Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nobel Prize, Neanderthal, Hominins, Denisovians
Mains level: Not Much
Swedish scientist Svante Paabo won the Nobel Prize in medicine for his discoveries on human evolution that provided key insights into our immune system and what makes us unique compared with our extinct ancestors.
Svante Paabo: His work, explained
- Svante Paaboâs seminal discoveries provide the basis for exploring what makes us uniquely human.
- Hominins refer to the now-extinct species of apes that are believed to be related to modern humans, as well as modern humans themselves.
- Paabo found that gene transfer had occurred from these now extinct Hominins to Homo sapiens following the migration out of Africa around 70,000 years ago.
- This ancient flow of genes to present-day humans has physiological relevance today, for example affecting how our immune system reacts to infections.
- Paabo established an entirely new scientific discipline, called paleogenomics that focuses on studying the DNA and genetic information of extinct hominins through reconstruction.
What is the relation between evolution and biology?
- Paaboâs discoveries have established a unique resource, which is utilized extensively by the scientific community to better understand human evolution and migration.
- We now understand that archaic gene sequences from our extinct relatives influence the physiology of present-day humans.
How did Paabo establish the linkage?
- Paabo extracted DNA from bone specimens from extinct hominins, from Neanderthal remains in the Denisova caves of Germany.
- The bone contained exceptionally well-preserved DNA, which his team sequenced.
- It was found that this DNA sequence was unique when compared to all known sequences from Neanderthals and present-day humans.
- Comparisons with sequences from contemporary humans from different parts of the world showed that gene flow, or mixing of genetic information among a species, had also occurred between Denisova and Homo sapiens â the species of modern-day humans.
- This relationship was first seen in populations in Melanesia (near Australia) and other parts of South East Asia, where individuals carry up to 6% Denisova DNA.
- The Denisovan version of the gene EPAS1 confers an advantage for survival at high altitudes and is common among present-day Tibetans.
What are the challenges in carrying out such research?
- There are extreme technical challenges because with time DNA becomes chemically modified and degrades into short fragments.
- The main issue is that only trace amounts of DNA are left after thousands of years, and exposure to the natural environment leads to contamination with DNA.
Back2Basics: Neanderthal Man
- Neanderthals were humans like us, but they were a distinct species called Homo Neanderthalensis.
- Together with an Asian people known as Denisovans, Neanderthals are our closest ancient human relatives. Scientific evidence suggests our two species shared a common ancestor.
- Current evidence from both fossils and DNA suggests that Neanderthal and modern human lineages separated at least 500,000 years ago. Some genetic calibrations place their divergence at about 650,000 years ago.
- The best-known Neanderthals lived between about 130,000 and 40,000 years ago, after which all physical evidence of them vanishes.
- They evolved in Europe and Asia while modern humans – our species, Homo sapiens – were evolving in Africa.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: LCH Prachanda
Mains level: Not Much
The indigenous Light Combat Helicopter LCH-Prachand was formally inducted into the Indian Air Force (IAF).
LCH- Prachand
- The LCH has been designed as a twin-engine, dedicated combat helicopter of 5.8-ton class, thus categorized as light.
- It features a narrow fuselage and tandem â one behind the other â configuration for pilot and co-pilot. The co-pilot is also the Weapon Systems Operator (WSO).
- While LCH inherits many features of the ALH-Dhruv, it mainly differs in tandem cockpit configuration, making it sleeker.
- It also has many more state-of-art systems that make it a dedicated attack helicopter.
Features, the significance of LCH
- LCH has the maximum take-off weight of 5.8 tonnes, a maximum speed of 268 kilometers per hour, range of 550 kilometers.
- It has endurance of over three hours and service ceiling the maximum density altitude to which it can fly â of 6.5 kilometres.
- LCH is powered by two French-origin Shakti engines manufactured by the HAL.
Combat capabilities
- The helicopter uses radar-absorbing material to lower radar signature and has a significantly crash-proof structure and landing gear.
- A pressurised cabin offers protection from nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) contingencies.
- With these features, the LCH has the capabilities of combat roles such as destruction of enemy air defence, counter-insurgency warfare, combat search and rescue, anti-tank, and counter surface force operations.
Why need indigenous LCH?
- It was during the 1999 Kargil war that the need was first felt for a homegrown lightweight assault helicopter that could hold precision strikes in all Indian battlefield scenarios.
- This meant a craft that could operate in very hot deserts and also in very cold high altitudes, in counter-insurgency scenarios to full-scale battle conditions.
- India has been operating sub 3 ton category French-origin legacy helicopters, Chetak and Cheetah, made in India by the HAL.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jal Jeevan Mission
Mains level: NA
Around 62% of rural households in India had fully functional tap water connections under the Jal Jeevan Mission.
Jal Jeevan Mission
- Jal Jeevan Mission, a central government initiative under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, aims to ensure access to piped water for every household in India.
- The missionâs goal is to provide all households in rural India with safe and adequate water through individual household tap connections by 2024.
- The Har Ghar Nal Se Jal program was announced by FM in the Budget 2019-20 speech.
- This programme forms a crucial part of the Jal Jeevan Mission.
- It is a central sector scheme with the Centre funding 50% of the cost with States and UTs, except for UT without a legislature, and 90% for NE and Himalayan states.
Note: A fully functional tap water connection is defined as a household getting at least 55 litres of per capita per day of potable water all through the year.
Components of the mission
The following key components are supported under JJM-
- Development of in-village piped water supply infrastructure to provide tap water connection to every rural household
- Bulk water transfer, treatment plants and distribution network to cater to every rural household
- Technological interventions for removal of contaminants where water quality is an issue
- Retrofitting of completed and ongoing schemes
- Greywater management
Progress of the scheme
- Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Goa, and Puducherry reported more than 80% of households with fully functional connections.
- However, less than half the households in Rajasthan, Kerala, Manipur, Tripura, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram and Sikkim had such connection.
- Close to three-fourths of households received water all seven days a week and 8% just once a week.
- On average, households got water for three hours every day, and 80% reported that their daily requirements of water were being met by the tap connections.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Satellite broadband
Mains level: Read the attached story
The race for providing satellite broadband connectivity in India is heating up as companies like Jio, Oneweb, Hughes and Tata-backed Nelco are preparing to provide these services.
Recent developments on satellite broadband
- Earlier last month, Hughes Communications India (HCI), a satellite internet service provider launched Indiaâs first high throughput satellite (HTS) broadband service powered by ISRO satellites.
- It used Ku-band capacity from ISRO GSAT-11 and GSAT-29 satellites with Hughes JUPITER Platform ground technology to deliver high-speed broadband.
What is a Satellite Broadband Service?
- Broadband essentially means a wide bandwidth, high-capacity data transmission technique, using a broad range of frequencies.
- In the case of a satellite broadband service, broadband services are delivered directly via satellites instead of optical fibre or mobile networks.
How is it different from existing broadband services?
(1) Transmission of data over space
- The main difference is that aggregation of all the data generated and transmitted by users accessing the internet happens in the sky or space that is in the satellite.
- In contrast to this, if we take a look at cellular networks, aggregation happens on the ground, in the base stations through optical fibre, cable, etc.
(2) Access to the services
- Another key difference is that to access satellite services, we will need a dish antenna just like we do in the case of TV services, so a normal mobile handset cannot directly access satellite broadband.
- For a user to access satellite broadband a clear line of sight to the satellite is needed.
Advantages offered
- Speed: The main advantage of satellite services is that you can provide high-speed internet services in remote areas, where terrestrial networks cannot be set up.
- Eliminating terrain shortcomings: For instance in the middle of the ocean, in rugged unreachable terrain such as the Himalayas â even as remote as on top of Mt. Everest, satellite broadband will work.
- Curbing the divide: In a country with a wide range of geographies such as India, 20-25 per cent of the Indian population resides in areas where it is extremely hard for terrestrial operators to install internet facilities.
Present scope in India
- Currently, VSAT operators offer satellite broadband services at a very limited capacity in India in a few remote locations.
- The utilisation of satellite services for broadband services is restricted to minimal applications â such as disaster management, defence, scientific locations, etc.
How India (undoubtedly, the ISRO) has geared up for adapting to this?
- ISROâs high throughput GEO (Geostationary Equatorial Orbit) satellites – GSAT-11 and GSAT-29 a few years ago, can beam high-speed internet up to 300 gigabytes per second.
- Apart, many global players look to provide satellite broadband services in India by deploying low earth orbit (LEO) satellites.
- They are launching a constellation of satellites very close to the earthâs surface in order to reduce the latency of satellite broadband.
- Presently, Elon Muskâs Starlink, Sunil Bharti Mittal-backed OneWeb and the Canadian satellite major Telesat are eyeing the Indian market.
When will these services be available in India?
- If things go as planned and the players get the necessary regulatory clearance, these services could become operational in India as soon as next year.
- OneWeb wants to provide backhaul services to telcos by mid-next year, while Starlink wants to provide direct broadband services by December 2022, aiming at 2 lakh terminals.
- Telesat, on the other hand, is eyeing an India launch by 2024.
How much will it cost?
- The provision of direct broadband services through satellites will be pricey.
- According to a user guide for India, provided by Starlink, the first-year cost of a Starlink terminal will be âš1,58,000 after which it will cost around âš1,15,000 every year.
Has it been rolled out in other parts of the world?
- Starlink is operational in 14 countries, with 1 lakh terminals shipped to North America and Europe.
- Starlink and OneWeb are still launching satellites that will be a part of their LEO constellation.
What are the major hurdles?
- Latency: Additionally, satellite Internet latency can be a significant problem. This can be a matter of only a second or two, but a delay on that scale can seriously affect real-time applications like video chats.
- Spatial hurdles: Users might not be able to connect to a satellite at all if they are located under heavy foliage or surrounded by other obstructions.
- Limited bandwidth: Satellite data transfer provides very slow Internet speeds and limited satellite bandwidth because of the distances the signals have to travel and all the potential obstacles in between.
- Connection times: This can also be impacted by your surroundings, the length of your message, and the status and availability of the satellite network.
- High input cost: This along with the complex equipment like satellite dishes being used to avail these services makes the service expensive.
Perspective analysis: Why is India itself lagging in this race?
- Globally, companies are striving to build and deploy âmega-constellationsâ of hundreds or thousands of satellites for this.
- Despite Indiaâs impressive achievements in the space sector, growth has been at snailâs pace.
- Satellite broadband services in India remains primarily for the B2B sector with a market size of roughly $100 million.
Reasonâs for Indiaâs slow pace
- Upgrade issues: The Indian networks are still using conventional satellites despite the proliferation of high throughput satellites world-over.
- Lack of domestic industries: There is a lack of domestic participation for building space infrastructure despite âMake in Indiaâ mission.
Way forward
- An urgent re-look at deregulation and privatization is required.
- Advanced space-faring nations have privatized most of these blocks in the value chain.
- There is a need for building systems to help nurture the industry and create an extensive ecosystem to generate a âSpace 2.0â in India.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Natural gas
Mains level: Clean energy
Context
- The announcement at the end of August by the ministry of petroleum that they had constituted a committee, headed by energy expert Kirit Parikh, to review the domestic natural gas pricing regime.
Background
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi wants to raise the share of gas in India’s energy mix to 15% by 2030 from 6.2%, helping it progress towards meeting a 2070 net zero carbon-emission goal.
What is Natural Gas?
- Natural gas is a fossil fuel source consisting primarily of methane. It is the cleanest fossil fuels among the available fossil fuels.
- It is used as a feedstock in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics and other commercially important organic chemicals as well as used as a fuel for electricity generation, heating purpose in industrial and commercial units.
- Natural gas is also used for cooking in domestic households and a transportation fuel for vehicles.
Why Natural gas is Important?
- Energy Efficient:Natural gas produces more energy than any of the fossil fuels in terms of calorific value.
- Cleaner fuel:Â Natural gas is a superior fuel as compared with coal and other liquid fuels being an environment-friendly, safer and cheaper fuel.
- Economy of use:Â Natural Gas (as CNG) is much cheaper compared with petrol or Diesel.
- Emission commitments:Â India made a commitment to COP-21 Paris Convention in December 2015 that by 2030, it would reduce carbon emission by 33%-35% of 2005 levels.
- Diverse applications:Â Natural gas can be used as domestic kitchen fuel, fuel for the transport sector as well as a fuel for fertilizer industries and commercial units.
- Supply chain convenience: Natural Gas is supplied through pipelines just like we get water from the tap. There is no need to store cylinders in the kitchen and thus save space.
- Pacing up the progress line: On the global front,switching to natural gas is bringing commendable results.The latest report released by IEA shows that the electricity produced by natural gas worldwide was more than that of coal for the first time ever.
Natural gas scenario in India
- Domestic Gas Sources: The domestic gas in the country is being supplied from the oil & gas fields located at western and southeastern areas viz. Hazira basin, Mumbai offshore & KG basin as well as North East Region (Assam & Tripura).
- Import of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG): In order to meet the gas demand, LNG is imported through the Open General License (OGL) in the country. Â At present, India is having six operational LNG regasification terminals at Dahej, Kochi, Mundra, Ennore etc.
- Gas Pipelines :
- Gas Pipeline infrastructure is an economical and safe mode of transporting natural gas by connecting gas sources to gas-consuming markets.
- An interconnected National Gas Grid has been envisaged to ensure the adequate availability and equitable distribution of natural gas in all parts of the country.
- Pricing:
- To incentivise gas producers and boost local output, since 2014 India has linked local gas prices to a formula tied to global benchmarks, including Henry Hub, Alberta gas, NBP and Russian gas.
- In 2016, the country began fixing the ceiling prices of gas produced from ultra-deep water and challenging fields and allowed marketing freedom to the operators of these fields.
- Current consumption: Indiaâs natural gas consumption is expected to grow by eight per cent year-on-year to around 34,949 million standard cubic meters (MSCM) in the current calendar year aided by expanding infrastructure, strong GDP growth projections, and supportive government policy.
- 2021 Consumption: In the 2021 calendar year (CY), the countryâs natural gas demand stood at 32,360 MSCM. The share of domestic gas and imported RLNG was about 48% & 52% respectively. The City Gas Distribution (CGD) accounts for the largest consumption of natural gas followed by fertilizers, power and other industrial sectors
- High prices: The state-set local gas prices and ceiling rates are at a record high and are expected to rise further due to a surge in global gas prices triggered by the Ukraine-Russia conflict.
Kirit Parikh Committee
- Objective: Ensuring fair prices to end consumers, and to suggest a market oriented, transparent and reliable pricing regime for India’s long term vision for ensuring a gas based economy.
- Members: The committee,headed by energy expert Kirit Parikh, will include members from the fertiliser ministry, as well as gas producers and buyers.Four of the six members are from the public sector.
What are the problems facing India’s natural gas reserves?
- Harsh topography: IHS CERA has estimated India has undiscovered gas resources of approximately 64 TCF The bulk of this is, however, in harsh topography and complex geology. These reserves are difficult to locate.
- Distant from the market:Even if located,they are difficult to bring to market on economically viable terms. This is because the cost of creating the development and production infrastructure is massive.
- Heavy Budget: The reality is India is a high-risk exploration play. There are inherent geologic, technical, and economic obstacles to achieving commercial success.
- Administered Pricing: Constraint of administered pricing petroleum companies have reduced their exploration budgets under pressure to shift away from fossil fuels.
What can be done?
- Pricing freedom: It should clear up the existing complexity and, other than for producers of gas from nomination blocks, permit all producers of gas to determine prices through arms length,direct and transparent negotiations with different consumer segments.
- Subsidies: There are no liquefaction facilities for the export of LNG in India. Subsidies may have to be provided but if so,they should be given directly by the government,through the exchequer. The gas producers must not be asked to bear that brunt.
Conclusion
- In the wake of the Ukraine crisis, the international energy market has undergone a profound transformation.India has made impressive progress towards clean energy. It has,however, a long way to go before it can fully wean itself off fossil fuels.
Mains Question
Q. It is evident that clean energy transitions are underway and itâs also a signal that we have the opportunity to meaningfully move the needle on emissions through more ambitious policies and investments in natural gas regime. Comment
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PDS,Subsidies
Mains level: Climate change and Food security
Context
- In pursuance of the earlier announcement of additional food security under PMGKAY, the Union Cabinet has approved the extension for the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY-Phase VII) for a further period of 3 months from October to December 2022.
What is Climate Change?
- United Nations defines Climate change as long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas
- The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)defines food security as , when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana?
- Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PM-GKAY) is a scheme as part of Atmanirbhar Bharat to supply free food grains to migrants and poor.
- Phase-I and Phase-II of this scheme was operational from April to June, 2020 and July to November, 2020 respectively.
- The PMGKAY scheme for Phase VI from April-September, 2022 would entail an estimated additional food subsidy of Rs. Rs. 80,000 Crore.
How food security and climate change are interlinked?
- Extreme events: India is going to have extreme events such as heatwaves, droughts, floods, etc of increasing intensity and frequency.
- Rising GHGs emission: We may keep blaming developed economies and ask for climate justice, yet we will have to act fast and boldly to correct our own policies that increase GHG emissions and aggravate the situation.
- Subsidies: Power provided at next-to-nothing prices, free water and highly subsidised fertilisers especially urea are some of the policies that are damaging the natural environment.
- Food ecosystem: Food security is one of the leading concerns associated with climate change. Climate change affects food security in complex ways. It impacts crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture, and can cause grave social and economic consequences in the form of reduced incomes, eroded livelihoods, trade disruption and adverse health impacts.
Why food security is a matter of concern?
- Fiscal deficit: The fiscal deficit of the Centre may go higher than provisioned in the Budget for FY23. The finance ministry not supporting the extension of this free food beyond September was, economically, a rational recommendation. More so as Covid-19 is behind us and the economy is back to its normal level of activity.
- Depleting stocks: The PMGKAY was announced in April 2020 in the wake of the pandemicâs first wave. At that time, it was perhaps necessary to support all those who lost their jobs. But doubling free rations depleted the bulging stocks of grains. Now with wheat procurement having plummeted, there is a concern about whether stocks are enough to curb inflationary expectations in the country.
- Less harvest: To replenish wheat stocks in FCI godowns, the government will have to raise the minimum support price (MSP) of wheat quite substantially. For rice, the current stocks are ample, but given the monsoon vagaries, the forthcoming rice harvest is estimated to be about 7 million tonnes less.
- Rising MSP: PMGKAY will be difficult to extend beyond December without putting an undue burden on MSPs and the fiscal deficit.
- Other reasons:
- Inflation: Even though the RBI has raised the repo rate by 50 basis points, the probability of inflation, as measured by the consumer price index (CPI), remaining higher than the central bankâs tolerance band is increasing by the day.
- Depreciating Rupee: The RBI has already spent more than $80 billion to support the rupee, and there are limits to which it can go. And, if RBI tries to hold the rupee artificially high, it will adversely hit Indian exports, widening the current account deficit and putting further pressure on the rupee. The best that RBI can and should do is to avoid a sudden and abrupt fall in the rupee, but also let it find its natural level given what is happening globally, especially in the currency markets.
- Long haul: The risks of higher inflation from the falling rupee remain and are likely to continue for at least one year, if not more.
What can we do?
- Increasing foreign exchange reserves: Government have to have innovative policies to promote exports and attract more foreign direct investment (FDI).
- Fixing Issue price: fix the issue prices of PDS supplies at half the MSP and limit the PDS coverage to 30 per cent of the bottom population.
- On rupee fall: The best that RBI can and should do is to avoid a sudden and abrupt fall in the rupee, but also let it find its natural level given what is happening globally, especially in the currency markets.
- Use of technology: If we have to tame food inflation, we will have to invest more in climate-smart agriculture, in precision farming, with high productivity and less damage to natural resources.
- Right ecosystem: Science and technologies can, of course, help us, but they cannot be scaled in a perverse policy ecosystem.
- Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices: India needs to step up public investment in development and dissemination of crop varieties which are more tolerant of temperature and precipitation fluctuations and are more water and nutrient efficient.
- Management of water resources: A four pronged strategy is recommended for the water sector; Increase irrigation efficiency, Promote micro irrigation in water-deficient areas, Better water resource infrastructure planning, Restoration of water bodies in rural areas, Stronger emphasis on public health.
- Long-term relief measures in the event of natural disasters: A recent report by NITI Aayog suggests that the government should transfer a minimum specified sum of cash to affected farmers and landless workers as an instant relief. For richer farmers who may want insurance above this relief, the report recommends a separate commercially viable crop insurance programme.
Conclusion
- So far India has done well to tame the food inflation as compared to other developed and developing economies. Present policy of RBI burning the FOREX and government increasing the deficit is unsustainable in long run. Food security needs to be insured by climate resilient policies for long term sustenance.
Mains Question
Q.Climate change is a growing concern that threatens sustainable development in addition to food security and inflation. Discuss
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nord Stream,GHG,Methane Emission
Mains level: Environmental degradation, Man made disasters.
Context
- Four leakages were reported at different points in the Nord Stream pipelines, linking Russia and Europe, since September 26. Two of the leaks were in Swedish waters while the other two were reported from Danish waters. The European Union said they suspected âsabotageâ behind the leaks.
What is Nord Stream Pipeline?
- Nord Stream 1 is the biggest pipeline transporting natural gas between Russia and Europe via Germany.It is a system of offshore natural gas pipelines running under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany.
- Nord Stream 1 is a 1,224 km underwater gas pipeline that runs from Vyborg in northwest Russia to Lubmin in northeastern Germany via the Baltic Sea.
- Russian threats to choke this gas supply to Europe present an economic threat to Germany.
- To expand options and double the supply from Russia, Germany decided to build Nord Stream 2.
- The construction of the $11 billion-worth Nord Stream 2 was completed in 2021 but never began commercial operations.
Why the Nord Stream pipeline is so important?
- For Germany: Energy prices in Germany, Europe’s largest economy, are among the lowest in the continent because of the cheap gas supplies via Nord Stream 1. This also makes German manufactured goods more competitive in the international market.
- For European Union: In 2021, Russia supplied nearly 40 per cent of the EU’s natural gas needs through this pipeline. The flows through Nord Stream play a vital role in filling up the national storage tanks of EU. It is crucial to provide the required heating in the upcoming winter.
- For Russia: Russia is using the supplies via the crucial pipeline as a bargain to navigate its economy through sanctions from the western countries.
- Nord stream pipeline is the largest single supply route for Russian gas to Europe. The Russian state owned gas company Gazprom has a majority ownership in the pipeline.
- While it was running at just 20% of its capacity since the Russia-Ukraine conflict began, the company, in early September fully cut gas flows from the pipeline on the pretext of maintenance.
- According to Bloomberg, while 40% of Europeâs pipeline gas came from Russia before Russia Ukraine the war, the number now stands at just 9%.
- Even though both pipelines were not running commercially, they had millions of cubic metres of gas stored in them.
The recent leakage in the pipeline
- Commercial Methane: Measuring satellite firm GHGSat says, that a conservative estimate based on available data suggested that the leaks together were releasing âmore than500 metric tonnes of methane per hourâ when first breached, with the flow decreasing over time.
- Biggest methane leakage ever: According to UNEP The leakage from the Nord Stream natural gas pipeline system under the Baltic Sea have led to perhaps the single biggest release of methane ever recorded.
- Amount of leakage: The rate of leakage at one of the four points of rupture in the pipeline was 22,920 kg per hour. That is equal to burning about 286,000 kg of coal every hour, according to scientists.
What will be the Impact of methane leakage?
- Possibility of more leakage: With the timeframe for repairs being uncertain, the pipelines were unlikely to provide any gas to Europe in the forthcoming winter months, even if the political will to resume supply was found.
- Commercial damage: European gas prices spiked after reports of the leaks emerged; European Benchmark prices rose 12% on Tuesday, while Dutch and British Prices continued to rise.
- Ozone formation: Methane is the primary contributor to the formation of ground-level ozone, a hazardous air pollutant and greenhouse gas, exposure to which causes 1 million premature deaths every year.
- Green House gas: Methane is also a powerful greenhouse gas. Over a 20-year period, it is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.
- Global warming: Methane has accounted for roughly 30 per cent of global warming since pre-industrial times and is proliferating faster than at any other time since record keeping began in the 1980s.
- Emission have already increased during the lockdown: According to data from the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, even as carbon dioxide emissions decelerated during the pandemic-related lockdowns of 2020, atmospheric methane shot up.
Why is it important to reduce methane emission?
- Short lifespan: Carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for hundreds to thousands of years. But it takes only about a decade for methane to break down. So, reducing methane emissions now would have an impact in the near term and is critical for helping keep the world on a path to 1.5°C.
- Human caused methane emissions: Human-caused methane emissions could be reduced by as much as 45 per cent within the decade. This would avert nearly 0.3°C of global warming by 2045, helping to limit global temperature rise to 1.5ËC and putting the planet on track to achieve the Paris Agreement targets.
- Prevent premature deaths: Every year, the subsequent reduction in ground-level ozone would also prevent 260,000 premature deaths, 775,000 asthma-related hospital visits, 73 billion hours of lost labour from extreme heat and 25 million tonnes of crop losses.
- Reducing the Agriculture emission: Agriculture and allied activities remains the biggest contributor of methane emission. The UNâs Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture initiative is supporting the transformation of agricultural and food systems, focusing on how to maintain productivity amid a changing climate. Representatives are also working to mainstream agriculture into the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
Conclusion
- Nord stream pipeline leakages will further exacerbate the ozone formation, Green House Gas emissions global warming and thereby climate change. In the spirit of Paris climate change agreement nations must act together to rein in the menace of GHG emissions.
Mains Questions
Q.Methane emission into atmosphere is done more by human activities than natural causes. In the spirit of Paris climate change agreement nations must act together to rein in the menace of GHG emissions. Explain
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UAPA
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Peopleâs Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) has released a report titled âUAPA: criminalizing dissent and state terrorâ on the alleged abuse of the legislation between 2009 and 2022, and demanded that the law be repealed.
What is Unlawful (Activities) Prevention Act (UAPA)?
- The UAPA is aimed at effective prevention of unlawful activities associations in India.
- Its main objective was to make powers available for dealing with activities directed against the integrity and sovereignty of India
- It is an upgrade on the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act TADA, which was allowed to lapse in 1995 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) was repealed in 2004.
- It was originally passed in 1967 under the then Congress government led by former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
- Till 2004, âunlawfulâ activities referred to actions related to secession and cession of territory. Following the 2004 amendment, âterrorist actâ was added to the list of offences.
What are Unlawful Activities and Associations?
- The UAPA lays down the definitions and rules for designating an organisation as an âunlawful associationâ if it is engaged in certain types of activities.
- Under Section 3 of the UAPA Act, the government has powers to declare an association âunlawfulâ.
- The government can then issue a notification designating such an organisation as a terrorist organisation, if it believes that the organisation is part of âterrorist activities.â
(1) Unlawful Activites
- Under section 2(o) of the UAPA, an unlawful activity in relation to an individual or association means â Any action taken by such an individual or association (whether by committing an act or by words, either spoken or written, or by signs or by visible representation or otherwise), â
- Works for the Cession of a part of the territory of India or the secession of a part of the territory of India from the Union
- Disclaims, questions, disrupts or is intended to Disrupt the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India; or
- which causes or is intended to cause Disaffection against India;
- Related and ancillary acts, including financing, support or promotion of any such activities are also âunlawful activityâ.
(2) Unlawful Association
The UAPA also defines an âUnlawful Associationâ under section 2(p) as meaning any association,â
- which has for its object any unlawful activity, or which encourages or aids persons to undertake any unlawful activity, or of which the members undertake such activity or
- which encourages or aids persons to undertake any such activity, or of which the members undertake any such activity
Reported abuse of UAPA
- The PUCL report studied data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) from 2015 to 2020.
- It has found per-case conviction rate under the UAPA was 27.57% compared with 49.67% in Indian Penal Code (IPC) cases.
- The per-arrestee conviction rate was just 2.8% against 22.19% in IPC cases.
- This is far less to figure of the success of having UAPA.
Cases registered under UAPA
- During the check period, 5,924 cases were registered and 8,371 persons arrested.
- The National Investigation Agency, on its website, had listed 456 cases of which 78% involved UAPA charges.
Issues with UAPA
- Burden of proof: With such high barriers of proof, it is now impossible for an accused to obtain bail, and is in fact a convenient tool to put a person behind bars indefinitely.
- No interim bail: As a consequence of UAPA being applied, the accused cannot even get bail.
- Traitor branding: This is being abused by the government, police and prosecution liberally: now, all dissenters are routinely implicated under charges of sedition or criminal conspiracy and under the UAPA.
- Fake and framed cases: In multiple instances, evidence is untenable, sometimes even arguably planted, and generally weak overall.
Key recommendations of the report
- Repeal of the NIA Act and disbanding of the agency
- Release of all political prisoners (also who are on bail) and
- Action to provide reparations for those wrongfully accused and released by Courts
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tokenization
Mains level: Transaction safety
The RBI’s deadline for tokenization of cards used in online payments passed on 30 September.
What is Tokenization?
- Tokenisation refers to the replacement of credit and debit card details with an alternative code called a âtokenâ.
- This token is unique for a combination of card, token requestor (the entity that accepts a request from the customer for tokenization of a card and passes it on to the card network to issue a token) and the device.
How does it work?
- Tokenizing credit and debit cards is a way to reduce the number of places where your card data can be found.
- For instance, payments on Uber showed a warning that your card data will be saved with payment gateways such as Visa and Mastercard.
- What it is saying is that a merchant like Uber will have to work with payment networks like Visa to convert the card details into a digital token, which is then used to validate transactions.
- As a result, the card details you enter on the Uber app, or any online platform, are not stored on the companyâs cloud servers, and are hence more secure.
What is the digital token being used?
- The digital token is a randomized string, usually alphanumeric. So, a 16-digit card number gets converted to something like 8f9%yf57ljTa.
- It is generated by computer programmes, and the card network tags the token to your actual card details, and relays the token to the merchant.
- When payments are to be requested, the merchant sends this token to the card network, which matches it against the saved details and validates the transaction.
- A third party accessing the token wonât have use for it, since tokens will be unique across combinations of card, token requestor and merchants.
Who can offer tokenization services?
- Tokenisation can be performed only by the authorised card network and recovery of original Primary Account Number (PAN) should be feasible for the authorised card network only.
- Adequate safeguards have to be put in place to ensure that PAN cannot be found out from the token and vice versa, by anyone except the card network.
- RBI has emphasised that the integrity of the token generation process has to be ensured at all times.
Benefits of Tokenization
- Transaction safety: Tokenization reduces the chances of fraud arising from sharing card details.
- Easy payments: The token is used to perform contactless card transactions at point-of-sale (PoS) terminals and QR code payments.
- Data storage: Only card networks and card-issuing banks will have access to and can store any card data.
How were the transactions processed?
- There are many players involved in processing one card transaction today:
- Merchant
- Payment aggregator
- Issuing bank
- Card network
- When a transaction happens on a merchant platform, the data is sent to the payment aggregator (PA).
- The PA next sends the details to either the issuing bank or the card network.
- Then issuing bank sends an OTP and the transaction flows back.
How will tokenization prevent online fraud?
- Card details saved on an app are stored in cloud servers, which if hacked, can give the hacker access to information like card numbers, expiry dates, name of holder etc.
- Though most merchants put special mechanisms to store card details in an obfuscated manner, itâs much more difficult to hack a bank or a Visa than it is to hack websites and apps.
How does it differ from encryption?
- The primary difference is that the token cannot lead one to the card details.
- In encryption, a computer program obfuscates data using an encryption key, and this key can turn the data back to its original form.
- In tokenization, however, there is no way to know what data a token represents unless one has access to the databases of the actual issuer of that token.
- In many cases, laws donât consider tokens as âsensitive data”, and hence, companies donât have to ensure the same compliance to protect them.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Professors of Practice
Mains level: Not Much
University Grants Commission (UGC) has issued new guidelines under which higher education institutes can create a new teaching position called Professor of Practice to hire experts from various sectors, in line with provisions that already exist in the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
Professors of Practice
- If one is a distinguished professional in any field but do not have a formal academic qualification such as a PhD, he/she can still be eligible for appointment as faculty in any college or university in India.
- To be eligible for appointment, an individual will have to be a âdistinguished expertâ who has made remarkable contributions in their professions.
- The post is open to the institutions themselves to decide the sector from which they want to rope in professionals.
Streams opened for this post
- A professor of practice can be anyone with a background in a diverse range of areas from technology, science, social sciences, media, literature, armed forces, law, fine arts, etc.
- However, the position is not open for those in the teaching profession â either serving or retired.
Minimum qualifications
- No formal academic qualification is necessary in order to be considered for this position if a person has been an âexemplaryâ professional in their field of work.
- Currently, under the UGCâs minimum qualifications needs a PhD to be recruited as a professor or associate professor, and also needs to have cleared the National Eligibility Test (NET).
Will the professor of practice be a full-time position?
- It can be either a full-time or a part-time engagement for at least four years.
- Initially, the hiring will be for one year.
- Based on performance, extensions may be given.
How will these appointments be made?
- Universities and colleges will carry out appointments on a nomination basis.
- In other words, vice-chancellors or directors have been authorized to invite nominations for filling up posts, which cannot exceed 10 percent of the sanctioned faculty strength of an institute.
- After nominations are invited, those interested can send their applications with detailed biodata and a brief write-up about the ways they can potentially contribute.
- The applications will be considered by a selection committee comprising two senior professors from the respective institute, and one âeminent external memberâ.
- Based on the recommendations of the committee, the academic council and the executive council of the institutes will take the final call on appointment.
What about remuneration?
- The remuneration will be decided at the level of the institutes and the experts being hired.
- In some cases, universities can even approach industries for financial support.
Why such move?
- Indiaâs higher education institutes are understaffed, with thousands of vacancies across central and state universities.
- So the UGC is hoping that recruiting industry experts and professionals will help âaugment faculty resourcesâ in universities and colleges.
- The move is aimed at addressing concerns about the quality of graduates being produced by Indian colleges and universities.
- Around the world, the idea of a professor of practice aims essentially to facilitate and promote the integration of academic scholarship with practical expertise and experience.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PUC Certification
Mains level: Delhi Air Pollution issue
Motorists will not be able to buy fuel in Delhi without a valid Pollution Under Control (PUC) certificate from October 25.
What is PUC Certificate?
- The PUC certificate is a document that any person driving a motor vehicle can be asked to produce by a police officer in uniform authorized by the state government.
- These issue certificates if a vehicle is found complying with the prescribed emission norms.
- Since the Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019 came into force, PUC certificate has been made mandatory.
- A PUC certificate contains information such as the vehicleâs license plate number, PUC test reading, date on which the PUC test was conducted and the expiry date.
Compliance rules
- According to Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, every motor vehicle is required to carry a valid PUC Certificate after the expiry of period of one year from the date of its first registration.
- This includes those conforming to BS-I/ BS-II/ BS-III/BS-IV /BS-VI as well as vehicles plying on CNG/LPG.
- However, the validity of four-wheeled BS-IV compliant vehicles is one year and for other vehicles it is three months.
How is a pollution control check carried out?
- The computerized model for pollution check was developed by the Society of Indian Automobile manufacturers.
- A gas analyzer is connected to a computer, to which a camera and a printer are attached.
- The gas analyzer records the emission value and sends it to the computer directly, while the camera captures the license plate of the vehicle.
- Subsequently, a certificate may be issued if the emission values are within the limits.
Why obtain PUC Certificate?
- Emissions from automobiles are major contributors to air pollution all over the world.
- The smoke emitted from vehicles contains the following pollutants:
- Hydrocarbons (HC)
- Carbon Monoxide (CO)
- Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
- Particulate Matter (PM)
- Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
- Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MeFSAT
Mains level: Not Much
An analytical study of medicinal fungi using MeFSAT carried out by researchers from Chennai shows that some chemicals they secrete may find use as novel drugs.
What is MeFSAT?
- MeFSAT (Medicinal Fungi Secondary Metabolites and Therapeutics) is a database that compiles information on 184 medicinal fungi, including mushrooms.
- It is a manually curated database that compiles information on secondary metabolites and reported therapeutic uses of medicinal fungi from published research articles and specialized books on the subject.
Why in news?
- Chennai-based researchers analysed the structure of 1,830 secondary metabolites of medicinal fungi.
- Secondary metabolites are chemical compounds that fungi produce when they are stressed.
- They enhance the fungusâ ability to survive.
What are medicinal fungi?
- Medicinal fungi belongs to two taxonomic divisions namely, basidiomycota and ascomycota.
- Mushrooms belong to the basidiomycota division. An example is Agaricus bisporus, the button mushroom, which can be consumed.
- Fungi belonging to the ascomycota division are generally not mushrooms.
Examples of fungi-based medicines
- Cordycepin, a secondary metabolite produced by Cordyceps species of fungus, is known to have anti-tumor properties.
- Not only cordycepin, in general, but several secondary metabolites are also known to be beneficial for humans in terms of both therapy and health.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MRTP Act
Mains level: Abortion rights debate
The Supreme Court has held that all women, irrespective of their marital status, are entitled to safe and legal abortion till 24 weeks of pregnancy under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act.
A case for safe abortion
- A Bench led by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud was hearing the appeal of a woman who wanted to abort her 24-week pregnancy after her relationship failed and her partner left her.
- The lower court had taken an âunduly restrictive viewâ that her plea for a safe abortion was not covered under the Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act.
- This was since the pregnancy arose from a consensual relationship outside wedlock.
What was the last amendment?
- The court noted that an amendment to the Act in 2021 had substituted the term âhusbandâ with âpartnerâ, a clear signal that the law covered unmarried women within its ambit.
Reiterating the live-in recognition
- Chastising the lower court, the Bench said live-in relationships had already been recognised by the Supreme Court.
- There were a significant number of people in social mainstream who see no wrong in engaging in pre-marital sex.
- The law could not be used to quench ânotions of social moralityâ and unduly interfere in their personal autonomy and bodily integrity.
About Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act
- Abortion in India has been a legal right under various circumstances for the last 50 years since the introduction of the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act in 1971.
- The Act was amended in 2003 to enable womenâs access to safe and legal abortion services.
- Abortion is covered 100% by the governmentâs public national health insurance funds, Ayushman Bharat and Employeesâ State Insurance with the package rate for surgical abortion.
The idea of terminating your pregnancy cannot originate by choice and is purely circumstantial. There are four situations under which a legal abortion is performed:
- If continuation of the pregnancy poses any risks to the life of the mother or mental health
- If the foetus has any severe abnormalities
- If pregnancy occurred as a result of failure of contraception (but this is only applicable to married women)
- If pregnancy is a result of sexual assault or rape
The pregnancy can be terminated upto 24 weeks of gestational age after the opinion of two registered medical practitioners under these conditions â
- If the woman is ââeither a survivor of sexual assault or rape or incest
- If she is a minor
- If her marital status has changed during the ongoing pregnancy (i.e. either widowhood or divorce)
- If she has major physical disabilities or is mentally ill
- On the grounds of foetal malformation incompatible with life or if the child is born, it would be seriously handicapped
- If the woman is in humanitarian settings or disaster, or emergency situations as declared by the government
These are the key changes that the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (Amendment) Act, 2021, has brought in:
- The gestation limit for abortions has been raised from the earlier ceiling of 20 weeks to 24 weeks, but only for special categories of pregnant women such as rape or incest survivors. But this termination would need the approval of two registered doctors.
- All pregnancies up to 20 weeks require one doctorâs approval. The earlier law, the MTP Act 1971, required one doctorâs approval for pregnancies upto 12 weeks and two doctorsâ for pregnancies between 12 and 20 weeks.
- Women can now terminate unwanted pregnancies caused by contraceptive failure, regardless of their marital status. Earlier the law specified that only a âmarried woman and her husbandâ could do this.
- There is also no upper gestation limit for abortion in case of foetal disability if so decided by a medical board of specialist doctors, which state governments and union territoriesâ administrations would set up.
Criticism of Abortion
- Foetuses feel the pain: If the foetus is beyond 20 weeks of gestation, gynaecs assume that there will be pain caused to the foetus.
- Abortions cause psychological damage: Young adult women who undergo abortion may be at increased risk for subsequent depression.
- Abortions reduce the number of adoptable babies: Instead of having the option to abort, women should give their unwanted babies to people who cannot conceive. Single parenthood is also gaining popularity in the US.
- Cases of selective abortion: Such cases based on physical and genetic abnormalities (eugenic termination) is overt discrimination.
- Abortion as a form of contraception: It is immoral to kill an unborn child for convenience. Many women are using abortion as a contraceptive method.
- Morality put to question: If women become pregnant, they should accept the responsibility that comes with producing a child. People need to take responsibility for their actions and accept the consequences.
- Abortion promotes throwaway culture: The legalization of abortion sends a message that human life has little value and promotes the throwaway culture.
Arguments in favour for Abortion Rights
- Upholding individual conscience and decision-making: Â The US Supreme Court has declared abortion to be a fundamental right guaranteed by the US Constitution.
- Reproductive choice empowers women: The choice over when and whether to have children is central to a womanâs independence and ability to determine her future.
- Foetal viability occurs post-birth: Â Personhood begins after a foetus becomes âviableâ (able to survive outside the womb) or after birth, not at conception. Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy, not a baby.
- No proof of foetal pain: Most neuroscientists believe that the cortex is necessary for pain perception. The cortex does not become functional until at least the 26th week of a foetusâ development.
- Preventing illegal abortions: Access to legal, professionally-performed abortions reduces maternal injury and death caused by unsafe, illegal abortions.
- Motherâs health: Modern abortion procedures are safe and do not cause lasting health issues such as cancer and infertility.
- Childâs health: Abortion gives pregnant women the option to choose not to bring fetuses with profound abnormalities to full term.
- Prevents womenâs exclusion: Women who are denied abortions are more likely to become unemployed, to be on public welfare, to be below the poverty line, and to become victims of domestic violence.
- Reproductive choice protects women from financial disadvantage: Many women who choose abortion donât have the financial resources to support a child.
- Justified means of population control: Many defends abortion as a way to curb overpopulation. Malnutrition, starvation, poverty, lack of medical and educational services, pollution, underdevelopment, and conflict over resources are all consequences of overpopulation.
Conclusion
- Hence it is now established that the right to abortion is a legal right of all women.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Location,BIMSTEC,Centre for Bay of Bengal Studies
Mains level: Foreign Policy,Regional Grouping
Context
- At the fourth BIMSTEC summit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the opening of the Centre for Bay of Bengal Studies (CBS) at Nalanda University. The launch of the CBS has once again demonstrated Indiaâs commitment to advancing constructive agendas by forging connections and setting up platforms for all those with an interest in the of Bay of Benagl.
- Commerce hub: The Bay has long been a major commerce hub for the Indian Ocean. It created a conduit between the East and the West in terms for trade and culture.
- Emerging arena of maritime warfare: An Indo-Pacific orientation and the realignment of global economic and military power towards Asia have had a considerable impact on the Bay region.
- Communication and Energy: The key sea lanes of communication in this area are lifelines for global economic security and are crucial to the energy security that powers the economies of many countries in the region.Further, non-traditional dangers including terrorism and climate change have become more prevalent.
- Under water resources: The Bay also provides an opportunity for greater regional cooperation in the environmentally friendly exploration of marine and energy resources. The Bay has a biodiverse marine environment.
- Fresh water resources: It receives the water from some of the worldâs largest rivers. It is a partially enclosed sea that has given rise to several geological characteristics.
- Ecology: It is home to many rare and endangered marine species and mangroves, which are essential to the survival of the ecology and the fishing sector.
Why ecology in the region is under threat?
The regionâs maritime environment has changed as are result of major powers expanding their economic and geopolitical influence.
- Competition: Political and cultural engagement, together with economic competition, have taken on new dimensions. More crucially, the Bayâs ecosystem is going through an unprecedented crisis brought on by widespread environmental exploitation and geopolitical unrest.
- Resource exploitation: Species extinction is a result of careless exploitation of the maritime environment, which has severe consequences on biodiversity. Problems such as population growth, altered land use, excessive resource exploitation, salinity, sea level rise, and climate change are exerting significant strain on the Bayâs environment.
- Water pollution: Operational discharge from small and medium feeder ships, shipping collisions, unintentional oil spills, industrial waste, pollution, and the accumulation of non- biodegradable plastic litter are all contributing to the deterioration of the Bay.
- Declining ecology: A dead-zone has formed, and the mangrove trees that protect the shore from the fury of nature are under more threat than ever.
What could be the Solutions?
For a better knowledge of challenges, and strategies to overcome them for the sustainable development of the region, more focused and inter-disciplinary study is required on these issues.
- Centre for Bay of Bengal studies: By founding the CBS, Nalanda University has already started its journey and given the nation a unique interdisciplinary research centre devoted to Bay focused teaching, research, and capacity building. Additionally, scholars from many countries and academic streams are already participating in CBSâs first certificate programme on the Bay.
- Inter-governmental cooperation: It is essential that nautical neighbours develop a partnership and cooperate because of the maritime domainâs interrelated and interdependent nature, transnational character, and cross-jurisdictional engagement of various governments and diverse organisations and enterprises.
- Maritime connectivity: A few concerns that need immediate attention include expanding cooperation in maritime safety and security, enhancing cooperation on maritime connectivity and the ease of maritime transit, and boosting investment possibilities in the maritime connectivity sector.
- Illegal activities: The latter subject involves addressing non-traditional threats and fostering group efforts to reduce illicit, unreported, and unregulated fishing.
- Data sharing: Standardising and harmonising data reporting.
- Balanced approach: Furthermore regional marine entities should strive to balance opportunities and goals on a national, regional, and international scale.
- Investment in R&D: Littoral governments need to support and promote skill-building, research, and training.
Conclusion
- Countries in the Bay of Bengal need to mobilise investments, manage maritime affairs more effectively. Alternative lifestyle should be explored. The cooperation of all member states, for information gathering, sharing and result oriented actions is crucial in protecting the ecology of Bay of Bengal.
Mains Question
Q.Countries in the Indian subcontinent are developing rapidly, putting serious stress on the environment of the Bay of Bengal.Mention the challenges and suggest solutions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Transboundary Rivers
Mains level: Disaster Management
Context
- Pakistan experiencing devastation, with a spread of diseases and severe shortage of potable water after intense flooding. In June this year Assam experienced one of its worst floods in which it affected over 30 districts. Assam and Bihar frequently suffer from transboundary flood disasters.
- Floods that are originate in upper riparian state crosses the international boundary and also affects the lower riparian state. For example, river Brahmaputra causes flood both in China and India simultaneously.
How the transboundary floods are difficult to manage than normal floods?
- Flooding is still considered to be a natural phenomenon that cannot be entirely prevented. But it is compounded by the lack of transparency in the sharing of hydrological information and also information relating to activities (such as by one riparian state) that are transboundary in their effect (affecting other riparian states), thus serving as an obstacle in understanding the magnitude of flooding.
What is a riparian state?
- A riparian state is state (or country) located alongside a river.
What are the International laws governing transboundary waters?
There are at two international treaties that governs the transboundary water
- UNWC:
- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Use of International Watercourses (UNWC) 1997.UNWC contains a direct reference to floods, which covers harmful conditions and the emergency situations.
- Article 27 of the Convention says, Watercourse States shall individually and, where appropriate, jointly, take all appropriate measures to prevent or mitigate conditions that may be harmful to other watercourse States, whether resulting from natural causes or human conduct or desertification.
- Environmental Impact Assessment:
- The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina vs Uruguay) case of 2010, upheld that conducting a transboundary environmental impact assessment (TEIA) of a planned measure or projects on the shared water course is part of customary international law.
- In fact, the ICJ noted that the acting state must notify the affected party of the results of TEIA for assessment of its own damages that are likely to occur.
- UNECE: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes 1992 (Water Convention).
How India manages transboundary flood?
- Note:Neither India nor China are signatory to UNWC or UNCEC.
- River Brahmaputra: India has signed the memorandum of understanding (MoU) with China in 2013 with a view to sharing hydrological information during the flood season (June to September). The MoU does not allow India access to urbanisation and deforestation activities on the Chinese side of the river basin.
- Rivers Gandak and kosi: Floods are also a recurrent problem in the Kosi and Gandak river basins that are shared by India and Nepal.
- The India-Nepal Kosi agreement 1954: Agreement aimed at reducing devastating flooding in the river basin. The treaty-based joint bodies have also tried to refine the early warning systems for flood forecasting.
What are the suggestions?
- Signing the treaty: Expert suggests, India by becoming a party to either the UNWC and the Water Convention could lay the groundwork for a bilateral treaty on the Brahmaputra but subject to the reservation that it should not insist on the insertion of a dispute settlement mechanism provision.
- Information exchange: In contravention of procedural customary international law obligation, India considers data on transboundary rivers as classified information, which is one of the key challenges in developing cross-border flood warning systems. India needs to share the hydrological and river information for its own sake.
Conclusion
- Climate change has accelerated the frequency and intensity of floods across the world. with Changing climate India should also change its strategy to protect its people, to preserve the soil and to save its resources from the scourge of floods.
Mains Questions
Q.Climate change has created a more difficult challenge in flood management. In this context, what measures can be taken to deal with frequent transboundary floods in India. Discuss.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UAPA
Mains level: Terror financing and money laundering
The Union Home Ministry has declared the Popular Front of India (PFI) and its front organizations as an âunlawful associationâ under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA).
PFI under the Unlawful (Activities) Prevention Act (UAPA)
- The UAPA is aimed at the effective prevention of unlawful activity associations in India.
- Its main objective was to make powers available for dealing with activities directed against the integrity and sovereignty of India
- It is an upgrade on the Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act TADA, which was allowed to lapse in 1995 and the Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) was repealed in 2004.
- It was originally passed in 1967 under the then Congress government led by former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
- Till 2004, âunlawfulâ activities referred to actions related to secession and cession of territory. Following the 2004 amendment, âterrorist actâ was added to the list of offences.
What are Unlawful Activities and Associations?
- The UAPA lays down the definitions and rules for designating an organization as an “unlawful association” if it is engaged in certain types of activities.
- Under Section 3 of the UAPA Act, the government has powers to declare an association âunlawfulâ.
- The government can then issue a notification designating such an organization as a terrorist organization if it believes that the organization is part of “terrorist activities.”
(1) Unlawful Activites
- Under section 2(o) of the UAPA, an unlawful activity in relation to an individual or association means â Any action taken by such an individual or association (whether by committing an act or by words, either spoken or written, or by signs or by visible representation or otherwise), –
- Works for the Cession of a part of the territory of India or the secession of a part of the territory of India from the Union
- Disclaims, questions, disrupts or is intended to Disrupt the sovereignty and territorial integrity of India; or
- which causes or is intended to cause Disaffection against India;
- Related and ancillary acts, including financing, support or promotion of any such activities are also “unlawful activity”.
(2) Unlawful Association
The UAPA also defines an “Unlawful Association” under section 2(p) as meaning any association,–
- which has for its object any unlawful activity, or which encourages or aids persons to undertake any unlawful activity, or of which the members undertake such activity or
- which encourages or aids persons to undertake any such activity, or of which the members undertake any such activity
Reading the ban on PFI
- At present, the MHA notification published has said that the PFI and its affiliated organisations are being notified as “Unlawful Associations” with immediate effect.
- The charges against PFI are-
- Pursuing a secret agenda to radicalize a particular section of society
- Working towards undermining the concept of democracy and
- Showing sheer disrespect towards the constitutional authority and constitutional set up of the country
- Gathering funds and ideological support from outside the country
- Money laundering
Immediate trigger for PFIâs ban
- The PFI is accused of engaging in violent and barbaric acts.
- Criminal violent acts carried out by PFI include chopping off the limb of a college professor, cold-blooded killings of persons associated with organisations espousing other faiths.
- It has been allegedly involved in obtaining explosives to target prominent people and places and destruction of public property.
What does the âbanâ mean?
- The notification means that the membership of, support or financing to the PFI and the allied banned organizations, is now ILLEGAL.
- Any person who is a member of these organisations can face arrest, and joining membership of these organisations is a criminal offence.
- The government can also seize the properties, bank accounts and offices connected to these organisations.
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From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PMGKAY
Mains level: Schemes related to food security
The Union government has extended the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana (PMGKAY) for another three months from October 1.
What is PMGKAY?
- PMGKAY is a food security welfare scheme announced by the GoI in March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in India.
- The program is operated by the Department of Food and Public Distribution under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
- The scale of this welfare scheme makes it the largest food security program in the world.
Targets of the scheme
- To feed the poorest citizens of India by providing grain through the Public Distribution System to all the priority households (ration card holders and those identified by the Antyodaya Anna Yojana scheme).
- PMGKAY provides 5 kg of rice or wheat (according to regional dietary preferences) per person/month and 1 kg of dal to each family holding a ration card.
At what rate are food grains provided under the NFSA?
- NFSA beneficiaries are entitled to receive foodgrains at highly subsidised rates.
- Under the food law, rice is provided at Rs 3 per kg, wheat at Rs 2 per kg, and coarse grains at Re 1 per kg.
Why was such a scheme needed?
- The devastation by pandemic has increased manifold in the second wave resulting into localized restrictions and lockdowns from the States.
- This resulted in massive jobs losses in urban areas since the largest employers being construction and hospitality sectors have been completely shut down.
- The virus penetrated deeper in the countryside in rural areas halting almost every sources of livelihood.
- These areas are such where 60% of the income was earned from non-pharm activities. This resulted in livelihood losses of large section of population.
Success of the scheme
- It was the first step by the government when pandemic affected India.
- The scheme reached its targeted population feeding almost 80Cr people.
- It has proven to be more of a safety net to migrant people who had job and livelihood losses.
- This has also ensured nutrition security to children of the migrant workers.
Failures
- The scheme has been affected by widespread corruption, leakages and failure to distribute grain to the intended recipients.
- Several of the states above have claimed that the ineffective distribution has been caused by the beneficiaries, especially migrant workers, not being available to receive their rations.
- Out of the 79.25 crore beneficiaries under the National Food Security Act (NFSA), only 55 crore have so far received their 5 kg.
- However, almost 90% of beneficiaries have received their regular subsidized grain for the month, raising questions over why the free grain has reached fewer beneficiaries.
- Many people were denied their share due to inability to access ration cards.
- Livelihood losses led to decline in aggregate demand and resulted into lowest ever consumption expenditure by the people owing to scarcity of cash.
- This in turn led to selling of the free grains obtained in the local markets for cash.
Way forward
- There should be an all-encompassing database for migrant workers and their family. This should accurately capture the data on migration.
- The One Nation One Ration Card should be implemented in true spirit by all the states.
- Along with food security, there should be a sustainable income support through schemes like MGNREGS accompanied by free vaccines in nearest future.
- The leakages in PDS should be minimized through modernize PDS.
- To avoid leakages, there should be food-token system.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Forex reserves, BoP
Mains level: Read the attached story
Indiaâs depleted foreign exchange reserves are likely to drop further, falling to their lowest level in more than two years by end-2022.
Forex to dip
- In a battle that has so far failed to staunch the rupeeâs fall to a record low against the greenback, the RBI has drawn down its foreign exchange reserves by close to $100 billion, to $545 billion.
- Those reserves are forecast to fall another $23 billion to $523 billion by the end of this year.
What is Foreign Exchange (Forex) Reserve?
- Foreign exchange reserves are important assets held by the central bank in foreign currencies as reserves.
- They are commonly used to support the exchange rate and set monetary policy.
- In Indiaâs case, foreign reserves include Gold, Dollars, and the IMFâs quota for Special Drawing Rights.
- Most of the reserves are usually held in US dollars, given the currencyâs importance in the international financial and trading system.
- Some central banks keep reserves in Euros, British pounds, Japanese yen, or Chinese yuan, in addition to their US dollar reserves.
Indiaâs forex reserves cover:
- Foreign Currency Assets (FCAs)
- Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
- Gold Reserves
- Reserve position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Countries with the highest foreign reserves
Currently, China has the largest reserves followed by Japan and Switzerland. India has overtaken Russia to become the fourth largest country with foreign exchange reserves. (Data from August 2022)
- China â $3,349 Billion
- Japan â $1,376 Billion
- Switzerland â $1,074 Billion
- India â $612.73 Billion
- Russia â $597.40 Billion
Why are these reserves so important?
- All international transactions are settled in US dollars and, therefore, required to support Indiaâs imports.
- More importantly, they need to maintain support and confidence for central bank action, whether monetary policy action or any exchange rate intervention to support the domestic currency.
- It also helps to limit any vulnerability due to sudden disturbances in foreign capital flows, which may arise during a crisis.
- Holding liquid foreign currency provides a cushion against such effects and provides confidence that there will still be enough foreign exchange to help the country with crucial imports in case of external shocks.
Initiatives taken by the government to increase forex
- To increase the foreign exchange reserves, the Government of India has taken many initiatives like AatmaNirbhar Bharat, in which India has to be made a self-reliant nation so that India does not have to import things that India can produce.
- Other than AatmaNirbhar Bharat, the government has started schemes like Duty Exemption Scheme, Remission of Duty or Taxes on Export Product (RoDTEP), Nirvik (Niryat Rin Vikas Yojana) scheme, etc.
- Apart from these schemes, India is one of the top countries that attracted the highest amount of Foreign Direct Investment, thereby improving Indiaâs foreign exchange reserves.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ranipur Tiger Reserve
Mains level: Not Much
The UP cabinet approved the notification of Ranipur Tiger Reserve under Section 38(v) of the Wild life (Protection) Act of 1972.
About Ranipur WS
- Ranipur WS, was founded in 1977, is one of the attractions of Chitrakoot district in Uttar Pradesh.
- It is spread over 230 sq.km and is noted for its diverse wildlife, but is not very frequently visited by tourists because of the difficult access.
- The Ranipur TR has tropical dry deciduous forests and is home to fauna such as tigers, leopards, sloth bears, spotted deer, sambhar, chinkara and a number of birds and reptiles, the statement added.
- The Ranipur TR will be the fourth in UP, after Dudhwa, Pilibhit and Amangarh (buffer of Corbett Tiger Reserve).
- It will also be the first in the stateâs portion of the Bundelkhand region, which it shares with neighbouring Madhya Pradesh.
Why make it a tiger reserve?
- RWSÂ has no tigers of its own.
- But pugmarks of the animals are frequently seen there as tigers from nearby Panna frequent it.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Economics,Energy,Infrastructure
Context
- The game changing scheme is being proposed by the central government in power sector governance. The scheme under consideration is the market-based economic dispatch (MBED). When it comes to any drastic change in the power sector, a clash between the Centre and the states is inevitable.
What is Market Based Economic Dispatch (MBED)?
- Market Based Economic Dispatch (MBED) is new approach towards power distribution to help distribution companies save costs and transition to a new form of power market.
- It is a shift to a centralised framework, marks a radical departure from the current decentralised, voluntary pool-based electricity market.
What is the framework under MBED?
- The cheapest power from across the country will be dispatched to meet the system wide demand. The architecture would also lead to a âMarket clearing priceâ.
- Sellers and buyers will place their bids for the day market, and an outcome of this will be the discovery of the market clearing price.
- This process is expected to generate significant savings for consumers.
- Under the present regime, each distribution company (Discom) is bound by the power purchase agreements (PPAs) that it holds.
- It can schedule power only from its own PPAs, starting from the cheapest PPA and then moving up; it cannot schedule power from the PPA of some other distribution company.
What are the drawbacks of present system?
- Financial Burdon:
- The Indian government responded to COVID-19âs economic shock with a stimulus package of Rs.20-lakh crore, out of which Rs.90,000 crore was earmarked for discoms (later upgraded to Rs.1,25,000 crore). While it was called a stimulus, it is really a loan, meant to be used by discoms to pay off generators.
- Discoms owe one lakh crore rupees to generators, and without such an infusion the chain will collapse.
- States are defaulters:
- State governments are the biggest defaulters, responsible for an estimated a third of trade receivables, besides not paying subsidies in full or on time.
- On an annual cash flow basis, the shortfall in subsidy payments appears very low, only about 1% but cumulative unpaid subsidies, with modest carrying costs, make discoms poorer by over Rs.70,000 crore just over the last 10 years.
What will be the Advantages of MBED?
- Centralized approach: The centralised dispatch will be done with the assistance of electricity exchanges. Each discom and each generator will place a bid in the day-ahead market of the electricity exchanges, which will indicate how much power is being demanded/ supplied at what price.
- Pan India market: These bids will enable the load dispatcher to construct a pan India demand and supply curve, the intersection of which will determine the market clearing price (MCP). All generators whose variable cost of generation is below the MCP will be asked to dispatch and all of them will receive the same MCP irrespective of what they had bid. Generators whose variable cost is higher than the MCP will sit idle.
- No loss to discom: The MBED is so devised that its operation will not affect the current finances of either the discoms or the generators for the following reasons.
- First, the fixed cost of the generators will still be paid by the discoms outside the market as determined by the regulator.
- Second, if the MCP comes out to be Rs 3 per unit, and if in the case of any PPA, the variable cost is Rs 2.75 per unit, then the generator will compensate the discom to the extent of Rs 0.25 per unit. Similarly, if the MCP so determined is Rs 2.50 per unit, then the discom will compensate the generator to the extent of Rs 0.25 per unit.
- Increasing efficiency: The logic is that by adopting MBED, only the relatively efficient plants will generate, without affecting the revenues of either the discoms or generators. Hence, the total cost of generation under the MBED system would be less.
- Less pollution: There would be less coal consumption and less carbon dioxide injected into the atmosphere.
- Easy integration with renewable: It would also mean less movement of coal leading to decongestion of railway tracks. Further, there would be enhanced renewable integration since the balancing area would shift from state to national level.
- Single market clearing price (MCP): Incidentally, since there are three electricity exchanges in operation today, there would be three different MCPs determined. What we need is a single MCP for which there will be an institution called the âmarket couplerâ. It will be the job of the coupler to determine a national MCP based on what has arrived at the three different exchanges.
Why states are opposing?
- High generation cost: The reason is the state-owned generators are relatively inefficient and may have to sit idle as their variable cost of generation is likely to be more than the MCP.
- Political backlash: Today, the states are operating their own generators to the hilt, even though they are inefficient, and drawing only the balance from the more efficient interstate generating stations. Keeping state generators idle has its own political implications and no state would be enamoured of this idea.
Conclusion
- Power distribution companies (discom) are sinkhole of government finances. Every year budgetary support is needed to this loss-making companies , With due consultation, all states and union territories need to adopt and implement the MBED and save the resources for other development activities.
Mains Question
Q. India has became the power surplus nation, however power distribution and financial unsustainability is still a nightmare for union and states. Elaborate.
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