The ISRO through its CROP remote sensing framework, has estimated that the total wheat production from eight major wheat-growing states will reach 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025.
About CROP:
CROP is a semi-automated and scalable framework developed by ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC).
The primary goal of CROP is to provide a real-time view of the sowing, growth, and harvest progress of crops, especially wheat during the Rabi season.
CROP utilizes data from multi-source remote sensing satellites to monitor agricultural areas across India.
Technological Components of CROP:
EOS-04 (RISAT-1A): Provides Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data for crop monitoring, especially under varied weather conditions.
EOS-06 (Oceansat-3): Offers optical remote sensing data for agricultural monitoring.
Resourcesat-2A: Used for high-resolution optical imaging, focusing on agricultural areas for precise crop monitoring.
Key Features of the Study:
The study used a combination of SAR and optical data to accurately assess crop progress during the 2024-25 Rabi season.
The wheat sown area, as of March 31, 2025, stands at 330.8 lakh hectares, which is in line with the figures reported by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (324.38 lakh hectares as of February 4, 2025).
Wheat production in the eight major wheat-growing states is estimated to be 122.724 million tonnes by March 31, 2025, based on the data gathered through the remote sensing method.
[UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?
1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location
2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location
3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*
Uterine transplant surgery offers a groundbreaking solution for women with absolute uterine infertility, as seen in the recent birth of the first child in the U.K. born to a mother who received a donated uterus.
About Uterine Transplants:
Uterine transplantation is a surgical procedure where a woman who lacks a functional uterus receives a donor uterus, enabling her to carry and give birth to a child.
The transplant is typically temporary, allowing for one or two pregnancies, after which the uterus is usually removed to avoid complications.
Donor Criteria:
Age: Between 30 to 50 years.
Health: Must be in good overall health, with a BMI under 30, and no history of diabetes, cancer (within 5 years), or STIs.
Exclusions: Women with HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or other complications.
The procedure requires gynecological transplant surgeons with specific training. A 6-month recovery period is needed before attempting pregnancy.
Indian Scenario:
India’s first transplant was performed on May 18, 2017, at Galaxy Care Hospital in Pune. The recipient was a 26-year-old woman who received her mother’s uterus.
In October 2018, India’s first baby was born via Caesarean section, weighing 1.45 kg and healthy.
This success story reflects India’s growing capabilities in reproductive medicine, providing hope to women with uterine infertility, offering them an opportunity for biological motherhood.
[UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring
Indian Air Force (IAF) contingent has recently departed for the Desert Flag-10 exercise, being held at the Al Dhafra air base in the UAE.
About Exercise Desert Flag:
Exercise Desert Flag is a multi-nation air combat exercise held at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE.
It offers participating air forces the opportunity to engage in complex fighter operations and enhance combat capabilities in a collaborative environment.
Focus Areas: Fighter engagements, interoperability, and the exchange of operational knowledge.
Participants: Air forces from United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany, France, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, South Korea, Turkey, and India.
Significance of the Exercise:
Improving Interoperability: Enhances the ability of air forces from different nations to work together seamlessly, sharing information and responding to regional security challenges.
Learning from Global Air Forces: Provides the IAF with exposure to advanced combat tactics and air defence technologies from the world’s top air forces.
Diplomatic and Strategic Influence: India’s participation underscores its role in global security and enhances its defence diplomacy.
[UPSC 2008] Hand-in-Hand 2007’, a joint anti-terrorism military training was held by the officers of the Indian Army and officers of the Army of which one of the following countries?
The 2024 European State of the Climate Report shows Europe warming nearly twice as fast as the global average, with significant regional variations due to human-driven climate change.
European State of the Climate Report: Key Highlights
2024 as the Warmest Year: The year 2024 was recorded as the warmest year ever, not just globally but for Europe as well, with Eastern Europe experiencing particularly high temperatures.
East-West Contrast: While Eastern Europe enjoyed sunny and warm conditions, Western Europe was cloudier and wetter, highlighting the regional differences in climate impact.
Southeastern Europe Heatwave: Countries like Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Kosovo, and Serbia faced their longest heatwave on record, adding to the already extreme conditions.
Reasons Behind Europe’s Higher Rate of Warming:
Proximity to the Arctic Region: A large part of Europe lies within the Arctic region, where warming is three to four times faster than the global average, driving higher temperatures in Europe.
Albedo Effect: The melting of Arctic ice exposes darker surfaces (land and water) that absorb more solar radiation, accelerating warming in Europe.
Reduction in Aerosols: Decreasing aerosol emissions in Europe allow more solar radiation to reach the Earth’s surface, contributing to faster warming.
Land-Based Warming: Europe’s land areas warm faster than oceans, triggering extreme weather like heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and flooding.
Global Climate Dynamics: Europe’s geographical and atmospheric conditions make it more susceptible to climate change effects compared to other regions.
[UPSC 2014] The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 0 C above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 30 C above the pre-industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world?
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source.
2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only * (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
[UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015- 2030).
Linkage: Heatwaves are increasingly recognized as severe weather events and fall under the purview of disaster management. This question directly asks about disaster resilience and its framework, which is crucial for tackling heatwaves. Building resilience to heatwaves involves both short-term preparedness (early warning systems, public awareness) and long-term adaptation (infrastructure changes, social safety nets) as highlighted in the article. The Sendai Framework’s targets are also relevant for setting goals in reducing heatwave-related mortality and morbidity.
Mentor’s Comment: According to the World Meteorological Organization, 2024 was the hottest year ever recorded, with global temperatures about 1.55°C higher than in pre-industrial times. In India, December 2022 was the hottest December since temperature records began in 1901. Overall, India has seen more heatwaves in the last 20 years compared to the 20 years before that.
Today’s editorial talks about the current heatwave situation and its effects. This topic is useful for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
On March 15, some states and cities in India faced their first severe heatwave of 2025 — about 20 days earlier than the first severe heatwave in 2024.
What are the key health and socio-economic effects of heatwaves in India?
Health Impacts (Heat Stress): Heatwaves in India lead to heat stress, which occurs when the outside temperature approaches the body’s normal temperature of 37°C. This hampers the body’s ability to release internal heat, leading to a range of health problems including kidney failure, liver damage, and brain-related issues, sometimes resulting in death. Eg, the 2015 heatwave in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana caused over 2,000 deaths due to extreme temperatures.
Impact on Agriculture and Livestock: Heatwaves negatively affect the farming sector, reducing crop yields and livestock production due to heat stress. Eg, the 2020 heatwaves led to significant crop damage, particularly in areas like Punjab and Haryana, where farmers saw a drop in wheat and paddy production, impacting food security.
Socio-Economic Consequences: Heatwaves result in loss of productivity, particularly in labor-intensive sectors like agriculture, construction, and outdoor work. This causes economic losses as workers lose work hours, and agricultural outputs decline. Eg, in 2023, heat stress led to an estimated loss of 6% of work hours in India, contributing to reduced personal incomes and affecting national GDP.
Why is heat stress an equity issue for vulnerable groups?
Disproportionate Impact on the Poor: Vulnerable groups such as the poor face the worst effects of heat stress due to limited access to resources like cooling systems, healthcare, and safe working conditions. Eg, in urban slums with poor infrastructure, people are exposed to higher temperatures both indoors and outdoors, leading to greater health risks compared to wealthier populations with air-conditioned homes.
Gendered Impact: Women, especially in rural and lower-income areas, are more affected by heat stress due to cultural norms that restrict their mobility and tasks, such as working in kitchens or wearing heavy clothing. Eg, women in rural India may have to work in the kitchen during peak heat hours, further increasing their risk of heat-related illnesses.
Impact on Migrant Workers and Informal Sector Employees: Migrants and workers in the informal sector often lack access to benefits such as paid leave, healthcare, or workplace protections, making them more vulnerable to heat stress. Eg, construction workers in cities like Delhi and Mumbai suffer from heat-related illnesses as they work outdoors without proper protection, and they cannot afford to miss work, leading to further health deterioration.
When did India begin implementing Heat Action Plans (HAPs), and how have they evolved over the years?
Initial Implementation in 2013: India began implementing Heat Action Plans (HAPs) in 2013 when Ahmedabad, Gujarat, became the first city in Asia to develop a municipal Heat Action Plan. The plan focused on early heatwave predictions, public awareness, and health system preparedness. Eg, Ahmedabad’s HAP helped reduce heat-related mortality by alerting vulnerable communities and healthcare systems ahead of heatwaves.
Expansion to Other Cities (2014-2018): After the success in Ahmedabad, other cities and states began developing their own heat action plans. By 2018, over 20 Indian cities and states had implemented their HAPs, adapting them based on local vulnerabilities. Eg, cities like Chennai and Hyderabad incorporated heat action strategies, including cooling shelters and awareness campaigns.
National Coordination (2018): In 2018, the National Programme on Climate Change and Human Health (NPCCHH) was introduced to provide a unified approach, coordinating heat advisories and other health-related information across the country. Eg, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) began issuing nationwide heatwave alerts to help states and cities prepare for extreme heat events.
Focus on Long-Term Measures (2020-Present): Recent iterations of HAPs have emphasized long-term preventive measures, such as urban greening, reflective rooftops, and improved building materials to reduce heat retention. Eg, several cities, like Delhi, are promoting cool roof policies, encouraging the use of heat-reflective materials on buildings to reduce urban heat islands.
How can India improve the effectiveness and implementation of Heat Action Plans at the state and city levels?
Tailor Plans Based on Local Vulnerability: India can improve HAP effectiveness by ensuring that each state and city develops plans based on specific local vulnerabilities such as geography, socio-economic factors, and infrastructure. Eg, coastal cities like Mumbai may need strategies focusing on humidity and high temperatures, while inland cities like Jaipur might need to focus more on extreme heat and dry conditions.
Incorporate Real-Time Data and Predictive Technology: HAPs can be enhanced by using real-time data on temperature, humidity, and wind speed to improve forecasting accuracy and timely alerts. Eg, the use of satellite data and ground-based sensors in cities like Pune has allowed for more accurate predictions of heat stress, enabling better preparedness and quicker responses during heatwaves.
Strengthen Collaboration Between Stakeholders: Successful implementation of HAPs requires coordination between government bodies, local authorities, public health institutions, NGOs, and community organizations. Eg, in Ahmedabad, the city’s HAP involved collaborations between municipal authorities, public health officials, and non-governmental organizations, which significantly contributed to the reduction in heat-related deaths.
Focus on Long-Term Urban Planning and Infrastructure: HAPs should integrate long-term urban development strategies that mitigate heat in the built environment, such as increasing green spaces, promoting cool roofs, and using reflective materials for buildings. Eg, Chennai’s initiative to plant more trees and create shaded public spaces has helped reduce heat in urban areas, making the city more resilient to heatwaves.
Ensure Inclusivity and Equity in Response Measures: HAPs should ensure that vulnerable populations such as informal sector workers, elderly, and marginalized communities are given special attention during heatwaves. Eg, Delhi’s HAP has included mobile cooling units and shelters for the homeless, along with providing water points and health services in areas with high concentrations of migrant workers and low-income groups.
What is the current situation regarding the occurrence of heat waves in India?
Increased Frequency of Heatwave Days: The number of heatwave days in India has risen over the past decade. In 2022, approximately 121 heatwave days were recorded across the country, a decrease from the previous year but still indicative of a growing trend.
Record-Breaking Temperatures: In May 2024, northern India experienced severe heatwaves, with temperatures reaching up to 49.1°C in New Delhi. Over 37 cities reported temperatures exceeding 45°C, leading to at least 56 confirmed deaths and 25,000 suspected cases of heatstroke.
Projections of Future Heatwave Intensification: Future projections indicate a significant increase in heatwave frequency due to climate change. Under the RCP 4.5 scenario, the frequency of heatwaves in India is expected to increase by a factor of 4 to 7 in the mid-term and by 5 to 10 times in the long-term future.
Way forward:
Strengthen Policy Integration and Local Capacities: Integrate Heat Action Plans into urban planning and disaster management policies, while building capacity at local levels for climate-resilient infrastructure and real-time response systems.
Targeted Support for Vulnerable Groups: Prioritize inclusive measures such as community cooling centers, mobile health units, and social safety nets to protect informal workers, elderly, and low-income populations from heat-related risks.
Affirmative action is a powerful way to correct past injustices and ongoing discrimination. Tamil Nadu’s latest step to support persons with disabilities is a strong move that could greatly improve their lives and opportunities.
Why is Tamil Nadu’s appointment of persons with disabilities seen as a major step for social empowerment?
Political Inclusion of a Marginalised Group: Tamil Nadu is the first State in India to ensure statutory representation of PwDs in all local bodies through nomination, giving them a formal voice in grassroots governance. Eg: With these Bills, over 13,000 PwDs will be appointed across panchayats and municipal bodies, a leap from the current count of just 35 in urban areas.
Dismantling Stigma and Promoting Leadership: The initiative helps challenge stereotypes by projecting PwDs as leaders and decision-makers, rather than passive recipients of welfare. This enhances their visibility and social status. Eg: A PwD nominated to a municipal council can directly influence accessibility policies, public infrastructure design, and welfare schemes.
Ensures Real Empowerment, Not Just Welfare: Unlike schemes focused only on aid, this move offers dignity through participation, aligning with the constitutional vision of equality and justice for all. Eg: Just as women’s political reservation has created strong women leaders at the village level, this step is likely to produce role models within the disability community.
How does this initiative differ from earlier affirmative actions like women’s reservation in political bodies?
Focus on Economic Empowerment, Not Just Representation: Earlier efforts like political reservations aimed at ensuring women’s presence in governance. This initiative emphasizes economic inclusion through schemes, skills, and leadership roles. Eg: Women’s reservation in Panchayats gave political voice; this promotes financial independence via SHGs, entrepreneurship, etc.
Holistic and Multi-sectoral Approach: Unlike single-domain reservations, this initiative spans education, health, digital access, and finance, aiming at overall empowerment. Eg: Beyond seats in politics, it includes Ujjwala, Jan Dhan, and STEM skill-building for women.
Outcome-Oriented and Data-Driven: Newer policies use real-time monitoring and performance tracking to ensure impact, unlike earlier blanket quotas. Eg: Mission Shakti uses dashboards to track women’s welfare schemes, unlike static political reservation measures.
What are the key provisions in Tamil Nadu’s Bills to boost disability representation in local bodies?
Direct Nomination Without Elections: The amendments to the Tamil Nadu Urban Local Bodies Act, 1998, and the Tamil Nadu Panchayats Act, 1994, allow for the direct nomination of PwDs to local bodies, eliminating the need for them to contest elections. This move seeks to ensure their active participation in governance. Eg: Approximately 650 PwDs will be nominated to urban local bodies, and 12,913 to village panchayats.
Tenure and Entitlements: Nominated members will serve terms concurrent with the respective councils and will receive honoraria, fees, or allowances similar to those granted to elected councillors. However, they will not possess voting rights in council proceedings.
Enhanced Representation Based on Council Size: In municipal councils where the number of members exceeds 100, two PwDs will be nominated to ensure adequate representation.
What is the current status of disability representation in local bodies across India?
Lack of Mandatory Reservation Nationwide: Most Indian states do not have legally mandated seats reserved for persons with disabilities (PwDs) in local self-government institutions (panchayats and municipalities). Eg: Unlike SC/ST or women’s reservations, there is no uniform constitutional or legal mandate for PwD representation across all states.
Scattered State-Level Initiatives: A few states like Tamil Nadu have taken progressive steps by amending local body laws to allow nomination of PwDs, but such moves remain isolated and not yet a nationwide norm. Eg: Tamil Nadu recently passed laws to nominate over 13,000 PwDs to local bodies without requiring them to contest elections.
Limited Political Participation and Influence: Even where PwDs are included, their roles are often symbolic, with limited decision-making power due to lack of voting rights or institutional support. Eg: In Tamil Nadu, nominated PwD members will not have voting rights in council meetings, limiting their legislative influence.
Way forward:
Legal Mandate for Nationwide Inclusion: Introduce a constitutional or statutory provision to ensure uniform representation of PwDs in local bodies across all states. Eg: Amend the Representation of the People Act to include PwD nomination or reservation guidelines.
Empower with Voting Rights and Capacity Building: Grant voting powers to nominated PwD members and provide leadership training for meaningful participation. Eg: Like elected members, PwDs should influence decisions on local infrastructure and welfare schemes.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Analyse the role of local bodies in providing good governance at local level and bring out the pros and cons merging the rural local bodies with the urban local bodies.
Linkage: Tamil Nadu government tabled Bills to increase the representation of persons with disabilities in local bodies, is relevant because the Bills directly impact the structure and composition of these local bodies. The question’s focus on the role and governance of local bodies aligns with the intention of the Tamil Nadu legislation to ensure the inclusion of persons with disabilities in decision-making at the grassroots level, which is expected to enhance governance by bringing diverse perspectives.
On April 8, 2025, the Supreme Court settled a long-standing issue between the Governor of Tamil Nadu and the state’s government and Legislative Assembly.
What was the Supreme Court’s ruling on the Tamil Nadu Governor’s delay in assenting to Bills?
No “Pocket Veto” by Governor: The Court ruled the Governor cannot indefinitely withhold assent to Bills passed by the State Legislature. Eg: The Governor delayed action on ten Bills for years without justification.
Governor Must Act Timely: The Governor must either assent, return, or refer the Bills to the President within reasonable time. Eg: The Court stated the Governor should act on the Bills, not delay them.
Article 142 Used to Declare Bills Law: Due to the delay, the Court invoked Article 142 to deem the Bills as law. Eg: The Tamil Nadu government notified the Acts as law following the Court’s decision.
Why did the Court use Article 142 to declare the Bills as law?
Prolonged Delay by the Governor: The Court found that the Governor had unjustifiably delayed action on the Bills for years, violating the constitutional principles of federalism and representative democracy. Eg: The Governor kept the Bills pending for an extended period without offering valid reasons, causing a constitutional impasse.
Ensuring Justice and Upholding Democracy: The Court invoked Article 142 to do “complete justice” by respecting the will of the elected representatives of the State Legislative Assembly, thus protecting the democratic process. Eg: The Court deemed the Bills passed by the Legislature as law to ensure that the legislative intent of the people’s representatives was not thwarted.
Constitutional Vacuum and Remedy: Since the Constitution did not specify a time limit for the Governor’s action, the Court stepped in to remedy the situation, ensuring the Bills were not indefinitely stalled. Eg: The Tamil Nadu government immediately notified the Acts as law after the Court’s intervention, rectifying the Governor’s delay.
When is the Governor constitutionally allowed to refer a Bill to the President?
When the Bill is Inconsistent with Central Law: The Governor can refer a Bill to the President if it conflicts with existing central laws or raises constitutional issues requiring the President’s decision. Eg: A Bill that contradicts a central law on the same subject matter may be referred to the President for approval.
When the Governor Has Doubts on the Bill’s Constitutionality: If the Governor has constitutional concerns regarding a Bill, they can refer it to the President for further consideration, especially if it involves matters outside the state’s jurisdiction. Eg: A Bill that encroaches on the powers reserved for the Union can be referred to the President for a final decision.
Which constitutional flaw did the Court aim to rectify through this judgment?
Lack of Clear Guidelines for Governor’s Action: The Constitution did not specify clear timelines or procedures for the Governor in handling State Bills, leaving room for delays and misuse of power. Eg: The Governor of Tamil Nadu delayed assent to Bills for years, exploiting the absence of a specific time frame for action.
Absence of Safeguards Against Governor’s Arbitrary Power: The Constitution did not explicitly limit the Governor’s power to withhold assent or exercise a pocket veto, leading to potential abuse and undermining the democratic process. Eg: The Governor’s delay in assenting to ten Bills without any constitutional justification prompted the Court’s intervention.
Weakness in Protecting Federalism and Legislative Authority: The lack of specific checks on the Governor’s actions threatened the principles of federalism and undermined the autonomy of the State Legislative Assembly. Eg: By indefinitely stalling the Bills, the Governor weakened the power of the elected State Legislature, which led the Court to act to preserve federalism.
Who is responsible for upholding constitutional conventions to protect federalism?
The Executive (Governor and Chief Minister): Both the Governor, as the representative of the President, and the Chief Minister, as the head of the state government, must respect constitutional conventions to ensure the smooth functioning of federalism and maintain the balance of power between the Centre and States. Eg: The Governor’s undue delay in assenting to Bills disrupted the federal balance and called for judicial intervention.
The Legislature (State Legislative Assembly): The elected representatives in the State Legislature must ensure that the legislative process adheres to constitutional conventions, fostering federal cooperation and preventing undue interference by the Centre. Eg: The Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly passed Bills that reflected the will of the people, but faced obstruction due to Governor’s delays, highlighting the need for constitutional respect.
The Judiciary: The judiciary plays a crucial role in upholding constitutional conventions when other branches fail to act appropriately. The Supreme Court intervenes when there is a violation of constitutional principles like federalism and when executive or legislative actors overstep their bounds. Eg: The Supreme Court used Article 142 to declare the Tamil Nadu Bills as law, rectifying the constitutional flaw in the Governor’s inaction and protecting federalism.
Way forward:
Clarify Constitutional Procedures: There is a need for clear constitutional guidelines and timeframes for Governors to act on State Bills, reducing ambiguity and preventing delays that undermine federalism. This could involve amendments or judicial directions for timely decision-making.
Strengthen Checks on Executive Power: Strengthening safeguards against arbitrary use of powers by the Governor through legal reforms and accountability measures can ensure that the democratic process and legislative authority of states are respected.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Discuss the essential conditions for exercise of the legislative powers by the Governor. Discuss the legality of re-promulgation of ordinances by the Governor without placing them before the Legislature.
Linkage: The Supreme Court’s 2025 verdict addressed the limits of the Governor’s power regarding assent to bills, effectively preventing the use of a “pocket veto”. This context makes the 2022 question relevant as it explores other aspects of the Governor’s legislative role and the need for accountability to the state legislature.
A recent paper published in Nature by a team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences explored the genetic modification of rice plants to increase Coenzyme CoQ10 production.
What are Coenzymes and CoQ?
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical reactions in living organisms without being consumed in the process.
Coenzymes are organic molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing biochemical reactions, making cellular metabolism more efficient.
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) is a lipid-soluble antioxidant that helps stabilize cells under stress. It is crucial for cellular energy production.
CoQ exists in 10 forms (CoQ1 to CoQ10), all present in the respiratory chain within cells.
Importance of CoQ9 and CoQ10
CoQ9: It is found in cereal crops (wheat, rice, oats, barley, etc.), bamboo, and flowering plants like cinnamon, avocado, and pepper. It is rich in daily foods, making it an accessible nutrient.
CoQ10: It is vital for mitochondrial energy production. Concentrated in high-energy organs like the heart. CoQ10 is crucial for health, especially in those with neurological issues or age-related deficiencies.
Health Benefits of CoQ10:
2008: CoQ10 supplementation helped patients with neurological disorders, improving their health (Montini et al., Milan).
2012: Infants with CoQ10 deficiency benefitted from ubiquinone analogues (Shamima Ahmed, London).
CoQ10-based supplements are now commonly prescribed by healthcare professionals.
[UPSC 2007] Question: Which one of the following is not a digestive enzyme in the human system?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aryabhata
Why in the News?
50 years ago on April 19, 1975, India marked a major milestone in its space history with the successful launch of Aryabhata, its first satellite.
About Aryabhata
Aryabhata, India’s first satellite, was launched on April 19, 1975, with Soviet assistance from the Kapustin Yar Cosmodrome.
Named after the ancient Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata, the satellite was a significant milestone in India’s space journey.
It had a unique 26-sided polyhedron design, measuring 1.4 meters in diameter and weighing 360 kg.
The satellite’s faces were covered with solar panels, except for the top and bottom.
Aryabhata orbited the Earth every 96.3 minutes with an inclination of 50.7 degrees, and its apogee and perigee were 619 km and 563 km, respectively.
Its mission was to conduct experiments in solar physics and X-ray astronomy.
Despite experiencing a power failure after 5 days, Aryabhata continued transmitting data for several more days, completing a remarkable 17 years in orbit.
This success was pivotal for India, establishing the country’s space capabilities.
Inception of India’s Space Program:
India’s space program began in the 1960s, led by Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of ISRO.
Sarabhai envisioned a space program to advance technological and scientific progress in India.
Initial efforts included developing sounding rockets under the Rohini rocket program for atmospheric research.
In 1972, India partnered with the Soviet Union for the launch of Aryabhata, marking the nation’s entry into space.
[UPSC 2007] Consider the following statements:
1. In the year 2006, India successfully tested a full-fledged cryogenic stage in rocketry.
2. After USA, Russia and China, India is the only country to have acquired the capability for use of cryogenic stage in rocketry.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
A hidden landmass, called the Davis Strait proto-microcontinent, has been discovered beneath the icy waters between Canada’s Baffin Island and Greenland.
About the Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent:
The Davis Strait Proto-Microcontinent is a hypothesised landmass located in the Davis Strait, believed to have existed during the Paleozoic era.
It is composed of 19–24 km thick thinned continental crust, surrounded by two narrow bands of 15–17 km thick continental crust.
It is thought to have broken apart due to tectonic movements.
Geological evidence, including similarities in rock formations and tectonic features found in Greenland and parts of the Canadian Arctic, supports the idea of this ancient landmass.
While its exact nature and extent remain debated, the proto-microcontinent is crucial for understanding the tectonic processes that shaped the Atlantic Ocean and surrounding regions.
About Davis Strait:
The Davis Strait is a large body of water located between southeastern Baffin Island (Canada) and southwestern Greenland, serving as part of the Northwest Passage.
It separates the Baffin Bay (to the north) from the Labrador Sea (to the south), and it connects the Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
It is an important maritime route for shipping and trade.
Named after John Davis, the English explorer who navigated the area in the late 16th century, the Davis Strait plays a significant role in the tectonic evolution of the Arctic region.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following:
(1). Electromagnetic radiation (2). Geothermal energy (3). Gravitational force (4). Plate movements (5). Rotation of the earth (6). Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None*
Recent advancements in recycling perovskite solar cells have led to a new water-based solution, offering a more sustainable and efficient approach to solar energy production.
About Perovskite Solar Cells:
Perovskite solar cells are made using a perovskite crystal structure, offering high power conversion efficiencies and low manufacturing costs compared to traditional silicon-based panels.
They are lightweight, flexible, and made from inexpensive materials, making them a promising alternative in the solar energy market.
While efficient, they have a shorter lifespan and contain toxic materials like lead, posing environmental risks during disposal.
Used in solar power generation, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems due to their affordability and performance.
The New Recycling Method:
Researchers have developed a water-based recycling solution, replacing harmful organic solvents with a non-toxic approach.
The process uses three salts: sodium acetate, sodium iodide, and hypophosphorous acid, to dissolve and regenerate perovskite crystals, recovering high-quality material for reuse.
This method maintains nearly the same efficiency as fresh materials, even after five rounds of recycling, recovering 99% of the layers.
It promotes a circular economy, reducing waste and supporting the environmentally friendly recycling of perovskite solar cells.
[UPSC 2014] With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following statements:
1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direction conversion of light into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process.
2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), while solar Thermal generates Direct Current (DC).
3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
Options:
(a) 1 only* (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
[UPSC 2013] Write a note on India’s green energy corridor to alleviate the problem of conventional energy.
Linkage: Decarbonising the logistics sector necessitates a shift away from conventional energy sources. The development of a green energy corridor, as mentioned in this PYQ, is essential for supplying the renewable energy needed to power various aspects of logistics, such as electric trucks and warehouses
Mentor’s Comment: Viksit Bharat is a commitment to a stronger, self-reliant India by 2047, focusing on inclusive development. Achieving this requires a large, efficient, and future-ready logistics sector. While infrastructure and accessibility are key, prioritizing the environment is crucial. India’s carbon-heavy logistics must transform to meet net-zero emissions by 2070, reducing transportation, warehousing, and supply chain emissions for a sustainable future.
Today’s editorial talks about India’s logistics sector, which creates a significant amount of carbon pollution. This topic is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India’s logistics sector, which produces a lot of carbon pollution, needs to change and become more eco-friendly.
What role does logistics play in achieving Viksit Bharat 2047?
Enabler of Inclusive Development: Efficient logistics ensures that goods and services reach every corner of the country, promoting equitable growth across regions. Eg: Improved last-mile connectivity in remote areas boosts rural entrepreneurship and market access for farmers.
Driver of Economic Competitiveness: A streamlined logistics sector reduces costs and delays, enhancing India’s global trade competitiveness. Eg: The PM Gati Shakti initiative integrates infrastructure planning to speed up cargo movement and reduce logistics costs.
Catalyst for Sustainability and Resilience: Greener logistics support India’s net-zero targets and build climate-resilient infrastructure. Eg: Electrification of highways and promotion of rail freight reduce emissions from the transport sector.
Why is urgent decarbonisation needed in road freight and warehousing?
High Share in Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Road freight alone contributes over 88% of transport emissions, with trucks accounting for 38% of CO₂ emissions (IEA 2023). Eg: A single heavy-duty diesel truck emits over 1,000 grams of CO₂ per km — multiplied across millions of trucks, this leads to massive environmental impact.
Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Road transport is highly dependent on oil combustion, making it one of the most carbon-intensive sectors. Warehouses often rely on non-renewable power sources like diesel generators for energy and refrigeration. Eg: India’s freight trucks mostly use diesel — a key factor in air pollution and rising import bills for crude oil.
Growing Demand Increases Future Emissions: With freight and warehousing demand expected to grow rapidly by 2030, emissions will rise unless green alternatives are adopted. Eg: Government plans to triple cargo movement on inland waterways and expand warehousing, which without clean tech would add significantly to GHG levels.
Missed Economic Opportunities without Green Shift: Decarbonisation can lead to cost savings, energy efficiency, and long-term competitiveness. Delay increases operational costs and reduces global trade alignment. Eg: Green warehouses with solar rooftops can reduce electricity costs by 20–30% and earn carbon credits.
Alignment with Net Zero and Global Climate Commitments: India has committed to Net Zero by 2070. Without decarbonising logistics, achieving this goal will be impossible. Eg: Transitioning to electric trucks and LNG-powered vessels supports global targets like the Paris Agreement and IMO’s shipping emission cuts.
How can China and the U.S. guide India’s green freight transition?
Rail Freight as a Cleaner Alternative: China and the U.S. have shifted significant portions of freight transport from road to rail, which is more energy-efficient and low-carbon. Eg: China has heavily invested in rail infrastructure, making rail freight nearly 50% of its total freight, significantly reducing emissions compared to road transport.
Adoption of Cleaner Fuels and Technologies: Both countries have embraced electric rail systems and alternative fuels for freight, which India can adopt to decarbonise its logistics sector. Eg: The U.S. has invested in electrified rail corridors, and China has introduced LNG-powered freight trains, both of which reduce dependency on diesel and curb emissions.
Policy Support and Infrastructure Investment: China and the U.S. have implemented policy frameworks that incentivise green freight practices, such as tax breaks, green subsidies, and investment in sustainable infrastructure. Eg: China’s Green Freight initiative includes subsidies for green vehicles, while the U.S. offers funding for clean freight technology under programs like the Clean Diesel Program.
Which steps has India taken to electrify freight and green maritime transport?
Western Dedicated Freight Corridor (WDFC): Spanning 1,506 km, the WDFC connects Delhi to Mumbai, facilitating high-speed, high-capacity freight movement. This electrified corridor supports double-stack container trains, enhancing efficiency and reducing emissions.
Subsidies for Electric Freight Vehicles: In 2024, India approved ₹5 billion to incentivise the adoption of electric trucks, aiming to replace polluting diesel vehicles. This initiative is part of a broader ₹109 billion scheme to promote electric vehicles across various sectors.
Investment in Green Maritime Infrastructure: India plans to allocate ₹25,000 crore towards developing green ports and shipping infrastructure. This includes building green hydrogen hubs and manufacturing eco-friendly vessels, supporting the transition to sustainable maritime practices.
Collaboration with Singapore: India is exploring the creation of a Green Digital Shipping Corridor with Singapore, aiming to link international ports and marine industries. This initiative focuses on reducing emissions and enhancing digital integration in maritime trade.
Harit Sagar Initiative: The ‘Harit Sagar Green Port Guidelines’ aim to integrate renewable energy into port operations, promote the use of green fuels, and modernise fleets. These guidelines are part of India’s strategy to achieve net-zero emissions in the maritime sector by 2070.
Way forward:
Enhance Green Infrastructure and Technology Adoption: India should accelerate investments in green technologies, such as electric trucks, renewable energy-powered warehouses, and cleaner maritime fuels, alongside expanding rail freight networks to further reduce carbon emissions.
Strengthen Policy Frameworks and International Collaborations: Strengthening government policies to incentivize sustainable logistics practices and fostering international partnerships, such as with Singapore for green shipping corridors, can help ensure the successful transition to a low-carbon logistics sector.
US President Donald Trump once threatened to remove Jerome Powell, whom he had appointed as the head of the Federal Reserve in 2018. Such disagreements between leaders and central banks have happened before in both the US and India, but they usually don’t turn into major problems.
What triggered Trump’s criticism of Fed Chair Jerome Powell?
Disagreement Over Interest Rate Policy: Trump criticized Powell for raising interest rates, especially during times of economic uncertainty like the COVID-19 pandemic. He believed higher rates would hurt economic growth and his re-election prospects. Eg: In December 2018, Trump reportedly said Powell would “turn [him] into Hoover,” referencing Herbert Hoover, who led during the Great Depression.
Fed’s Caution on Trump’s Tariffs: Powell warned that Trump’s trade tariffs could increase inflation and impact the labour market, which contradicted the President’s economic stance. Trump saw this as “playing politics.” Eg: On April 17, 2025, Trump posted online that Powell’s “termination cannot come fast enough!” and mocked him as “Too Late Jerome Powell.”
Who in U.S. history challenged the Fed’s independence, and why?
Milton Friedman’s Influence (1970s–80s): The Nobel laureate economist argued that the Fed should be less discretionary and more rules-based, believing it often worsened economic cycles. Eg: Arthur Burns told Volcker that Friedman “wants to abolish the Fed (and) replace you with a computer.”
Ronald Reagan’s Administration (1980s): Reagan’s advisers questioned the Fed’s independence, urging more accountability and clearer monetary targets due to high inflation and unemployment. Eg: In 1981, Reagan asked Fed Chair Volcker why the U.S. needed the Federal Reserve, reflecting pressure to align with government priorities.
Donald Trump (2018–2025): Trump repeatedly attacked Fed Chair Jerome Powell for raising interest rates and criticized the Fed’s caution over his tariff policies, claiming they hindered economic growth. Eg: In December 2018, Trump expressed a desire to fire Powell, blaming him for risking a downturn like the Great Depression.
When was Section 7(1) of the RBI Act invoked, and why was it significant?
Invoked in 2018 during Centre-RBI tensions: The Union Government reportedly invoked Section 7(1) for the first time in independent India amid differences with the RBI over issues like liquidity, lending to MSMEs, and the use of RBI reserves. Eg: The Finance Ministry sent at least three letters to RBI citing Section 7(1), asking the central bank to consult with the government.
Significance – Questioned RBI’s autonomy: This move raised concerns about the erosion of the central bank’s independence, as the section allows the government to issue binding directions to the RBI in public interest. Eg: Critics saw it as a way to force the RBI to align with the government’s fiscal agenda, undermining its role as an independent regulator.
Led to public fallout and resignation: The conflict led to the resignation of RBI Governor Urjit Patel, who stepped down citing personal reasons amid speculation of pressure from the government. Eg: Patel’s abrupt resignation in December 2018 came soon after Deputy Governor Viral Acharya warned of the dangers of compromising central bank independence.
How have Indian governments handled RBI conflicts in the past?
Through backchannel negotiations and compromise: Successive governments have often resolved tensions with RBI through informal dialogue rather than confrontation. Eg: During the 1991 economic crisis, Finance Minister Manmohan Singh worked closely with RBI Governor S. Venkitaramanan to navigate reforms despite some policy disagreements.
Avoiding use of Section 7(1) until 2018: Even in times of serious disagreement, governments historically refrained from invoking Section 7(1) of the RBI Act to respect the central bank’s autonomy. Eg: In 2008–09, during the global financial crisis, the government and RBI had different views on stimulus, but maintained cooperation.
Occasional public spats but resolution behind closed doors: Disagreements sometimes came into the public domain but were eventually settled through internal discussions. Eg: In 2013, Raghuram Rajan’s monetary tightening clashed with the Finance Ministry’s push for growth, but no formal confrontation occurred.
Appointments as a tool to align RBI’s stance: Governments have sometimes appointed RBI governors who are seen as more aligned with their economic philosophy. Eg: The appointment of Y.V. Reddy and later Raghuram Rajan was seen in part as reflecting the government’s evolving monetary and financial strategy.
Post-conflict policy adaptations: After major conflicts, governments have occasionally adjusted policies or created frameworks to reduce future friction. Eg: Following the 2018 rift, the government and RBI set up a framework for the transfer of surplus reserves to avoid ad-hoc confrontations in future.
Way forward:
Institutionalise a Conflict Resolution Mechanism: Establish a formal consultative framework between the Finance Ministry and RBI to address policy differences before they escalate. This could include regular high-level meetings and joint committees to ensure transparency and trust. Eg: A permanent Finance-RBI Coordination Council with defined terms could pre-empt confrontations like the 2018 episode.
Clarify Autonomy Boundaries Through Legislation or Protocols: Amend or supplement existing laws like the RBI Act to define the scope of government intervention (like Section 7) and ensure it is used only under extraordinary circumstances. Eg: Introduce a statutory guideline requiring parliamentary review or expert panel consultation before invoking Section 7.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Explain the significance of the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act. To what extent does it reflect the accommodative spirit of federalism?
Linkage: Constitutional amendments affecting fiscal matters can have implications for the central bank’s role and its relationship with the government.
Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court overturned the Delhi High Court’s order, which had asked Wikimedia to remove a Wikipedia page due to a defamation case filed by the news agency Asian News International (ANI). The Supreme Court corrected a mistake made by the High Court.
What was the Supreme Court’s main reason for quashing the Delhi High Court’s order against Wikimedia?
Overbroad Takedown Order: The Supreme Court found the High Court’s direction to remove “all false, misleading, and defamatory content” to be too broad and vague. It emphasized that such general orders lack precision and could lead to over-censorship.Eg: Asking to remove an entire Wikipedia page without identifying specific defamatory lines is like banning an entire book over one disputed paragraph.
Safe Harbour Protection for Intermediaries: The Court reaffirmed that Wikipedia enjoys safe harbour under the IT Act as an internet intermediary, meaning it is not directly responsible for user-generated content unless a specific violation is pointed out. Eg: Just like social media platforms aren’t liable for every comment made by users, Wikipedia too cannot be penalized without clear proof of harmful content.
Need for Specific Pleas: The Bench advised that ANI should file a fresh, specific plea pointing out the exact portions of the content they consider defamatory. This would allow the Court to consider actual harm rather than act on general accusations. Eg: It’s more reasonable to ask a website to remove a sentence that says “X is a fraud” rather than demanding the removal of an entire article about X.
Why did the Delhi High Court originally ask Wikipedia to take down the page related to ANI?
Defamation Claim: The Delhi High Court ruled that the statements on the Wikipedia page were defamatory towards the news agency, Asian News International (ANI). It concluded that the content harmed ANI’s reputation and was therefore damaging. Eg: If an article on Wikipedia falsely claims that ANI is involved in unethical practices, it could damage the agency’s credibility and reputation.
Non-Verbatim Reproduction of Sources: The Court stated that the Wikipedia page did not accurately reproduce the references it cited, but rather presented them in a distorted or selective manner, which misrepresented the original information. It emphasized that this misrepresentation contributed to the defamatory nature of the content. Eg: If the page quoted investigative reports but omitted important context, it could lead to a misleading understanding of ANI’s role in the events.
Higher Responsibility of Wikipedia: The Court held that Wikipedia, as an encyclopaedia, carries a higher responsibility in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of its content, especially since it’s widely accessed and can influence public perception. It believed that as a trusted platform, Wikipedia should prevent the spread of defamatory or misleading content. Eg: Just like traditional encyclopaedias, Wikipedia should uphold higher standards of verification to avoid spreading misinformation.
Who is responsible for creating and moderating content on Wikipedia?
Wikipedia Users and Volunteers: Users and volunteers create and edit content on Wikipedia by contributing articles and making revisions. Eg: A user with knowledge of climate change might write or update articles related to global warming.
Wikipedia Community: Content is moderated by the Wikipedia community through discussions, consensus, and resolving disputes. Eg: If two users disagree on an article, the community helps decide on the final content through discussion or voting.
Administrators (Admins): Admins, elected by the community, have special privileges to manage disputes, protect pages, and enforce Wikipedia’s guidelines. Eg: Admins might restrict editing on a page to prevent vandalism, allowing only trusted users to make changes.
How does Wikipedia usually resolve disputes or “editing wars” over content?
Community Discussion and Consensus: Disputes are typically resolved through discussion on the article’s talk page, where editors reach a consensus on the correct content. Eg: If two users disagree on the phrasing of a sentence, they may discuss it on the talk page and come to an agreement.
Page Protection: If disputes persist, Wikipedia may protect the page, limiting edits to trusted editors or administrators to prevent further conflicts. Eg: A page on a controversial topic may be locked to prevent constant changes, with only experienced users allowed to make edits.
What could be the potential consequence of allowing broad takedown orders against platforms like Wikipedia?
Censorship and Suppression of Information: Broad takedown orders could lead to censorship, stifling the free flow of information and limiting access to diverse perspectives. Eg: If a controversial topic is targeted, it could lead to entire pages being removed, denying users access to critical information.
Chilling Effect on Open Discussion: Such orders could create a chilling effect, discouraging people from contributing to platforms like Wikipedia for fear of legal consequences. Eg: Contributors might avoid writing about sensitive topics like politics or social issues to prevent being involved in legal disputes.
Undermining the Platform’s Model: Wikipedia’s model relies on user-generated content and community moderation; broad takedown orders could disrupt this and harm the platform’s collaborative nature. Eg: If Wikipedia faces constant takedown requests, it might have to impose strict content restrictions, altering its open editing structure and reducing the reliability of information.
Way forward:
Clearer Guidelines and Specificity in Takedown Requests: Courts and platforms should establish clear guidelines for takedown requests, ensuring that only specific defamatory content is targeted rather than broad or vague orders. Eg: Legal requests should identify exact defamatory statements rather than asking for the removal of entire pages.
Strengthening Community Moderation and Accountability: Encourage community-based solutions to resolve disputes, with oversight from trusted administrators, while respecting Wikipedia’s open model. Eg: Wikipedia could enhance its dispute resolution processes and ensure content integrity by empowering its community to handle content concerns collaboratively.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
Linkage: Fundamental right of speech and expression, which is central to the discussion about taking down online content like Wikipedia pages. The Supreme Court’s order emphasizes the need to carefully consider the implications for the free flow of information, a key aspect of freedom of speech.
India has signed a Headquarters Agreement with the International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA), officially establishing its headquarters in India.
About International Big Cat Alliance (IBCA):
IBCA is a multi-country, multi-agency group of 96 big cat range and non-range countries focused on conserving 7 big cats and their habitats.
It was proposed by PM Modi in 2019, officially launched in April 2023 for Project Tiger’s 50th anniversary.
It aims to protect and conserve Tiger, Lion, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Cheetah, Jaguar, and Puma; restore habitats and reduce human-wildlife conflict.
Key activities include- Advocacy, knowledge sharing, eco-tourism promotion, and resource mobilization for big cat conservation.
Currently, India, Nicaragua, Eswatini, and Somalia are members. Though membership is open to 96 range countries with big cat habitats.
Governance: Includes a General Assembly, elected Council, and Secretariat with a Secretary-General.
India’s Role:
India is home to 5 (tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, and cheetah) of the 7 big cats and 70% of the world’s tiger population, playing a leading role in global wildlife protection.
₹150 crore from the Indian government (2023-2028) with additional contributions from global partners.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 2
The Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, a significant religious pilgrimage for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Bon followers, is set to resume after a halt since 2020.
About Kailash Mountain and Kailash Mansarovar Yatra
Kailash Mountain is situated in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, near India and Nepal, standing at 6,638 meters (21,778 feet).
Religious Significance:
Hinduism: Abode of Lord Shiva and Parvati, believed to bring moksha (liberation).
Buddhism: Home of Buddha Demchok, symbolizing bliss.
Jainism: Lord Rishabhanatha attained Nirvana here.
Bon Religion: Center of the universe in Bon faith.
Mansarovar Yatra is the pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake at 4,556 meters (14,950 feet).
This lake is believed to be created by Lord Brahma, bathing here is believed to cleanse sins.
The Yatra is managed by India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) for Indian pilgrims.
Copyright infringement not intended.
Routes to Kailash Mansarovar
Lipulekh Pass: Located at 5,115 meters, this route is 200 km of trekking and has been suspended since 2020 due to geopolitical tensions.
Nathu La Pass: Positioned at 4,310 meters, this 1,500 km motorable route requires 35-40 km of trekking. It has been operational since 2015.
Nepal Route: Available since 2023, this route is managed by private operators, with challenges related to visa and permit requirements.
[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?
(a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La
A new study highlights the success of Surat’s Particulate Matter Emission Trading Scheme (PM-ETS), the world’s first market-based system for trading particulate emissions.
The scheme has reduced pollution by20-30%, providing insights into its potential to improve air quality in industrial areas.
About Particulate Matter Emission Trading Scheme in Gujarat:
This PM ETS was launched in Surat, Gujarat in 2019.
It is the world’s first pilot project targeting particulate pollution using a market-based emissions trading system.
It is India’s first emissions trading initiativefor any pollutant.
The scheme aims to reduce emissions from industries using solid (coal, lignite) and liquid fuels (diesel) by controlling fine particulate matter (PM).
How It Works?
Cap-and-Trade: Regulators set a cap on total emissions, and industries are issued permits (1 kg of particulate matter per permit).
Permit Allocation: 80% of permits are given for free; 20% are sold via auctions.
Market Trading: Permits can be bought or sold to meet emission targets. A ceiling price (Rs 100/kg) and floor price (Rs 5/kg) are set.
Compliance: Non-compliant industries face fines double the ceiling price for each excess emission.
Successes of PM-ETS:
Reduction in Emissions: Participating plants cut emissions by 20-30% compared to traditional methods.
Improved Compliance: 99% compliance in participating plants.
Cost-Effective: The system allowed industries to choose the most cost-effective methods for compliance.
Limitations of PM-ETS:
Over-reliance on Free Permits: Smaller plants may struggle as the number of free permits decreases.
Supply Chain Limitations: Tightened caps could increase costs for industries not reducing emissions.
Market Manipulation: Concerns over unfair permit trading.
Geographical Constraints: Limited to Surat, restricting broader impact.
[UPSC 2011] Regarding “carbon credits’’, which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto protocol.
(b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota.
(c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission.
(d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations environment programs. *
[UPSC 2024] What are the challenges in the commercialisation and diffusion of indigenously developed technologies? Although India is second in the world in filing patents, still only a few have been commercialised. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialisation.
Linkage: The challenge of scaling up the impact of innovation by focusing on the commercialisation of patents, which is a crucial aspect for startups aiming to grow.
Mentor’s Comment: Startups in India have seen significant growth, especially with government initiatives like Startup India. However, Union Minister highlighted that many of these startups are focusing on repetitive ideas, like grocery delivery, rather than pushing the boundaries of innovation. He emphasized the need for more groundbreaking, science-based solutions to address broader challenges and drive sustainable growth.
Today’s editorial looks at startups in India, focusing on factors that help them grow, challenges like lack of innovation and funding, and the need to move beyond grocery delivery for long-term success.. This content would help in GS paper 3 mains.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, at the Startup Mahakumbh in New Delhi, Union Commerce and Industry Minister Piyush Goyal said that many startups are not focusing enough on real innovation and are mostly sticking to ideas like grocery delivery.
What challenges do deep tech startups in India face when it comes to scaling up?
High Initial Capital Requirement: Deep tech startups, especially in sectors like AI, biotech, or semiconductors, require significant funding in the early stages for R&D and prototyping. Eg: A startup working on quantum computing may need years of research before any commercial product is viable.
Lack of Follow-up Funding: Government seed funds like the Startup India Seed Fund provide limited support (~₹50 lakh), but large-scale funding is often unavailable, especially from domestic sources. Eg: A robotics startup may struggle to find Series A or B investors willing to back them after the seed stage.
Longer Time-to-Market and Uncertain Returns: Deep tech innovations take longer to reach the market and generate revenue, which deters many investors focused on quick returns. Eg: Healthtech firms developing diagnostic devices may take years to pass regulatory approvals before commercialization.
Why is private sector follow-up funding considered crucial after initial government support for startups?
Bridges the Capital Gap: Government funds are limited and mainly support early-stage needs. Scaling requires much higher investment. Eg: A biotech startup receiving ₹50 lakh from a seed fund may need ₹10 crore for clinical trials.
Enables Long-Term Growth: Startups need sustained funding over multiple stages (Series A, B, etc.) to expand, hire talent, and enhance products. Eg: An electric mobility startup may require continuous investment to build charging infrastructure.
Signals Market Validation: Private investment shows that the startup idea has commercial potential, encouraging more stakeholders to engage. Eg: A deep tech startup attracting VC funding is more likely to gain customer and partner interest.
Brings Strategic Guidance and Networks: Private investors often provide mentorship, access to global markets, and business connections. Eg: A startup funded by a top VC firm might get access to international accelerator programs.
Reduces Dependence on Government: Encourages a self-sustaining innovation ecosystem and reduces reliance on public funds. Eg: Startups backed by private capital scale faster without waiting for bureaucratic processes.
How do venture capitalists define innovation while deciding to invest in a startup?
User Impact and Experience: VCs assess whether the product/service offers a significant improvement in user experience or solves a real problem. Eg: A fintech app that reduces loan approval time from days to minutes is seen as innovative.
Market Potential and Demand: Innovation must address a need in a large or fast-growing market to be attractive to investors. Eg: An edtech startup targeting affordable online education in Tier-II/III cities taps into a large unmet demand.
Sustainable Competitive Advantage: Startups should have something unique that competitors can’t easily copy, like patents or proprietary tech. Eg: A healthtech startup with patented diagnostic AI software has a stronger edge.
Commercial Viability: Innovation must eventually lead to profitability and returns. VCs look for feasible business models. Eg: A SaaS platform with recurring revenue from subscriptions is more viable than a one-time product sale model.
Scalability and Replicability: The innovation should be scalable across geographies or customer segments. Eg: A logistics startup using AI route optimization can be scaled across different cities and industries.
Which factors have contributed to the rise in the number of startups under the Startup India initiative?
Policy Support and Government Incentives: Multiple ministries and state governments have launched startup-friendly policies, funding schemes, and incubation support. Eg: The Startup India Seed Fund Scheme provides up to ₹50 lakh for early-stage startups.
Improved Access to Funding: Capital inflow through both equity and debt has increased, with growing interest from banks and private investors. Eg: SIDBI’s Fund of Funds supports venture capital firms that, in turn, invest in Indian startups.
Changing Mindset and Entrepreneurial Culture: A cultural shift among youth toward entrepreneurship, driven by success stories and digital exposure. Eg: Companies like Flipkart and Freshworks have inspired a new generation to build their own ventures.
Where does India lag behind in comparison to countries like China and the U.S. in building a thriving startup ecosystem?
Lower Per Capita Income and Consumption Capacity: India’s lower GDP per capita limits domestic consumer spending, which affects the growth of digital and tech-driven startups. Eg: India’s per capita GDP is around $3,500, while China’s is over $12,000—boosting China’s digital economy faster.
Limited Domestic Risk Capital Availability: India relies heavily on foreign capital for startup funding, unlike the U.S. or China, which have strong domestic investor bases. Eg: Most VC funding in India comes from the U.S., while China has state-backed venture funds.
Bureaucratic Hurdles and Complex Regulations: Regulatory bottlenecks and lack of smooth implementation hinder startup operations and scalability. Eg: Despite policy support, startups still face delays in government clearances and compliances.
Way forward:
Strengthen Domestic Funding Ecosystem: Promote domestic VC funds, corporate venture arms, and pension fund investments in startups to reduce dependency on foreign capital. Eg: Incentivize Indian institutional investors to back deep tech ventures.
Simplify Regulatory Processes: Establish single-window clearances and reduce compliance burdens to foster ease of doing business for startups. Eg: Fast-track approvals for sectors like biotech, fintech, and healthtech.
Concerns about an AI arms race and AGI are rising, but research on AI’s impact on strategic affairs remains limited.
What are the key strategic differences between AI and nuclear weapons?
Strategic Difference
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Nuclear Weapons
Development and Control
Driven by private companies and research institutions (Eg: OpenAI)
Developed and strictly controlled by state actors
Resource Dependence
No ongoing physical resources needed once trained
Depend on rare materials like enriched uranium, requiring secure control
Global Accessibility
Rapidly accessible and globally developable (Eg: AI in healthcare)
Restricted to a few nations with production and maintenance capacity
How should these affect policy?
Focus on Global Tech Governance: Policies should emphasize international collaboration on AI standards and ethics, not just state-centric treaties. Eg: The OECD AI Principles guide responsible AI use across countries and private entities.
Regulate Private Sector Innovation: Governments must work closely with tech firms to monitor and regulate AI development. Eg: The EU AI Act places obligations on companies deploying high-risk AI systems.
Invest in Civilian and Dual-Use Oversight: Policies should ensure AI developed for civilian use isn’t misused for harmful purposes. Eg: Export controls on advanced AI chips to prevent their misuse by authoritarian regimes.
Why is the comparison between Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) and Mutual Assured AI Malfunction (MAIM) flawed?
Different Nature of Threats: MAD is based on physical destruction through nuclear weapons, while MAIM assumes AI failure or sabotage, which is less predictable and harder to control. Eg: A nuclear missile has a clear origin and impact but an AI malfunction could be decentralized and ambiguous.
Diffuse Infrastructure: Nuclear programs are centralized and state-controlled, but AI development is global, decentralized, and often driven by private entities. Eg: Open-source AI models can be developed by individuals or startups across countries, unlike nuclear weapons.
Unreliable Deterrence Mechanism: MAD relies on guaranteed retaliation; AI malfunction is not guaranteed nor clearly attributable, making deterrence weak. Eg: It’s hard to prove who caused an AI collapse, unlike a nuclear strike which can be traced.
What are its policy implications?
Risk of Escalation: Using MAIM as a deterrence may justify preemptive strikes or sabotage, increasing chances of conflict. Eg: States might attack suspected AI labs without solid proof, causing diplomatic or military escalation.
False Sense of Security: Assuming AI deterrence works like nuclear deterrence may lead to complacency in governance and oversight. Eg: Policymakers might underinvest in AI safety, believing threat of malfunction is enough to prevent misuse.
Lack of Accountability: Diffuse AI development makes retaliation or regulation difficult, weakening the policy’s enforceability. Eg: If a rogue actor causes an AI incident, it’s hard to trace or penalize, unlike state-driven nuclear attacks.
How feasible is controlling AI chip distribution like nuclear materials?
Different Resource Requirements: Unlike nuclear tech, AI doesn’t need rare or radioactive materials, making chip controls less effective. Eg: Once AI models are trained, they can run on widely available hardware like GPUs.
Widespread Availability: AI chips are mass-produced and used in consumer electronics globally, making strict regulation difficult. Eg: Chips used for gaming or smartphones can also power AI applications.
Black Market and Bypass Risks: Efforts to restrict chip distribution may lead to smuggling or development of alternative supply chains. Eg: Countries barred from chip exports may create domestic chip industries or resort to illegal imports.
What assumptions about AI-powered bioweapons and cyberattacks are speculative, and why?
Inevitability of AI-powered attacks: It’s assumed AI will inevitably be used to develop bioweapons or launch cyberattacks, but such outcomes aren’t guaranteed. Eg: While AI can assist in simulations, creating bioweapons still requires complex biological expertise.
State-driven development dominance: The assumption that states will lead AI weaponization ignores the current dominance of private tech firms. Eg: Companies like OpenAI or Google, not governments, are at the forefront of AI research.
Equating AI with WMDs: Treating AI as a weapon of mass destruction assumes similar scale and impact, which is yet unproven. Eg: Cyberattacks can cause disruption, but rarely match the immediate devastation of a nuclear blast.
Why is more scholarship needed on AI in strategic affairs?
Lack of tailored strategic frameworks: Current strategies often rely on outdated comparisons like nuclear weapons, which don’t suit AI’s complexity. Eg: Using MAD to model AI deterrence ignores AI’s decentralized development and dual-use nature.
Unclear trajectory of AI capabilities: Without deeper research, it’s difficult to predict how AI might evolve or impact global security. Eg: The potential of superintelligent AI remains hypothetical, needing scenario-based academic exploration.
Policy gaps and ethical dilemmas: Scholarly input is crucial to guide regulation and international norms around AI use. Eg: Without academic insight, actions like preemptive strikes on AI labs could escalate conflicts unjustly.
Way forward:
Establish Multilateral AI Governance Frameworks: Nations should collaborate with international organizations, academia, and private stakeholders to create adaptive, inclusive, and enforceable AI governance structures. Eg: A global AI treaty modeled on the Paris Climate Accord can align safety, ethics, and innovation priorities.
Promote Interdisciplinary Strategic Research: Invest in dedicated research centers combining expertise from technology, security studies, ethics, and international law to anticipate and mitigate AI-related risks. Eg: Establishing think tanks like the “AI and National Security Institute” to inform real-time policy with evidence-based analysis.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2015] Considering the threats cyberspace poses to the country, India needs a “Digital Armed Force” to prevent crimes. Critically evaluate the National Cyber Security Policy, 2013, outlining the challenges perceived in its effective implementation.
Linkage: The strategic importance of cybersecurity and the need for a digital defence force, which would involve AI capabilities. This article will talk about the strategic significance of AI.
