gorkha Rifles.
- The Nepal Army contingent is represented by the Srijung Battalion.
- The exercise aims to enhance interoperability in areas like jungle warfare, counter-terrorism operations in mountainous terrains, and humanitarian assistance under the United Nations Charter.
Features and Significance
- Strengthens combat readiness in jungle warfare and counter-terrorism.
- Facilitates the exchange of ideas, experiences, and best practices between the armies of both nations.
- Reinforces the strong cultural and historical ties shared by India and Nepal.
- Prepares both nations to address shared security challenges effectively.
PYQ:
[2024] Which of the following statements about the Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023 is/ are correct?
- This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
- It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
- Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
- Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 1 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
Why in the News?
The 2014-2016 Pacific marine heatwave (MHW) killed over four million common murres (Uria aalge) (IUCN: Least Concerned) in Alaska. A study published in Science revealed that this event marked the largest recorded vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
About Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
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Details |
| What is it? |
- As per the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), prolonged periods of sea surface temperatures rising 3 to 4°C above average for at least five consecutive days.
- IMD defines a marine heat wave (MHW) as a period when the sea’s temperature is above the 90th percentile(seasonally varying threshold) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Can last from weeks to years, depending on intensity and extent.
- Frequency: Increasing in both occurrence and intensity due to climate change.
- Identified as one of the most significant stressors on global marine ecosystems, causing large-scale disruptions.
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| Key Observations on MHWs |
2014-2016 Pacific MHW:
- Caused the death of over 4 million common murres (Uria aalge) in Alaska, the largest vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
- Highlighted rapid and severe population declines in marine birds and a lack of ecosystem recovery even years later.
- Increasing frequency and intensity are reshaping ecosystems, creating new survival challenges for marine species.
- Evidence of shifts in marine environments, disrupting population dynamics.
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| Impacts of MHWs |
On Ecosystems:
- Mass Mortality: Loss of habitat-forming species like kelps and corals, degrading ecosystems.
- Trophic Cascades: Displacement of lower-trophic species and reduced ecosystem productivity.
On Marine Species:
- Reduced breeding success and increased mortality.
- Example: 2014–2016 Pacific MHW killed half the common murre population in Alaska.
On Biodiversity:
- Loss of key predators disrupts food webs.
- Threatened species face survival challenges due to limited adaptability.
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PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
- OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
- OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the Judiciary;
Why in the News?
Recently, Justice Shekhar Kumar Yadav’s speech at a Vishwa Hindu Parishad event, showing bias against Muslims, has raised concerns about the challenges in holding higher court judges accountable in India.
Why do the judges need to be accountable?
- Upholding Judicial Integrity: Judges are the guardians of the Constitution and are expected to exhibit the highest ethical standards to maintain public trust in the judiciary.
- Safeguarding Democracy: Accountability ensures that the judiciary acts as a fair and impartial arbiter, without overstepping or undermining democratic institutions.
- Preventing Abuse of Power: Judicial independence is vital, but unchecked power can lead to misconduct or corruption, as seen in cases like Justice V. Ramaswami and Justice Soumitra Sen.
- Maintaining Public Confidence: Accountability is critical to reinforcing public confidence in the judiciary, especially in a democracy where the judiciary acts as a check on other branches of government.
What are the accountable-related issues?
- High Bar for Impeachment: The process requires “proved misbehaviour or incapacity” and a two-thirds majority in Parliament, making it almost impossible to remove errant judges.
- Resignation to Evade Accountability: Judges like Justice Soumitra Sen and P.D. Dinakaran resigned before the completion of impeachment proceedings, avoiding scrutiny while retaining post-retirement benefits.
- Immunity Misuse: Judges continue to enjoy post-retirement benefits even after accusations of misconduct, as seen in Justice Ramaswami’s case, undermining accountability.
- Limited Scope for Independent Oversight: The judiciary lacks an independent review mechanism outside the Parliament-driven impeachment process, leaving little room for holding judges accountable in real time.
What is the review mechanism of committee set up under the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968?
- Initiation: A removal motion, signed by 100 Lok Sabha MPs or 50 Rajya Sabha MPs, is submitted and approved by the Speaker or Chairman to initiate the process.
- Investigation: A three-member committee (Supreme Court judge, Chief Justice of a High Court, and an eminent jurist) is constituted under the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 to investigate allegations of “proved misbehaviour or incapacity.”
- Parliamentary Decision: If the committee confirms the charges, the motion is debated in Parliament and requires a two-thirds majority in both Houses for the judge’s removal by the President.
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Is there any accountability limitation by the Constitution for the judges?
- Article 124(4) and (5): These articles provide for the removal of judges only through impeachment, which is a political and cumbersome process requiring a majority in Parliament.
- Lack of Disqualification: The Constitution does not explicitly disqualify judges found guilty of misconduct from holding future public office.
- Insufficient Deterrence: Provisions under the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968, do not offer significant penalties apart from removal, leaving gaps in ensuring judicial accountability.
- Ambiguity in “Proved Misbehavior”: The term is not clearly defined, leading to challenges in establishing guilt and enforcing accountability.
Way forward:
- Streamlining the Impeachment Process: Simplifying procedures and reducing the threshold for initiating impeachment could make it easier to hold judges accountable.
- Clear Disqualification Guidelines: Introducing clear guidelines regarding disqualification from future judicial roles following findings of misconduct would reinforce accountability.
- Public Awareness and Advocacy: Increasing public awareness about judicial accountability issues can foster demand for reform and greater scrutiny of judicial conduct.
- Legislative Reforms: Revisiting the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968, to address its limitations and ensure it meets contemporary standards for accountability is crucial for restoring public confidence in the judiciary.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-USA relation;
Why in the News?
After the USA’s election result, U.S.-India (in 2nd term of Donald Trump) ties could be stronger, but issues over tariffs might cause trouble.
Why US India ties will be strengthed?
- Shared Strategic Interests: The U.S. and India both view China as a significant strategic challenge, which aligns their interests in the Indo-Pacific region. This common perspective fosters collaboration on defence and security matters.
- Political Will and Leadership: The anticipated second term of Donald Trump is expected to reinforce the U.S.-India relationship, as evidenced by the strong ties developed during his first term. Trump’s cabinet nominees are also pro-India, indicating a continuity of support for enhancing bilateral relations.
- Economic Cooperation Potential: There is a renewed focus on trade agreements and economic partnerships, including the possibility of finalizing a Free Trade Agreement (FTA), which could enhance market access and reduce tariffs, benefiting both economies.
- Defence and Technology Collaboration: Continued emphasis on defence cooperation and technology partnerships, particularly in areas like semiconductors and emerging technologies, will strengthen ties and enhance mutual security interests.
In which area would ties be strengthened?
- Defence and Security: The U.S. and India have significantly enhanced their defence cooperation, including joint military exercises and technology transfers, such as the recent offer to restart the transfer of jet engine technology to India.
- The India-U.S. Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) aims to foster collaboration in areas like artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, and cybersecurity.
- Economic Relations: Bilateral trade has surged, increasing by 72% from 2017-18 to 2022-23, highlighting a robust economic partnership.
- Both nations are keen on resolving trade disputes to further enhance mutual benefits.
- Technological Collaboration: Initiatives like INDUS-X focus on integrating defense start-ups from both countries, promoting innovation in military technology and enhancing capabilities in critical sectors like semiconductors.
- Multilateral Cooperation: Engagement through platforms like the Quad (with Japan and Australia) strengthens regional security cooperation against common threats, particularly from China.
What were the successful agreements between India and the USA during the first term of the Donald Trump period?
- Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA): Signed in September 2018, this agreement aimed to facilitate secure communication between the armed forces of both nations, thereby enhancing interoperability during joint operations.
- Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA): Finalized in October 2020, BECA provided a framework for sharing geospatial intelligence, which is crucial for military planning and operations.
- Industrial Security Annex (ISA): This agreement, signed in December 2019, allowing for greater collaboration in defence manufacturing and technology transfer between the two countries.
- Strategic Trade Authorization (STA-1) Status: The U.S. elevated India to STA-1 status, allowing for easier access to advanced technologies that were previously restricted to NATO allies.
- 2+2 Dialogue Format: This mechanism was initiated to bring together the defense and foreign ministers of both countries to discuss strategic issues, enhancing diplomatic engagement.
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What could be the challenges between India and the USA?
- High Tariffs and Market Access: Disagreements over tariffs and market access for U.S. products in India, particularly in agriculture and technology sectors, remain significant irritants.
- Geopolitical Tensions: Differences in policy regarding Iran and Russia may create friction in the bilateral relationship, particularly with India’s historical ties to Russia.
- Legal Investigations: Ongoing investigations by the U.S. Department of Justice into cases involving Indian entities could complicate diplomatic relations and create perceptions of bias against the Indian government.
What should India do to address the challenges? (Way forward)
- Engage in Constructive Dialogue: India should actively engage with the U.S. to address tariff issues and seek mutually beneficial solutions that enhance market access for American products while protecting domestic interests.
- Strengthen Economic Cooperation Frameworks: Pursuing comprehensive economic agreements that encompass trade, investment, and technology sharing can help mitigate tensions and foster a more robust partnership.
- Clarify Stances on Geopolitical Issues: India needs to communicate its positions on sensitive geopolitical matters clearly to avoid misunderstandings with the U.S., particularly regarding its relationships with Iran and Russia.
Mains PYQ:
Q Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) is transforming itself into a trade bloc from a military alliance, in present times Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ISRO SpaDEx PSLV-C60 Launch
Why in the News?
ISRO’s PSLV will launch 2 satellites, SDX01 and SDX02, into a 476-km circular orbit in the first week of January to conduct the Space Docking Experiment (SpaDEx), marking India’s entry into the elite group of nations capable of mastering Space Docking.
What is PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission?
- The PSLV-C60 SpaDeX Mission is a landmark mission aimed at demonstrating in-space docking and undocking technology.
- This mission would position India as the fourth country in the world to master space docking, following the US, Russia, and China.
- Objective:
- To demonstrate the docking, undocking, and rendezvous capabilities of two satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO).
- Facilitate power transfer between docked spacecraft, an essential capability for future space missions.
- Satellites: (Each weighing 220kg.)
- SDX01 (Chaser): Equipped with a High-Resolution Camera (HRC).
- SDX02 (Target): Carries a Miniature Multispectral Payload (MMX) and a Radiation Monitor (RadMon).
- Configuration:
- The satellites will be launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C60) in a core-alone (CA) configuration, meaning without strap-on boosters.
- They will be placed in a 476-km circular orbit with an inclination of 55°.
- Post-Docking:
- After the docking demonstration, the satellites will continue standalone missions for two years, conducting imaging, natural resource monitoring, and radiation environment studies.
- Significance: It is a strategic step towards several ambitious space objectives, including:
- Preparing for the Gaganyaan human spaceflight program
- Enabling Chandrayaan-4 lunar sample return missions
- Developing the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), India’s proposed space station35
What is Space Docking?
- Space docking refers to the process where two spacecraft in orbit rendezvous and physically connect to form a single entity. It is a highly complex and precise maneuver essential for advanced space missions.
- Key Steps of Space Docking:
- Rendezvous: Involves bringing two spacecraft into the same orbit with minimal distance and velocity difference.
- Docking: Establishing a mechanical connection between the spacecraft using specialized docking systems.
- Power and Resource Sharing: Once docked, the spacecraft can transfer power, fuel, or crew to support joint operations.
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PYQ:
[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
- PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
- Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
- GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 3 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER)
Why in the News?
The rupee has been hitting record lows against the US dollar but has simultaneously reached an all-time high in real effective terms. In November 2024, the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) index of the rupee touched 108.14, strengthening by 4.5% during the year, according to the RBI.
What is Effective Exchange Rate (EER)?
- The Effective Exchange Rate (EER) measures the value of a currency relative to a basket of currencies from its major trading partners.
- EER is a weighted average of exchange rates, reflecting the importance of each trading partner in a country’s total foreign trade.
- Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER):
- NEER is the weighted average of a currency’s exchange rates with the currencies of its trading partners.
- It does not adjust for inflation, representing only nominal changes in currency value.
- Higher NEER: Indicates the domestic currency has appreciated compared to the basket of currencies.
- Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER):
- REER adjusts NEER for inflation differentials between the country and its trading partners.
- It measures the real purchasing power of a currency, providing insights into its competitiveness in international trade.
- The base year for REER in India is 2015-16, set at 100.
- REER > 100: Indicates an overvalued currency, making exports less competitive.
- REER < 100: Indicates an undervalued currency, making exports more competitive.
How does it impact Exports?
REER provides a real measure of currency competitiveness, adjusted for inflation:
- REER > 100 (Overvalued Currency):
- Exports suffer, as Indian goods and services become expensive in global markets.
- Imports rise, as foreign goods become cheaper in comparison.
- May lead to a widening trade deficit.
- REER < 100 (Undervalued Currency):
- Exports thrive, as Indian goods and services are priced more competitively in global markets.
- Imports decrease, as foreign goods become relatively expensive.
- Improves the trade surplus and supports domestic industries.
PYQ:
[2022] With reference to the Indian economy, consider the following statements:
- An increase in Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER) indicates the appreciation of rupee.
- An increase in the Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) indicates an improvement in trade competitiveness.
- An increasing trend in domestic inflation relative to inflation in other countries is likely to cause an increasing divergence between NEER and REER.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Parker Solar Probe
Why in the News?
The Parker Solar Probe has reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface — the closest any human-made object has ever been. At this distance, if the Earth and Sun were 1 meter apart, the probe would be 4 cm from the Sun.
What is the Parker Solar Probe?
|
Details |
| About |
- A NASA mission launched on August 12, 2018, as part of the “Living With a Star” program to study the Sun’s corona and solar winds.
- Named after Eugene Parker, the first NASA mission named after a living researcher.
- Size: Comparable to a small car.
- Instruments: Equipped with four instruments to study electric and magnetic fields, plasma, and high-energy particles.
- Completed 21 orbits around the Sun and uses Venus flybys to gradually get closer to the Sun.
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| How did it manage to come so close to the Sun? |
On December 24, 2024, it reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface, the closest any human-made object has been.
Technologies:
- Heat Shield: A 4.5-inch carbon-composite shield withstands temperatures up to 1,377°C while keeping instruments stable at 29.4°C.
- Venus Flybys: Gravitational assists from Venus gradually reduced the orbit.
- Speed: Travels at 6,92,000 km/h, making it the fastest human-made object.
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| Significance of the Mission |
- Scientific Contributions: Provides insights into why the Sun’s corona is much hotter than its surface and the origins of solar winds.
- Practical Implications: Improves predictions of space weather events that affect satellites, power grids, and communications on Earth.
- Technological Feat: Demonstrates advanced spacecraft engineering to withstand extreme solar conditions.
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PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India
(d) A space telescope developed by India |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: H-1B Visa
Why in the News?
The US President-elect Donald Trump has expressed support for H-1B Visas but emphasized balancing immigration policies with protecting American jobs.
About H-1B Visa Program
|
Details |
| What is it? |
- Allows U.S. employers to hire foreign workers for specialty occupations requiring:
- High expertise.
- A bachelor’s degree or higher.
- Administered by the U.S. Department of Labor to address skill shortages in the U.S. workforce.
- Employment under H-1B is temporary but renewable.
|
| Key Features |
- Purpose: Provides access to specialized talent unavailable domestically.
- Annual Cap: 65,000 new H-1B visas + 20,000 for workers with U.S. master’s degrees or higher.
- Exemptions: Workers in higher education institutions, non-profits, or government research organizations are not subject to the cap.
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| How does it benefit in Indians? |
- Indians account for the largest group of H-1B beneficiaries (72.3% in FY 2023, ~2.79 lakh approvals).
- Fields:
- 65% employed in computer-related occupations.
- Others include architecture/engineering (9.5%) and education (6%).
- Median Compensation: $118,000 annually in 2023.
Trends and Policy Changes:
1. Admission Trends:
• Pre-COVID rise (2018: 5.70 lakh; 2019: 6.01 lakh).
• COVID-19 decline (2020: 3.68 lakh; 2021: 1.48 lakh).
• Post-COVID recovery (2022: 4.10 lakh; 2023: 7.55 lakh).
2. Denial Rates:
• Increased during Trump era (2016: 6%; 2018: 24%).
• Declined to 4% by 2021 and stabilized at 2% in 2022.
• High denials during Trump’s term were often overturned upon appeal. |
PYQ:
[2020] Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Wealth tax;
Why in the News?
At a New Delhi panel, economist Thomas Piketty proposed taxing India’s super-rich to fund health and education, while Chief Economic Advisor Anantha Nageswaran cautioned against potential fund outflows from higher taxes.
What are the potential benefits of reinstating a wealth tax?
- Funding Public Services: A wealth tax could provide significant revenue that could be allocated to critical sectors such as health and education, addressing inequalities in access to these services. This funding could help create a more educated and healthier workforce, ultimately benefiting the economy.
- Addressing Wealth Inequality: With wealth concentration at historically high levels, a wealth tax could serve as a tool to mitigate inequality, which is increasingly viewed as a fundamental development issue that affects opportunities for many individuals.
- Encouraging Productive Investments: By taxing unproductive assets like real estate and gold while promoting investments in productive assets such as equities and bonds, a wealth tax could potentially shift capital towards more economically beneficial uses.
What challenges and criticisms exist regarding the implementation of a wealth tax?
- Measurement Difficulties: Accurately measuring wealth poses significant challenges. The complexities of defining what constitutes wealth and ownership can lead to loopholes and evasion, as individuals may shift their assets to avoid taxation.
- Capital Flight Concerns: There is apprehension that high taxation on the wealthy could lead to capital outflows, as individuals may relocate their assets or themselves to countries with lower tax burdens. This concern is particularly pronounced in India, where the public infrastructure may not be sufficient to retain high-net-worth individuals.
- Historical Ineffectiveness: Previous implementations of wealth tax in India resulted in low collection rates (less than 1% of gross tax collections). The high cost of collection and the challenges of enforcement contributed to its abolishment in 2016-17.
- Misallocation of Resources: Critics argue that simply imposing a wealth tax does not guarantee effective use of the revenue generated. There are concerns about whether additional funds would improve sectors like education, which already face management inefficiencies.
How would a wealth tax impact India’s economy and social structure?
- Economic Growth vs. Redistribution: Proponents argue that addressing inequality through a wealth tax can enhance overall economic growth by expanding opportunities for disadvantaged groups.
- However, opponents maintain that focusing on growth alone is more beneficial, suggesting that redistribution efforts may not lead to improved outcomes for the economy.
- Social Cohesion: A wealth tax could potentially foster greater social cohesion by addressing stark disparities in wealth and opportunity.
- However, if perceived as punitive or ineffective, it might exacerbate tensions between different socioeconomic groups.
- Investment Climate: A wealth tax could change how people invest in India. Some investors might hesitate because of higher costs, but if the money is used well for public services. It could improve living standards and infrastructure, making India a better place for investment over time.
Case study:
- Norway is often cited as a successful case study for wealth tax implementation. Norway imposes a wealth tax on individuals with a net worth exceeding a certain threshold, which includes various asset classes such as real estate, stocks, and bonds.
- For 2022, a new step for the state rate is introduced. For net wealth in excess of NOK 20 million (NOK 40 million for married couples), the rate is 0.4%. Thus, the maximum wealth tax rate is 1.1%.
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Way forward:
- Efficient Tax Design and Implementation: Develop a clear and transparent framework for wealth taxation to minimize evasion, ensure equitable enforcement, and balance revenue generation with economic growth.
- Focus on Public Infrastructure: Prioritize effective allocation of tax revenue to critical sectors like health and education, addressing inefficiencies to build trust and maximize social and economic benefits.
Mains question for practice:
Q “Reinstating a wealth tax in India could be a tool for reducing inequalities and funding critical public services. However, its implementation poses several economic and administrative challenges.” Critically analyse this statement in the context of India’s socio-economic landscape. (250 words) 15M
Mains PYQ:
Q Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017. (UPSC IAS/2019)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Wildlife protection;
Why in the News?
The Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules contain ambiguities that could enable the illegal trade of elephants.
What are the current welfare standards for captive elephants?
- Legal Framework: Elephants are protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, but enforcement is weak.
- The Kerala High Court has issued directions to ensure compliance with the Kerala Captive Elephants (Management and Maintenance) Rules, 2012, yet many elephants lack proper ownership documentation, indicating illegal possession.
- Exploitation for Commercial Gain: Captive elephants are often used in religious festivals and tourism, which the Kerala High Court described as “commercial exploitation” devoid of concern for their well-being.
- This exploitation is exacerbated by the competitive nature of temple festivals where the number of elephants paraded is prioritized over their welfare.
- Physical and Psychological Impact: Captive elephants endure harsh conditions, including inadequate diets, lack of proper medical care, and exposure to stressful environments during festivals.
- Mortality rates among captive elephants due to these factors is approximately 33% of recorded captive elephants in Kerala died between 2018 and 2024.
What are the Kerala Captive Elephants (Management and Maintenance) Rules, 2012?
- The rules for captive elephants mandate age-based definitions, housing space standards, nutritional requirements (e.g., 250 kg fodder for adults), regular health monitoring, and restrictions on using elephants in the musth.
- A management committee oversees implementation, ensuring welfare through multi-department collaboration, including forestry, veterinary, and animal welfare representatives.
What are the ambiguities in the Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules?
The Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024, introduced by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC), aim to regulate the movement of captive elephants within and between states in India. However, these rules contain several ambiguities that raise concerns among animal rights activists and experts regarding their potential misuse
- Ambiguity in Transfer Rules: Vague criteria for elephant transfers, such as inadequate care or potential for better maintenance, risk enabling unauthorized sales disguised as legitimate transactions.
- Ownership Transfer Oversight: Shifting application responsibility to the deputy conservator of forests, instead of the CWW, weakens protections and facilitates improper transfers, potentially treating elephants as movable assets.
- Transport Justification Gap: The absence of a requirement to justify temporary interstate transport allows leasing or renting of elephants, further commodifying and jeopardizing their welfare.
- Weak Genetic Profiling: Despite mandates for recording genetic profiles, lax monitoring can enable illegal captures to be misrepresented as legitimate ownership.
- Database Deficiency: The lack of a national database tracking ownership and genetic details of captive elephants hampers regulation and increases the risk of illegal transfers.
- Inadequate Exploitation Safeguards: The rules fail to sufficiently prevent the commercial use of elephants in religious events or entertainment, incentivizing wild captures under false pretences.
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How do captivity conditions affect the physical and psychological well-being of elephants?
- Physical Health: Elephants in captivity often suffer from malnutrition due to a poor diet that lacks the variety available in the wild. For instance, some are only fed glucose-rich fodder instead of a balanced diet.
- Psychological Well-being: The social nature of elephants means that isolation and abusive training methods can lead to severe psychological distress. The use of capture belts and other coercive training devices has been criticized for causing both physical and emotional harm.
- High Incidence of Distress: Anecdotal evidence suggests that captive elephants frequently exhibit signs of distress, including aggressive behavior or attempts to escape, which can endanger both themselves and surrounding humans.
What reforms are necessary to improve the management and care of captive elephants? (Way forward)
- Strengthening Regulation: There is a need for clearer regulations to prevent the commercial exploitation of elephants. The current rules allow for ownership transfers without prohibiting commercial transactions, which could facilitate illegal wildlife trade.
- Implementation of Humane Practices: Mandating humane birth control measures and prohibiting the use of live elephants in entertainment could help reduce the number entering captivity.
- Alternatives like electronic simulations could replace live elephants in religious ceremonies.
- Monitoring and Accountability: The rules should require post-mortem examinations for deceased elephants during transfers to ensure accountability.
- Stakeholder Engagement: Collaborative efforts involving civil society, government bodies, and NGOs are essential to develop comprehensive guidelines that prioritize elephant welfare over commercial interests.
Mains question for practice:
Q Discuss the ambiguities in the Captive Elephant (Transfer or Transport) Rules, 2024 and suggest reforms needed to address these issues. (250 words) 15M
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Upper Siang; Brahmaputra River; Three Gorges Dam
Why in the News?
China has announced the construction of world’s largest dam on the Brahmaputra River (known as Yarlung Zangbo in Tibet), sparking concerns in India and Bangladesh, the lower riparian states.
About the Dam
- This project is part of China’s 14th Five-Year Plan (2021-2025) and its long-term development strategy through 2035.
- The dam will be constructed in the lower reaches of the Yarlung Zangbo River in Tibet, near the Indian border.
- It is situated at a massive gorge in the Himalayas, where the river takes a U-turn to flow into Arunachal Pradesh and then to Bangladesh.
- Its investment exceeds $137 billion, dwarfing any other infrastructure project, including China’s Three Gorges Dam.
| Three Gorges Dam: It is a hydroelectric gravity dam that spans the Yangtze River near Sandouping in Yiling District, Yichang, Hubei province, central China, downstream of the Three Gorges. |
What are the concerns associated with the Dam Construction?
- Geopolitical Control: China’s ability to regulate water flow raises fears of disruption and misuse during conflicts.
- Environmental Impact: Risks to biodiversity, sediment flow, and downstream ecosystems in a fragile Himalayan zone.
- Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location on a tectonic plate boundary increases earthquake risks.
- Livelihood Disruption: Potential harm to agriculture, fishing, and local communities dependent on the river.
- Transparency Issues: Limited data sharing and unilateral decisions heighten distrust among riparian states.
PYQ:
[2011] The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and Mekong rivers originate in Tibet and flow it through narrow and parallel mountain ranges in their upper reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into India. This “U” turn is due to:
(a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series
(b) Syntaxial bending of geologically young Himalayas
(c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the tertiary folded mountain chains
(d) Both (A) and (B) above |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LLDCs mapping
Why in the News?
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted a 10-Year Action Plan for Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs), aiming to address their unique challenges.
Key Targets of the 10-Year Action Plan for LLDCs (2024–2034):
The Programme of Action for LLDCs aims to address their unique challenges through targeted actions across 5 priority areas:
- Structural Transformation and Innovation:
- Promote economic diversification and industrialization.
- Advance science, technology, and innovation to enhance productivity and competitiveness.
- Trade Facilitation and Regional Integration:
- Simplify and enhance trade processes to improve access to global markets.
- Strengthen participation in regional and global trade agreements.
- Reduce trade costs through better policies and infrastructure.
- Transit, Transport, and Connectivity:
- Develop and modernize transit infrastructure, such as roads, railways, and ports.
- Improve connectivity to reduce dependence on neighboring countries.
- Enhance customs procedures to ensure smoother transit of goods.
- Resilience to Climate Change and Disasters:
- Build adaptive capacities to address vulnerabilities caused by climate change.
- Develop strategies to reduce disaster risks and mitigate environmental challenges.
- Means of Implementation:
- Mobilize financial resources, technical assistance, and international support.
- Foster partnerships among governments, international organizations, and private sectors.
What Are Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs)?
- LLDCs are nations that lack access to a coastline and are surrounded by neighboring countries.
- Currently, there are 32 LLDCs, primarily in Africa, Asia, Europe, and South America.
- List of LLDCs:
- Africa: Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, South Sudan, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
- Asia: Afghanistan, Bhutan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Mongolia, Nepal, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan.
- Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, North Macedonia, Moldova, Serbia.
- South America: Bolivia, Paraguay.
- Challenges Faced by LLDCs:
- High Trade Costs: LLDCs face 1.4 times higher trade costs than coastal nations due to dependence on neighboring countries for transit and lengthy customs procedures.
- Limited Market Access: Lack of direct access to global markets restricts their ability to compete internationally and increases transportation costs.
- Infrastructure Deficits: Poor road, rail, and communication networks hinder connectivity and efficient trade operations.
- Climate Vulnerability: LLDCs are highly susceptible to climate change impacts like droughts and floods, with limited resources to mitigate risks.
- Economic and Political Dependence: Over-reliance on transit countries for trade routes leads to geopolitical challenges and limits economic diversification.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UN Convention against Cybercrime
Why in the News?
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) has adopted a legally binding treaty on cybercrime, marking the culmination of a five-year effort by Member States. This is the first international criminal justice treaty negotiated in over 20 years.
About UN Convention against Cybercrime: Important Facts
- The UN Convention against Cybercrime is a legally binding treaty adopted by the UN General Assembly in December 2024.
- Its primary aim is to prevent and combat cybercrime, enhance international cooperation, and protect human rights in cyberspace.
- The convention was finalized after five years of negotiations and unanimously adopted by all 193 UN member states.
- A signing ceremony is scheduled for 2025 in Hanoi, Vietnam.
- Key Provisions:
- Addressing Cybercrime:
- Targets crimes like terrorism, human trafficking, financial fraud, drug smuggling, and data theft facilitated by ICT platforms.
- Victim-Centric Approach:
- Focuses on protecting victims, particularly vulnerable groups, and ensuring they receive justice.
- International Cooperation:
- Promotes evidence-sharing, joint investigations, and capacity-building among Member States.
- Safeguarding Human Rights:
- Balances the need for cybersecurity with the protection of freedom of expression, privacy, and access to information.
- Adaptability:
- Allows for additional protocols to address emerging cyber threats, ensuring the convention remains relevant.
- Capacity-Building:
- Provides support to develop cybercrime legislation, build infrastructure, and enhance law enforcement capabilities in Member States.
- Public Awareness:
- Encourages global education campaigns and proactive measures to prevent cyber offenses.
Significance:
- Landmark in International Law: Marks the first international criminal justice treaty in over 20 years, representing a global commitment to cybersecurity.
- Strengthening Cybersecurity: Offers tools and mechanisms to mitigate ICT-enabled threats that undermine global security and economies.
- Protecting Vulnerable Groups: Emphasizes justice and protection for marginalized communities affected by online crimes.
- Economic and Social Benefits: Preserves global economies, promotes investment in cybersecurity infrastructure, and safeguards individuals.
- Flexibility for Future Threats: Incorporates provisions for additional protocols to handle new challenges, such as AI-driven cyber threats.
PYQ:
[2022] What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Greenland
Why in the News?
US President-elect Donald Trump has once again expressed interest in buying Greenland, and Greenland has again stated it is not for sale.
Why is the US so much interested in Greenland?
- Greenland is strategically located in the North Atlantic Ocean, between Europe and North America, and across the Baffin Bay from Canada.
- The US maintains a large air base in Greenland, the Pituffik Space Base (formerly Thule Air Base).
- From here, the US can monitor and counter missile threats from Russia, China, and North Korea.
- Greenland is abundant in rare earth minerals, critical for manufacturing electronics, electric vehicles, and weapons.
- Melting ice caps due to global warming are opening new shipping routes in the Arctic.
- Greenland’s position is crucial for controlling these waterways, with the US seeking to limit Russian and Chinese influence in the region.
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Greenland: Everything you need to know
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Details |
| About |
- World’s largest island, located in the North Atlantic Ocean between Europe and North America; part of the Kingdom of Denmark.
- An autonomous territory within Denmark, managing domestic affairs, while Denmark oversees defense, foreign policy, and some economic matters.
- Population: ~57,000, primarily Inuit communities, concentrated along the coast.
- Transitioned from a Danish colony to self-rule in 1979, gaining further autonomy in 2009.
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| Geographical Features |
- Covers 2.16 million square kilometers, with ~80% under the Greenland Ice Sheet, a critical focus for studying climate change and sea-level rise.
- Predominantly Arctic climate, with freezing temperatures most of the year; milder summers in the southern coastal areas.
- Rich in rare earth minerals, iron ore, zinc, lead, and uranium, making it geopolitically significant.
- Banned uranium mining in 2021 for environmental reasons.
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| Political Features |
- Has its own parliament (Inatsisartut) and prime minister overseeing domestic policies; Denmark controls foreign relations and defense.
- Closely tied to Denmark, with Danish subsidies accounting for ~60% of Greenland’s budget.
- Some political groups advocate for full independence, though economic dependence complicates this goal.
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PYQ:
[2014] Consider the following countries :
- Denmark
- Japan
- Russian Federation
- United Kingdom
- United States of America
Which of the above are the members of the ‘Arctic Council ‘?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 4 and 5
(d) 1, 3 and 5 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Economic reforms;
Why in the News?
People around the world paid tribute to Dr. Manmohan Singh, known for opening up India’s economy and making it a global player, who passed away at the age of 92.
How did Manmohan Singh’s reforms transform India’s economic landscape?
- 1991 Economic Liberalization (LPG): He abolished the “License Raj,” which required businesses to seek government approvals for setting up industries.
- Example: The IT sector flourished, with companies like Infosys and Wipro gaining international prominence.
- Tax Reforms and Currency Devaluation: Singh’s government implemented substantial tax cuts and devalued the Indian rupee to enhance competitiveness.
- Example: Corporate tax was reduced from 50% (pre-1991) to around 35% by the mid-1990s, boosting business sentiment.
- Welfare Schemes: Alongside economic liberalisation, Singh’s administration introduced welfare initiatives aimed at sharing the benefits of growth with the rural poor, thereby addressing socio-economic disparities.
- Introduced schemes like MGNREGA (2005) and expanded rural credit, improving employment and poverty alleviation.
- Poverty rates dropped from 37.2% (2004-05) to 21.9% (2011-12), and India’s middle class expanded significantly due to higher income levels.
- Economy growth: As Finance Minister, in 1991 economic reforms addressed the balance-of-payments crisis by reducing the fiscal deficit from 8.4% of GDP (1991) to 5.7% (1993) and reviving GDP growth from 1.1% (1991-92) to 5.3% (1992-93) through measures such as dismantling industrial licensing, devaluing the rupee, and encouraging foreign investment.
How did he left a lasting imprint on external relations?
- US-India Civil Nuclear Deal (2008): He played a pivotal role in finalising the Civil Nuclear Agreement, which ended India’s nuclear isolation and strengthened strategic ties with the United States.
- It also marked a shift in global recognition of India as a responsible nuclear power.
- Strengthening India’s Strategic Partnerships: Deepened ties with major global powers, including the US, EU, Japan, and Russia, enhancing India’s diplomatic and economic engagement globally.
- Championing India’s Role in Global Governance: Advocated for reforms in international institutions like the UN, IMF, and World Bank to reflect the rising stature of emerging economies, particularly India.
- His leadership elevated India’s voice in global forums like G20 and BRICS.
- Focus on Regional and Economic Integration: Fostered closer economic and diplomatic ties with ASEAN, SAARC nations, and other Asian neighbours, reinforcing India’s position in regional trade and security frameworks.
- His outreach contributed to India’s Act East Policy and improved relations with key partners in the Indo-Pacific region.
Conclusion: The Indian government should embrace Dr. Manmohan Singh’s legacy by prioritizing bold economic reforms, fostering global partnerships, and championing inclusive growth. Emphasizing strategic investments in infrastructure, skilling, and technology while deepening ties with regional and global partners can sustain long-term growth, reduce disparities, and solidify India’s leadership in global governance.
Mains PYQ:
Q Has the Indian governmental system responded adequately to the demands of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization started in 1991? What can the government do to be responsive to this important change? (UPSC IAS/2016)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Cybercrime;
Why in the News?
The US court ruling found the maker of Pegasus spyware guilty of hacking WhatsApp, while in India, the investigation ended quietly without any results.
What are the implications of the US court ruling against NSO Group?
- Legal Accountability Established: The US District Court’s ruling that NSO Group is liable for hacking WhatsApp users marks a significant legal precedent. It affirms that private companies engaged in illegal surveillance can be held accountable in a court of law, which may encourage other jurisdictions to take similar actions against such entities.
- Protection of Privacy Rights: The ruling underscores the importance of user privacy and proprietary technology protection. It emphasizes that courts can act decisively to safeguard individual rights against corporate malfeasance, setting a standard for privacy protection that could influence global norms.
- Pressure on NSO Group: The verdict amplifies economic and operational pressures on NSO Group, potentially leading to stricter regulations and oversight of surveillance technology firms worldwide. This could deter similar future actions by other companies in the industry.
Why has India’s inquiry into the Pegasus allegations been ineffective?
- Government Evasion: The Indian government’s refusal to confirm or deny the use of Pegasus spyware has significantly hampered any meaningful investigation. This silence has been framed as a matter of national security but is perceived as a deliberate evasion of accountability.
- Lack of Cooperation: The Supreme Court’s appointed committee faced challenges due to the government’s lack of cooperation.
- Key stakeholders like WhatsApp and Apple were not compelled to provide evidence or testimony, limiting the committee’s ability to draw conclusive findings.
- Judicial Delays and Inaction: India’s judicial system is plagued by delays and inefficiencies, which have further stalled inquiries into Pegasus. Parliamentary debates have devolved into unproductive exchanges, failing to generate actionable outcomes.
What are the legislations related to spyware attacks in India?
- Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act):
- Section 43: Criminalizes unauthorized access to computer systems and networks, making hacking a punishable offense.
- Section 66: Addresses cybercrime and provides penalties for violations of computer-related laws.
- Section 69: Allows government agencies to intercept data on grounds of national security but does not authorize the installation of spyware like Pegasus on devices without proper oversight.
- Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Interception, Monitoring and Decryption of Information) Rules, 2009: These rules require that no interception can occur without the direction and approval of a competent authority, aiming to provide some level of oversight.
- Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA): Recently passed in 2023, this act has faced criticism for allegedly providing legal cover for state surveillance while lacking robust protections for individual privacy rights. Critics argue that its vague language allows for arbitrary government.
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What should be the next steps for Indian authorities following the US verdict? (Way forward)
- Reinitiate Investigations: Indian authorities should consider reopening investigations into Pegasus with renewed vigour, leveraging insights from the US court ruling. This includes calling for transparency from technology companies involved in the case.
- Engage with Stakeholders: Authorities should actively engage with WhatsApp, Apple, and other relevant parties to gather comprehensive evidence regarding the spyware’s use in India. This collaboration is crucial for establishing accountability.
- Legislative Reforms: There is an urgent need for systemic reforms in surveillance laws and practices in India. Authorities should work towards creating robust frameworks that protect citizens’ privacy rights and establish clear guidelines for state surveillance activities.
- Public Disclosure: To rebuild public trust, it is essential for the government to disclose findings from previous inquiries and commit to transparency moving forward. This includes making reports from technical committees publicly available
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss different types of cyber crimes and measures required to be taken to fight the menace. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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