Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Happiness Index
Why in the News?
India has improved its position in the World Happiness Report 2025, climbing to 118th place among 147 countries, up from 126th last year.
About the World Happiness Index (WHI)
- The WHI is part of the World Happiness Report, a global survey conducted by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN), an initiative of the United Nations.
- The report ranks countries based on citizens’ self-reported happiness, focusing on life satisfaction and overall well-being.
- The rankings are primarily based on data gathered from the Gallup World Poll, where individuals rate their own lives on a 0-10 scale using the Cantril Ladder method.
- 6 key factors influence these evaluations:
- GDP per capita
- Healthy life expectancy
- Social support
- Freedom
- Generosity
- Perception of corruption
Key Highlights of the World Happiness Report 2025:
- Top Countries: Finland remains the happiest country for the eighth consecutive year. Denmark, Iceland, and Sweden are also in the top ranks. Costa Rica (6th) and Mexico (10th) entered the top 10 for the first time. Israel ranked 8th despite conflicts.
- Declining Happiness in Western Nations: The United States dropped to 24th, and the United Kingdom fell to 23rd, with both countries experiencing increased social isolation.
- Least Happy Countries: Afghanistan remains the least happy, with Sierra Leone and Lebanon also in the bottom three.
- India’s Improvement:
- India improved its ranking from 126th to 118th, with its happiness score rising from 4.054 to 4.389.
- Despite its economic growth, technological advancements, and improvements in healthcare and education, it continues to rank lower than its neighboring countries like Pakistan (109th).
PYQ:
[UPSC 2004] Human Development Index comprises literacy rates, life expectancy at birth and-
(a) Gross Domestic Product per head in US dollars
(b) Gross National Product per head in US dollars
(c) Purchasing Power Parity in US dollars
(d) National Income per head in US dollars |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Special Category Status
Why in the News?
The Nitish Kumar government in Bihar renewed its demand for Special Category Status (SCS) before the 16th Finance Commission, which is currently touring the state.
About Special Category Status (SCS)
- Special Category Status (SCS) is a classification granted to specific states in India facing geographical, socio-economic, and infrastructural challenges.
- It provides special financial assistance for their development.
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- Introduced in 1969 following the recommendations of the Fifth Finance Commission, based on the Gadgil formula for fund allocation.
- Initially granted to Assam, Jammu & Kashmir, and Nagaland, with other states like Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, and Telangana added later.
- Eligibility Criteria (Based on the Gadgil Formula): States must meet at least one of the following:
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- Hilly terrain: Challenging geography impeding development.
- Low population density or a large tribal population.
- Strategic location near international borders.
- Economic and infrastructural backwardness.
- Non-viable state finances: Financial instability due to lack of resources.
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- Financial Assistance: 90% grants for centrally sponsored schemes (vs. 30% for non-SCS states).
- Special Plan Assistance: Additional funds for national importance projects.
- Tax Benefits: Concessions on excise, income, and corporate taxes (many subsumed under GST).
- Carry-Forward of Unspent Funds: Funds are carried forward to the next year.
- Higher Budget Allocation: 30% of the Centre’s budget allocated to SCS states.
Assessment of Bihar’s Demand:
- Industrial Backwardness: Lack of industrial development, worsened by state bifurcation in 2000.
- High Poverty Levels: One of the highest poverty rates in India, with low per capita GDP.
- Frequent Natural Disasters: Floods and droughts severely impact agriculture.
- Infrastructure Deficiencies: Insufficient irrigation and water systems hinder agricultural productivity.
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About the Finance Commission
- The Finance Commission is created every 5 years to allocate financial resources from the Centre to states, based on Article 280 of the Constitution.
- Composition: Consists of a chairman and four other members appointed by the President.
- Qualifications: Members must have specialized knowledge in finance, economics, accounts, or administration.
- The Fifteenth Finance Commission’s recommendations are valid till 2025-26.
- Terms of Reference for 16th FC: Division of tax proceeds, principles for grants-in-aid, enhancing state funds for local bodies, and evaluation of disaster management financing.
PYQ:
[2023] Consider the following:
- Demographic performance
- Forest and ecology
- Governance reforms
- Stable government
- Tax and fiscal efforts
For the horizontal tax devolution, the Fifteenth Finance Commission used how many of the above as criteria other than population area and income distance?
(a) Only two
(b) Only three
(c) Only four
(d) All five |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q Despite comprehensive policies for equity and social justice, underprivileged sections are not yet getting the full benefits of affirmative action envisaged by the Constitution. Comment. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question relates to the broader issue of systemic barriers preventing marginalized groups from accessing their rights and benefits, which is relevant to the discriminatory impact of habitual offender laws. |
Mentor’s Comment: The Supreme Court’s questioning of habitual offender laws highlights their colonial origins and continued misuse against Denotified Tribes, raising concerns about constitutional validity and human rights. Despite the repeal of the Criminal Tribes Act in 1952, similar state laws persist, leading to discrimination. The UN and human rights bodies urge India to repeal them.
This issue is crucial for GS-2 (Governance & Social Justice), GS-3 (Internal Security), and Ethics, showcasing the need for legal reforms to balance security with civil liberties.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court of India has questioned the need for old laws that label some criminals as “habitual offenders.
What is “habitual offenders”?
A habitual offender is a person repeatedly convicted of crimes, often subject to stricter surveillance or penalties under special laws. In India, such classifications have historically targeted marginalized communities, including Denotified Tribes, leading to discrimination. The Supreme Court has questioned the constitutional validity of these laws, urging their review.
What is the origin of the ‘habitual offender’ classification?
- Colonial-Era Criminalization (1793-1871) – The process began with Regulation XXII of 1793, which allowed magistrates to imprison or put to work certain tribes based on suspicion. The Indian Penal Code (1860) and Criminal Procedure Code (1861) introduced a system for maintaining registers of “dacoits and thugs,” leading to the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871, which officially labeled entire communities as “criminal tribes.”
- Post-Independence Repeal & Denotification (1949-1952) – The Criminal Tribes Act Enquiry Committee (1949-50) recommended repealing the CTA, leading to its abolition in 1952. Communities previously classified as criminal were denotified and categorized as Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNT, NT, SNT).
- State-Level Habitual Offender Laws (1948-Present) – After CTA’s repeal, States enacted habitual offender laws, shifting the focus from communities to individuals with past convictions. However, the Lokur Committee (1965) continued to view denotified tribes as having an “anti-social heritage,” reinforcing stereotypes.
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What has the Supreme Court of India said about the classification of “habitual offenders”?
- Constitutional Suspect & Targeting of Denotified Tribes – In October 2023, the Supreme Court of India questioned the very basis of the “habitual offender” classification, calling it “constitutionally suspect” and stating that it was being used to target members of denotified tribes unfairly. Example: The SC pointed out that in states like Rajasthan, prison manuals explicitly referred to denotified tribes as “habitual offenders”, perpetuating historical discrimination.
- Whole Communities Cannot Be Criminalized – The Court emphasized that no entire community should be labeled as criminals, just as was done under the colonial-era Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871, which was repealed in 1952. Example: The SC noted that habitual offender laws essentially replaced the CTA, reinforcing stereotypes against denotified tribes and nomadic groups.
- Urged States to Review and Repeal the Laws – While deciding a case on caste discrimination in prisons, the SC urged state governments to review whether such laws were necessary and ensure that they are not used for social discrimination. Example: In response, Punjab and Odisha stated they had not implemented the law in over five years, and Andhra Pradesh reported that no prisoners were classified under it.
Why were certain communities historically criminalized under colonial laws like the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871?
- Colonial Control & Surveillance – The British classified certain nomadic and tribal communities as “criminal tribes” to maintain strict surveillance and control over mobile populations they saw as a threat to law and order. These groups did not conform to settled agricultural lifestyles, making them difficult to regulate. Example: The Lambada (Banjara) community, traditionally nomadic traders, were branded as criminals to restrict their movement.
- Perceived Threat to British Interests – Many of these communities had been warriors, rebels, or supporters of local rulers who resisted British rule. The British saw them as a security threat and sought to suppress their influence. Example: The Thuggee suppression campaign led to the criminalization of Thuggee gangs, whom the British accused of organized robbery and ritual killings, justifying mass arrests and executions.
- Economic & Labor Exploitation – By labeling entire communities as criminal, the British forced them into state surveillance systems, making it easier to recruit them for low-wage, bonded labor. Many were compelled to work under colonial infrastructure projects.Example: Members of the Domb and Kuruva communities were used for forced labor in road and railway construction.
- Social & Racial Stereotyping – The British imposed their own racial biases, believing certain castes and tribes were inherently criminal or “born criminals.” They institutionalized these stereotypes in official records, further marginalizing these groups. Example: The Sansis and Pardhis, historically hunter-gatherers, were deemed criminal simply because of their alternative livelihoods.
- Weakening Indigenous Resistance & Policing Society – The act helped British authorities justify mass surveillance, arrests, and forced resettlement, weakening traditional structures of self-governance and making people more dependent on the colonial system. Example: The Kolis in western India, once involved in anti-British uprisings, were listed as habitual offenders, stripping them of economic and political power.
Which states have repealed or discontinued the implementation of habitual offender laws?
- Haryana: The state has officially repealed its habitual offender laws, removing such legislation from its legal framework.
- Punjab: While the habitual offender law has not been formally repealed, Punjab has effectively discontinued its application. Over the past five years, the state has neither maintained registers of habitual offenders nor issued any related orders, indicating a de facto cessation of the law’s enforcement.
- Odisha: Similarly, Odisha has not registered any cases under its habitual offender law in the last five years, effectively discontinuing its implementation.
- Andhra Pradesh: The state has confirmed that no individuals are currently imprisoned under the habitual offender law, indicating its non-enforcement.
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How have international organizations like the United Nations responded to India’s habitual offender laws?
- UN Special Rapporteurs’ Criticism (2021-2022): UN Special Rapporteurs on Contemporary Forms of Racism and Minority Issues have criticized India’s habitual offender laws for disproportionately targeting certain marginalized communities, such as Denotified Tribes (DNTs).
- They have highlighted that these laws perpetuate colonial-era stigmatization and violate international human rights principles.
- Universal Periodic Review (UPR) at the UNHRC (2017, 2022): India’s Universal Periodic Review (UPR) at the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) has featured discussions on the criminalization of DNTs and the misuse of habitual offender laws.
- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) Concerns: The UN Human Rights Committee, which oversees compliance with the ICCPR, has expressed concerns that habitual offender laws violate fundamental rights, including protection from arbitrary detention (Article 9) and non-discrimination (Article 26).
- Example: The Committee has asked India to review laws that enable police to harass and surveil individuals based on past convictions rather than actual offenses.
- UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) Recommendations: The CERD has criticized habitual offender laws for reinforcing caste-based and ethnic discrimination, particularly against nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes.
- Example: The CERD has urged India to repeal these laws and introduce policies that protect the rights of Denotified Tribes instead of labeling them as criminals.
- Reports by UN Agencies and Human Rights Organizations: Reports by UNICEF and the OHCHR (Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights) have highlighted how habitual offender laws restrict freedom of movement and socio-economic opportunities for affected communities.
- Example: Human Rights Watch (HRW) and Amnesty International have also supported UN recommendations, calling for legal reforms to eliminate discrimination against DNTs and other marginalized groups.
Way forward:
- Legal Reforms & Repeal of Habitual Offender Laws: States should review and repeal habitual offender laws that disproportionately target Denotified Tribes (DNTs) and marginalized groups. The government should enact rehabilitation policies to ensure socio-economic inclusion instead of criminal surveillance.
- Human Rights-Based Approach & Community Integration: Need to Implement affirmative action programs for DNTs, including access to education, employment, and legal aid.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to multilateral institutions;
Why in the News?
The US’s independent actions could lead to global pushback, but they also create an opportunity for non-Western nations to step up as leaders.
What are the key multilateral institutions and agreements from which the U.S. has signalled withdrawal under the Trump administration?
- World Health Organization (WHO): The U.S. announced withdrawal in 2020, accusing WHO of mishandling the COVID-19 pandemic and being overly influenced by China.
- United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC): The U.S. exited in 2018, citing alleged bias against Israel and ineffective handling of human rights abuses.
- Paris Climate Agreement: The U.S. formally withdrew in 2020, arguing that the agreement unfairly burdened its economy while benefiting competitors like China and India. Example: The withdrawal slowed global climate efforts, as the U.S. is one of the largest carbon emitters.
- International Criminal Court (ICC): The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, rejecting its authority over American troops and allies. Example: Sanctions were placed on ICC officials investigating alleged U.S. war crimes in Afghanistan.
- World Trade Organization (WTO): The U.S. blocked appointments to the WTO Appellate Body, crippling its ability to resolve trade disputes. Example: This led to a breakdown in the global trade dispute resolution system, impacting countries like India and China.
What is the DEFUND Act?
The Disengaging Entirely from the United Nations Debacle (DEFUND) Act is a proposed U.S. legislation introduced by Senator Mike Lee. It seeks to completely withdraw the U.S. from the United Nations (UN), repeal key participation laws, cut all funding, and revoke diplomatic immunity for UN officials within the U.S. |
Why does the proposed DEFUND Act pose a threat to the legitimacy of the United Nations?
- Financial Crisis for the UN: The U.S. is the largest financial contributor to the UN, funding around 22% of its budget. The DEFUND Act would halt all U.S. contributions, severely affecting UN operations. Example: The UN’s peacekeeping missions and humanitarian aid programs in conflict zones like Syria and Yemen would face funding shortages.
- Weakening of Multilateral Cooperation: The Act would repeal key legislation like the United Nations Participation Act of 1945, severing U.S. engagement with the UN. This could encourage other nations to follow suit, undermining the UN’s credibility. Example: Without U.S. involvement, the UN Security Council may struggle to enforce resolutions, reducing its effectiveness in global crisis management.
- Legal and Diplomatic Challenges: The Act would revoke the diplomatic immunity of UN officials in the U.S., disrupting UN functions and diplomatic activities. Example: The UN Headquarters in New York might face operational difficulties, making it harder to conduct international negotiations.
How has the U.S. administration’s stance on the International Criminal Court (ICC) impacted global accountability for human rights violations?
- Undermining International Justice Mechanisms: The U.S. imposed sanctions on ICC officials in 2020, accusing the court of targeting American personnel and allies. This weakened the ICC’s ability to investigate war crimes and crimes against humanity, particularly in conflict zones like Afghanistan and Palestine.
- Encouraging Non-Cooperation with the ICC: The U.S.’s non-recognition of the ICC has emboldened other nations to ignore its rulings, reducing its global influence. Countries under investigation may refuse cooperation, limiting the court’s effectiveness in ensuring accountability.
- Example: Israel rejected ICC jurisdiction in its war crimes probe in Palestinian territories, citing U.S. opposition to the investigation.
- Weakening the Principle of Universal Justice: By discrediting the ICC and blocking investigations, the U.S. has set a precedent for selective justice, where powerful nations can evade accountability while weaker states remain subject to scrutiny.
- Example: The ICC struggles to prosecute major powers like China or Russia, as the U.S.’s stance encourages a lack of enforcement in high-stakes human rights cases.
What are the chances for non-Western nations to assume global leadership roles?
- Expanding Economic and Political Influence – Emerging economies like China, India, and Brazil are increasing their global footprint through trade, technology, and strategic alliances.
Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) enhances its economic influence across Asia, Africa, and Europe.
- Strengthening Regional and Multilateral Institutions – Non-Western nations are actively shaping global governance through regional organizations and alternative institutions.
Example: The BRICS bloc (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) launched the New Development Bank (NDB) as an alternative to Western-led financial institutions.
- Leadership in Global Crisis Management – Developing nations are taking initiative in addressing global challenges like climate change, health crises, and digital transformation.
Example: India’s Vaccine Maitri initiative supplied COVID-19 vaccines to over 100 countries, reinforcing its role in global health diplomacy.
What would be the impact on India?
- Challenges to Multilateralism and Global Governance: The U.S. exit from key institutions like the UN, WHO, and WTO weakens the global rules-based order, making international cooperation more fragmented. India, which strongly supports multilateral diplomacy, may face difficulties in global negotiations, including trade, climate change, and security.
- Example: The U.S. withdrawal from the Paris Climate Agreement (2017) reduced global climate finance commitments, impacting India’s renewable energy goals.
- Opportunity for India to Assume Leadership: As the U.S. retreats, India can play a more prominent role in shaping multilateral decision-making, advocating for reforms in the UNSC and WTO, and positioning itself as a bridge between developing and developed nations.
- Example: During the G-20 Foreign Ministers’ Meeting (2025), India emphasized the need for inclusive multilateralism, strengthening its diplomatic standing.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Multilateral Leadership – India should actively engage in UN reforms, WTO negotiations, and climate diplomacy, positioning itself as a stabilizing force in global governance.
- Diversify Strategic Alliances – India must deepen partnerships with EU, ASEAN, and African nations, enhancing trade, security, and diplomatic ties to counterbalance U.S. disengagement.
Mains PYQ:
Q “Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic. (UPSC 2020)
Reason: The World Health Organization (WHO) has faced calls for withdrawal by certain nations, highlighting a challenge to multilateral institutions. This PYQ directly assesses the role and, by extension, the relevance and effectiveness of the WHO in a global crisis, which is pertinent to discussions on the assault on multilateralism.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Digital Market challenges;
Why in the News?
On November 18, 2024, the Competition Commission of India (CCI) imposed a fine of ₹213.14 crore on Meta Platforms, Inc., for abusing its dominant position through WhatsApp’s 2021 Privacy Policy. This landmark decision underscores the growing intersection of competition law and data privacy, marking a significant step in regulating digital markets in India.
What were the key findings of the Competition Commission of India (CCI)?
- Abuse of Dominant Position in OTT Messaging & Online Advertising: CCI found that WhatsApp’s 2021 privacy policy update forced users to mandatorily consent to data sharing with Meta (Facebook, Instagram), strengthening WhatsApp’s dominance.
- Unfair Data Collection & Competitive Advantage: Meta leveraged WhatsApp’s vast user base to collect personal data, creating an unfair advantage in digital advertising by refining targeted ads.
- Potential Harm to Consumer Privacy & Competition: The policy update allowed cross-platform data sharing, which CCI considered an unfair trade practice that compromised user privacy and created barriers for rival messaging apps.
- Violation of Fair Market Practices & Entry Barriers: The data-sharing policy made it difficult for new entrants to compete, as they lacked access to similar user insights, reinforcing Meta’s market position. Example: Startups like Telegram faced challenges in growing due to WhatsApp’s entrenched market power and data-driven network effects.
- Imposition of Fine & Behavioral Remedies: CCI fined Meta ₹213.14 crore and imposed a five-year ban on sharing WhatsApp user data with Facebook and Instagram for advertising purposes. Example: This aimed to limit Meta’s ability to exploit its dominant position and create a level playing field in India’s digital ecosystem.
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Why did the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) grant a stay on CCI’s five-year ban and penalty imposed on Meta?
- Prima Facie Case for Meta: NCLAT found grounds to review CCI’s decision, indicating that Meta’s appeal had merit and required further examination. Example: Meta argued that its privacy policy update did not force users but offered them a choice, which needed deeper legal scrutiny.
- Irreparable Harm to Meta’s Business: The five-year ban on sharing WhatsApp user data with Facebook and Instagram could cause significant financial and operational disruption to Meta’s business. Example: Meta claimed that restricting data integration would affect its targeted advertising model, reducing its revenue from India.
- Dominance and anti-competitive effects: NCLAT noted that CCI’s conclusions on abuse of dominance and anti-competitive effects required further legal and economic analysis before enforcement. Example: The tribunal wanted to assess whether the policy update genuinely harmed consumers or merely provided better services through personalized ads.
- Balance of Convenience: The tribunal ruled that temporarily halting the penalty and data-sharing ban would not cause immediate harm to consumers but would protect Meta from disproportionate damages while the case was under review. Example: If Meta had to immediately comply but later won the appeal, reversing the business impact would be difficult.
- Conditional Relief with Partial Penalty Payment: NCLAT granted the stay but directed Meta to deposit 50% of the ₹213.14 crore penalty, ensuring some accountability while legal proceedings continued. Example: This allowed Meta to continue operations without full compliance but ensured it remained engaged in the legal process.
How does data play a role in creating and sustaining dominance in digital markets?
- Data-Driven Network Effects: More users generate more data, which improves algorithms and services, attracting even more users, creating a self-reinforcing loop. Example: Google’s search engine improves as more users search, making its results better than competitors, reinforcing its market dominance.
- Competitive Barrier Through Data Aggregation: Large tech firms collect massive user data across multiple services, making it hard for new entrants to compete due to a lack of comparable datasets. Example: Meta collects data from Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp, allowing it to offer highly personalized ads, making it difficult for smaller ad platforms to compete.
- Monetization & Market Lock-In: Companies use vast data pools to refine targeted advertising, personalize user experiences, and create dependencies, discouraging users from switching. Example: Amazon leverages consumer purchase data to optimize product recommendations, making it harder for new e-commerce platforms to attract customers.
Which global regulatory actions have been taken against Meta and Google for their anti-competitive practices?
- Heavy Antitrust Fines: Governments have imposed billions in fines on Meta and Google for abusing their market dominance. Example: The European Commission fined Google €8 billion across three cases, including unfair dominance in mobile operating systems (Android) and online advertising.
- Similarly, the Bundeskartellamt (Germany’s Federal Cartel Office) found Meta guilty of merging user data without consent, violating EU competition law and GDPR.
- Structural and Behavioral Restrictions: Authorities have enforced regulatory measures like breaking up monopolistic control, imposing interoperability, and preventing self-preferencing. Example: The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) filed a lawsuit against Meta for acquiring Instagram and WhatsApp to eliminate competition.
- The Digital Markets Act (DMA) in the EU now mandates that dominant firms like Meta and Google ensure fair access to platforms, prevent self-preferencing, and allow third-party data-sharing.
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What should be amendments in India’s Competition Act, 2002 to address data-centric monopolies? (Way forward)
- Recognizing “Data Monopolization” as a Form of Market Power: The Act should explicitly define data dominance as a key factor in determining market power and abuse of dominance.
- Example: The EU’s Digital Markets Act (DMA) considers large data control a sign of dominance. India could adopt similar provisions to regulate companies like Meta and Google that leverage massive user data to eliminate competition.
- Mandatory Interoperability and Data-Sharing Regulations: The Act should mandate interoperability and restrict exclusive data-sharing agreements that create entry barriers for competitors.
- Example: In Germany, Meta was restricted from combining user data across platforms without explicit consent. Similarly, India could prevent dominant firms from self-preferencing their services and enforce data portability rules to promote fair competition.
Mains PYQ:
Q How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the educational system in the country? Elaborate your answer.” (UPSC 2020)
Reason: This question underscores the significant impact of digital platforms on key sectors. The influence of digital giants extends to education (e.g., online learning platforms, content distribution), highlighting their pervasive role and the need for understanding and potentially regulating their impact.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sonic Weapon
Why in the News?
It is alleged that Serbian Police used a banned sonic weapon to disperse protesters in Belgrade.
What are Sonic Weapons?
- Sonic or acoustic weapons are devices designed to emit loud sounds over long distances, including both audible and inaudible sound waves.
- These waves can cause pain, discomfort, or disorientation.
- While sound amplifiers have been used for centuries, sonic weapons began being used for crowd control in the 1990s, with their first military use in Iraq in 2004.
- Working Mechanism: Sonic weapons use modern transducers to convert energy into concentrated sound, which can be controlled in terms of frequency, level, and duration.
Types of Sonic Weapons:
- Long-Range Acoustic Device (LRAD):
- Range: Up to 8,900 meters for intelligible speech.
- Sound Level: Can reach up to 160 dB, causing pain and potential hearing damage.
- Mosquito:
- Target Audience: Emits high-pitched sounds painful to younger people (teenagers and those in their twenties). Adults above 30 typically cannot hear it due to age-related hearing loss.
- Infrasonic Weapon:
- Sound Type: Delivers inaudible low-frequency sounds that cause pain and disorientation.
- Development: Still in early stages, with ongoing research into its full potential.
Health Implications:
- Short-Term exposure can cause tinnitus, headaches, nausea, and vertigo.
- Prolonged exposure may lead to permanent hearing damage, and symptoms like tinnitus can last for days.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements regarding Agni-V and BrahMos Missiles:
1. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, and BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.
2. Both the missiles are developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only, (b) 2 only, (c) Both 1 and 2, (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Spring Equinox
Why in the News?
March 20 marks the arrival of the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, signaling the beginning of the spring season.
What are Equinoxes?
- An equinox occurs when the Earth’s axis is not tilted toward or away from the Sun, resulting in equal length of day and night across the planet.
- Equinoxes occur twice a year:
- Vernal Equinox: Around March 20-21, marking the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere and fall in the Southern Hemisphere.
- Autumnal Equinox: Around September 22-23, marking the beginning of fall in the Northern Hemisphere and spring in the Southern Hemisphere.
- On an equinox, the Sun is directly above the Equator, leading to almost equal distribution of sunlight between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
- The equal length of day and night is observed, with each lasting approximately 12 hours.
What are Solstices?
- A solstice occurs when the Earth’s tilt is most extreme either towards or away from the Sun. This results in the longest or shortest day of the year in each hemisphere.
- Solstices occur twice a year:
- Summer Solstice (Northern Hemisphere): Around June 20-22, marking the longest day and shortest night of the year, as the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun.
- Winter Solstice (Northern Hemisphere): Around December 20-23, marking the shortest day and longest night of the year, as the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun.
- Solstices create unequal distribution of sunlight, with one hemisphere receiving significantly more or less sunlight than the other.
Cultural Significance of the Equinox:
- Nowruz, celebrated on the vernal equinox, marks the beginning of the Persian New Year.
- The festival has been celebrated for over 3,000 years by the Zoroastrian community, including the Parsi community in India.
- Vernal Equinox Day is a national holiday in Japan, celebrating the arrival of spring.
- Easter, one of the most significant days in Christianity, is determined based on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the vernal equinox.
- Passover, the Jewish festival, begins on the first full moon after the vernal equinox.
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PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun
(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle
(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle
(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Health Expenditure Share of GDP
Why in the News?
The Union government has steadily increased its spending on healthcare, with the expenditure rising to 1.84% of GDP in 2021-22, up from 1.15% in 2013-14.
Overview of India’s Health Expenditure
- India has shown a consistent increase in government spending on healthcare, reflecting a growing commitment to improving the public healthcare system.
- As of 2021-22, government health expenditure (GHE) rose to 1.84% of GDP, up from 1.15% in 2013-14, and is on track to meet the National Health Policy 2017 target of 2.5% of GDP by 2025.
- The rise in health expenditure has been particularly significant post–COVID-19, with a 37% increase in government spending from 2020-21 to 2021-22.
- This has led to better healthcare accessibility, reduced financial burden on individuals, and greater focus on strengthening healthcare infrastructure.
What is Total Health Expenditure?
- Total Health Expenditure (THE) refers to the sum of all current and capital expenditures incurred by the government, private sector, and external sources for healthcare purposes in a given period.
- This includes:
- Current Health Expenditure (CHE): Ongoing spending on healthcare services, such as hospitals, doctor visits, and medical supplies.
- Capital Expenditure: Investments in healthcare infrastructure, such as building hospitals or purchasing medical equipment.
- In 2020-21, India’s THE was estimated at ₹7,39,327 crores, constituting 3.73% of GDP, with a per capita expenditure of ₹5,436.
- In 2021-22, this figure increased to ₹9,04,461 crores, representing 3.83% of GDP, reflecting a proactive government response to healthcare challenges and pandemic management.
Reasons for Reduced Out-of-Pocket Expenditure (OOPE)
The reduction in OOPE can be attributed to:
- Increased government health spending, making healthcare more affordable.
- Expansion of public health services, including vaccination and preventive care.
- Growth in government-funded health insurance and social security programs, reducing reliance on personal funds.
- Health initiatives like Ayushman Bharat have eased the financial burden.
- Improved public healthcare access and financial protection have reduced hardship for low- and middle-income families.
PYQ:
[2021] “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Potteries in Ancient India
Why in the News?
This newscard is an excerpt and extension of the original article published in the Indian Express.
Types of Potteries in Ancient India:
- Neolithic Age (10000 BCE): Pottery in this period was handmade, with rough, unglazed surfaces. Later, the footwheel was introduced, making pottery shaping more refined. Materials like clay, mica, and sand were used.
- Chalcolithic Age (4500-2000 BCE): The main pottery types during this era were Black-and-Red Ware, Black-on-Red Ware, and Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP). These were seen in cultures like Ahar-Banas and Jorwe, often featuring geometric designs.
- Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1500 BCE): Pottery was wheel-thrown, with both polished and unpolished varieties. Common pottery types included Black-and-Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware, adorned with geometric patterns and depictions of animals and plants.
- Vedic Era (1500-500 BCE): During this period, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) became prominent, characterized by fine grey pottery with black geometric patterns. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) emerged, glossy and associated with the elite for its fine finish.
- Mauryan and Gupta Periods: The Mauryan period continued the use of NBPW, while the Gupta period introduced redware pottery. The Kushana period added red polished ware with stamped designs.
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Rise in Mercantile Activities and Evolution of Pottery Styles:
- The Vedic period saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW), often linked with the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
- With the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, and urbanization, NBPW emerged during the Mahajanapada period.
- Glazed porcelain was introduced around 1000 AD through trade with China and Muslim traders, significantly influencing India’s pottery tradition.
How Pots are integral to understanding Culture?
- Material Culture: Pottery is a direct reflection of daily life and technological expertise. It reveals how ancient societies lived, worked, and expressed their culture through artistic and functional objects.
- Socio-Economic Indicators: The types of pottery indicate economic status. Luxury pottery like NBPW was reserved for the elite, while more common pottery suggests the everyday life of the broader society.
- Cultural and Religious Practices: Pottery had significant ritualistic and symbolic importance, used in religious ceremonies and burial rituals. Specific pots represented deities or were filled with sacred items like coconuts, bananas, and flowers.
- Technological and Artistic Development: The evolution of pottery-making, from handmade to wheel-thrown pottery, marks the increasing technological and artistic sophistication of ancient civilizations, highlighting advancements in both craftsmanship and creativity.
- Chronological Understanding: Pottery helps date ancient sites, providing key insights into the timeline of cultural and technological progress. It allows historians to map out the development of civilizations and better understand their historical context.
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PYQ Relevance:
Q “The states in India seem reluctant to empower urban local bodies both functionally as well as financially.” Comment. (2023)
Reason: It touches upon the broader theme of federalism and the distribution of power within the Indian political system, which is relevant to concerns about the Union government’s role and potential influence in the delimitation process. |
Mentor’s Comment: The ongoing debate on delimitation raises concerns about power imbalances, particularly for southern States. A democratic approach could freeze parliamentary seats while increasing Assembly seats in high-growth States. Strengthening zonal councils and reviving the dormant Inter-State Council (inactive since 2016) can ensure balanced representation, fostering cooperative federalism and addressing regional disparities effectively.
Today’s editorial highlights the debate on delimitation raises concerns about power imbalances, particularly for southern States. This content would help in GS paper 2 (representation in Parliament) and GS 3 ( Internal security issues arise due to it).
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Another risk of delimitation is the division of electoral constituencies based on religion or community.
What are the risks of dividing electoral constituencies based on religion or community during delimitation?
- Gerrymandering to Favor Specific Communities: Delimitation can be used to redraw boundaries in a way that benefits certain religious or ethnic groups while marginalizing others. Example: In Jammu & Kashmir (2022), Hindu-majority areas in Jammu received more seats despite having a lower population compared to Muslim-majority Kashmir
| Note: Gerrymandering means changing the size and borders of an area for voting in order to give an unfair advantage to one party in an election |
- Reduced Political Representation for Minority Groups: If constituencies are redrawn to dilute minority votes, their political influence can weaken, leading to unfair representation. Example: In Assam (2023), boundary changes in Muslim-majority areas reportedly made it harder for their votes to impact election outcomes.
- Increased Social and Political Divisions: When constituencies are created along religious lines, it can deepen communal tensions and polarize elections. Example: In Uttar Pradesh, past constituency adjustments have led to concerns that Muslim-majority areas were fragmented to reduce their electoral strength.
What are the key concerns regarding the fresh delimitation of legislative constituencies in India?
- Population-Based Seat Allocation May Reduce Representation for Progressive States: Delimitation based on population growth would increase parliamentary seats for northern States (e.g., Uttar Pradesh, Bihar) while reducing influence for southern States (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Kerala), which have controlled population growth through successful policies.
- Risk of Communal Gerrymandering: Past delimitation exercises, such as in Jammu & Kashmir (2022) and Assam (2023), suggest that constituency boundaries may be redrawn to benefit certain religious or ethnic groups, marginalizing minorities.
- Disproportionate Voter Representation: Unequal constituency sizes create voter disparities. For instance, in Jammu & Kashmir, Hindu-majority seats had smaller electorates (as low as 50,000), while Muslim-majority seats had much larger voter populations (up to 1.92 lakh).
- Potential Weakening of Federalism: Southern States fear that increased parliamentary seats for northern States could shift national policymaking priorities away from their economic and developmental interests, reducing their influence in governance.
- Lack of Institutional Safeguards Against Political Manipulation: Bodies like the Inter-State Council (dormant since 2016) and Zonal Councils (irregular meetings) are weak, limiting their role in addressing regional concerns, leaving room for politically motivated delimitation decisions.
Why are the Southern States apprehensive about the potential power imbalance due to delimitation?
- Population Control Efforts Could Lead to Reduced Representation: Southern States like Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh have successfully controlled population growth through better healthcare, education, and family planning. However, delimitation based on population increase would benefit northern States like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, reducing the parliamentary strength of the South.
- Disproportionate Economic Contribution vs. Political Representation: Southern States contribute significantly to India’s GDP and tax revenues. For example, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are among the top GST-contributing States. A shift in political representation favouring the North could mean economic policies are shaped without adequate input from these high-contributing regions.
- Risk of Policy Marginalization: More parliamentary seats for northern States could result in national policies that favour their interests (e.g., agricultural subsidies, welfare schemes) over industrialized and service-based economies in the South.
- For instance, the 15th Finance Commission’s devolution formula already reduced allocations to progressive States like Kerala due to their lower population growth.
- Federalism and Autonomy at Risk: Southern States emphasize federalism and regional autonomy, and a population-based delimitation could further centralize power in the hands of the Hindi-speaking belt, reducing the political influence of non-Hindi-speaking States.
- Precedents of Unequal Representation in Recent Delimitations: The Jammu & Kashmir (2022) and Assam (2023) delimitations have shown how constituency boundaries can be redrawn in ways that favour certain regions or communities. Southern States fear similar political maneuvering could reduce their legislative influence in the future.
How did the recent delimitation exercises in Jammu & Kashmir and Assam impact electoral representation?
- Disproportionate Seat Allocation Between Jammu and Kashmir: Jammu was given six additional Assembly seats, while Kashmir, despite having a larger population, received only one additional seat. Example: Before delimitation, Kashmir had 46 seats and Jammu had 37. After delimitation, Kashmir got 47, while Jammu increased to 43, altering the political balance in favor of Jammu.
- Gerrymandering Along Communal and Regional Lines: Constituency boundaries were redrawn in a way that seemed to favor Hindu-majority areas, potentially benefitting the BJP. Example: The Muslim-majority Kishtwar district saw boundary changes that made it more Hindu-dominated. Similarly, Rajouri and Poonch (Jammu) were merged with Anantnag (Kashmir) in a new Lok Sabha seat, despite geographical and cultural differences.
- Unequal Representation in Terms of Voter Population: Some Muslim-majority constituencies in Kashmir had more than 1.5 lakh voters, while many new Jammu seats had significantly fewer voters, making votes in Jammu more influential. Example: Dooru (1.92 lakh voters) and Surankote (1.77 lakh voters) had much larger populations than new seats in Jammu with 50,000–60,000 voters.
- Weakened Political Representation for Kashmiri Parties: The changes were seen as reducing the influence of Kashmiri-based parties like the National Conference (NC) and PDP, while consolidating the BJP’s hold in Jammu. Example: The BJP has never won a seat in Kashmir. By increasing Jammu’s seats, it has improved its chances of influencing J&K’s electoral outcomes.
- First-Time Reservation for Scheduled Tribes (STs): The delimitation reserved 9 Assembly seats for Scheduled Tribes, mostly benefiting Gujjar and Bakarwal communities in Jammu. Example: The new ST-reserved seats include Rajouri, Mendhar, and Surankote, marking the first time STs have been granted separate representation.
What are zonal councils and Inter-State Council (inactive since 2016)?
- Zonal Councils, established under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, promote regional cooperation among States in five zones.
- The Inter-State Council, set up under Article 263 of the Constitution, facilitates Centre-State and inter-State coordination.
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How can strengthening zonal councils and reviving the dormant Inter-State Council (inactive since 2016) help ensure balanced representation in India?
- Addressing Regional Imbalances in Representation: By ensuring regular meetings of zonal councils, States across different regions can voice concerns regarding political representation and economic disparities. Example: If southern States lose parliamentary seats due to population-based delimitation, zonal councils can advocate for compensatory measures like additional Rajya Sabha representation.
- Enhancing Cooperative Federalism: The Inter-State Council can serve as a platform to mediate Centre-State and inter-State disputes, ensuring all regions get equitable political influence. Example: Resolving issues like tax devolution, resource allocation, and governance models that disproportionately impact southern States due to shifting parliamentary strength.
- Strengthening Policy Coordination Among States: Zonal councils can facilitate coordinated development policies, ensuring that national decisions reflect regional concerns, especially in underrepresented areas. Example: The Southern Zonal Council could push for greater investment in infrastructure and technology sectors, ensuring economic contributions translate into policy influence.
Way forward:
- Balanced Representation Through a Hybrid Formula: Instead of relying solely on population-based delimitation, a hybrid model considering factors like economic contribution, governance efficiency, and demographic stability should be adopted.
- Example: The Finance Commission’s tax devolution formula considers multiple parameters beyond population; a similar approach can be applied to delimitation to ensure fair representation for both high-growth and high-population States.
- Independent and Transparent Delimitation Process: Strengthening constitutional bodies like the Delimitation Commission and Election Commission with greater transparency and public participation to prevent gerrymandering or political bias.
- Example: Implementing real-time public consultations and Supreme Court oversight in delimitation decisions can help address regional concerns and ensure fairness.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Data protection;
Why in the News?
In early January this year, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) published the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025 under the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023.
What are the key criticisms of the draft Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025?
- Lack of Independence in the Data Protection Board (DPB): The Union government has full discretion in appointing DPB members, raising concerns about executive overreach and lack of independent oversight. Example: Since the DPB has quasi-judicial functions, government control over appointments could compromise its impartiality in handling data protection disputes.
- Inefficiency in the Appellate Mechanism: Appeals from DPB decisions will be heard by the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT), which is already overburdened with cases. Example: As of early 2025, 3,448 cases were pending in TDSAT, making it unrealistic to resolve data protection appeals within the required six-month timeline.
- Weak Digital Infrastructure for Appeals: The draft Rules require appeals to be filed digitally, but TDSAT’s website and case management systems lack efficiency and transparency. Example: The TRAI Annual Report (2023) mentioned a new legal case management system, but its effectiveness and implementation status remain unclear.
What is the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT)?
- The Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) is a quasi-judicial body in India established in 2000 under the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997.
- It resolves disputes related to telecommunications, broadcasting, and information technology and also serves as an appellate body for regulatory decisions.
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Why is the appointment of a technical member with expertise in data protection considered necessary for the TDSAT?
- Complexity of Data Protection Issues: Data protection cases involve legal principles like consent, data processing, storage, and unauthorized use, which differ from telecom disputes. Example: A case involving unauthorized data sharing by a tech company requires expertise in privacy laws, which a telecom specialist may not possess.
- Mismatch Between Existing Expertise and New Responsibilities: Section 14C of the TRAI Act, 1997 allows TDSAT members with expertise in telecommunications, technology, commerce, or administration, but not in data protection. Example: TDSAT is well-equipped for telecom disputes (e.g., spectrum allocation cases) but lacks specialists to handle data privacy violations under the DPDP Act, 2023.
- Need for a Legal Amendment to Ensure Specialization: Amending Section 14C of the TRAI Act to include data protection as a required expertise will help TDSAT make informed decisions. Example: If a social media platform misuses personal data, a technical member with privacy law knowledge can ensure proper adjudication.
How does the increasing caseload of the TDSAT impact its ability to handle appeals from the DPB within the stipulated six-month timeline?
- High Pending Case Load: As of early 2025, 3,448 cases remain unresolved in TDSAT, making it difficult to accommodate additional data protection appeals. Example: If a major data breach case is filed, it may face delays due to the backlog of telecom and broadcasting disputes.
- Burden of New Telecommunications Act Cases: The recently enacted Telecommunications Act, 2023 will increase TDSAT’s caseload, further stretching its resources. Example: Disputes over telecom licensing and spectrum allocation could slow down hearings on personal data protection violations.
- Limited Judicial and Technical Expertise: In January 2025, TDSAT had only one technical member and no judicial member, raising concerns about fair adjudication. Example: Without a judicial expert, appeals related to data misuse by companies may not receive proper legal scrutiny.
- Structural Capacity Constraints: TDSAT has a single bench, making it impossible to efficiently handle multiple categories of appeals simultaneously. Example: A delay in telecom tariff disputes could push back hearings on privacy-related cases filed under the DPDP Act, 2023.
Way forward:
- Strengthening TDSAT’s Capacity: Increase the number of benches and appoint members with expertise in data protection and privacy laws to handle DPB appeals efficiently. Example: Amending Section 14C of the TRAI Act, 1997 to include data protection specialists can ensure proper adjudication.
- Independent and Efficient DPB: Ensure autonomy in DPB appointments and establish a dedicated appellate body for data protection cases to reduce TDSAT’s burden. Example: Setting up a Data Protection Appellate Tribunal (DPAT) with specialized judges and technical members can improve efficiency.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. (2017)
Reason: It touches upon the importance of the structure and appointment processes within judicial bodies, which is a relevant underlying theme also present in the discussion about the need for a data protection expert within the TDSAT.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Migration; Remittances;
Why in the News?
Recent data show a decline in remittances from Gulf countries to India, while contributions from advanced economies have grown.
Why has the share of remittances from Gulf countries to India declined while contributions from advanced economies have increased?
- Wage Stagnation and Cost of Living in the Gulf: Wages in Gulf countries have remained relatively stagnant, while the cost of living has increased, reducing the savings and ability to send money home of Indian workers. Example: The UAE introduced a Value Added Tax (VAT) in 2018, increasing living costs for migrant workers.
- Shift in Migration Patterns Toward High-Income Countries: More Indian professionals and skilled workers are migrating to advanced economies like the U.S., Canada, and the U.K., where salaries are higher. Example: The number of Indian students and skilled workers in Canada has surged, contributing to rising remittances from the country.
- Stringent Localization Policies in the Gulf: Gulf nations have implemented employment nationalization policies that push for localization in jobs (e.g., Saudization in Saudi Arabia, Nitaqat in UAE), shrinking opportunities for foreign workers, including Indians.
- Depreciation of Gulf Currencies Against the U.S. Dollar: The exchange rates of Gulf currencies, which are tied to U.S. dollar, have not appreciated significantly, while the Indian rupee has remained relatively stable. Example: A stronger U.S. dollar means remittances from the U.S. convert to more Indian rupees compared to Gulf remittances.
- Expansion of India’s IT and Healthcare Workforce Abroad: Skilled professionals in IT, healthcare, and finance are securing jobs in developed countries, leading to increased remittances from these sectors. Example: Indian tech workers in the U.S. under the H-1B visa program send substantial remittances back home, contributing to the U.S.’s growing share.
| Global Migration & Remittance Shifts: How India Compares with Other Nations |
Traditional Remittance Sources |
New Migration Trends |
Key Drivers of Change |
| India |
Gulf countries (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar) |
U.S., Canada, U.K., Germany |
Wage stagnation in the Gulf, rise in high-skilled migration, better job opportunities in advanced economies |
| Philippines |
Middle East, Southeast Asia |
U.S., Canada, Australia |
Strong demand for healthcare workers, education-driven migration, better worker rights in Western nations |
| Vietnam |
Japan, South Korea, Taiwan |
U.S., Europe, Australia |
Economic ties with Western economies, investment in skilled workforce |
| Mexico |
U.S. |
Europe, South America |
Stricter U.S. immigration policies, expansion of trade ties with Spain and Latin America |
| Bangladesh |
Gulf countries, Malaysia |
Limited shift; still Gulf-dependent |
Fewer high-skilled migration pathways, reliance on traditional labor jobs |
| Pakistan |
Saudi Arabia, UAE |
Minimal change; remains Gulf-dependent |
Economic constraints, limited alternative migration routes |
What are the reasons behind the decline in the number of blue-collar workers emigrating from the Southern States to the Gulf?
- Improved Employment Opportunities in India: Economic growth and industrial expansion in southern states have created more local job opportunities, reducing the need for migration. Example: Tamil Nadu and Telangana have seen growth in manufacturing (automobiles, electronics) and IT sectors, offering better wages compared to low-paying Gulf jobs.
- Stringent Gulf Employment Policies & Localization Programs: Gulf nations have implemented policies like Saudization and Emiratization, prioritizing local workers over foreign laborers, reducing demand for Indian blue-collar workers. Example: Saudi Arabia’s Nitaqat system has restricted Indian employment in sectors like retail and construction.
- Higher Migration Costs and Reduced Financial Returns: The cost of migration, including visa fees, recruitment charges, and living expenses, has risen, while wages in the Gulf have remained stagnant, making migration less attractive. Example: In Kerala, many workers are opting for European destinations (e.g., Italy, Germany) instead of the Gulf due to better wages and worker rights.
How has the shift in migration patterns impacted States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and West Bengal in terms of remittance inflows?
- Slower Growth in Remittance Inflows: These states still send large numbers of workers to the Gulf, where wages and remittances are lower compared to advanced economies. Example: Despite high migration from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, their share in India’s total remittances remains low (around 3%), while Kerala and Maharashtra, with migrants in high-income countries, receive a higher share.
- Limited Economic Upliftment Due to Lower Earnings: Since Gulf remittances have lower financial returns, households in these states see limited improvements in savings and investments. Example: While Tamil Nadu and Kerala benefit from higher wages in the U.S. and the U.K., families in Rajasthan and West Bengal largely rely on low-wage Gulf jobs, leading to slower economic mobility.
- Higher Economic Vulnerability and Migration Dependency: With fewer alternative employment opportunities, many continue to migrate to the Gulf despite lower wages, reinforcing economic dependence on remittances. Example: Unlike Punjab, where migration to Canada has increased financial stability, states like Bihar still rely on remittances from Gulf labor, leaving them more vulnerable to economic downturns in the region.
Which factors contribute to the continued high migration from northern and eastern States to the Gulf despite lower financial returns?
- Skill Development and Certification Programs: Initiatives like the Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY) aim to enhance the skills of Indian workers, making them eligible for higher-paying jobs abroad. Example: The program aligns skill training with international standards, increasing employment prospects in advanced economies.
- Bilateral Agreements and Labour Welfare Measures: India has signed labor agreements with Gulf countries to ensure better working conditions, fair wages, and legal protection for migrant workers. Example: The India-UAE MoU on Labor Cooperation provides safeguards against exploitation and ensures wage protection.
Way forward:
- Enhancing High-Skilled Migration Pathways: The government should strengthen bilateral agreements with high-income countries to facilitate the migration of skilled professionals, particularly in IT, healthcare, and engineering.
- Expanding initiatives like the India-Germany Skilled Workers Pact and negotiating better visa policies with the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. will ensure higher remittance inflows.
- Skill Development and Certification for Diversified Destinations: To reduce dependence on Gulf remittances, India should invest in internationally recognized skill training through programs like Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and collaborate with European and East Asian countries for labor mobility agreements.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the changes in the trends of labour migration within and outside India in the last four decades. (2015)
Reason: This PYQ asks for a discussion of changes in labour migration trends over a significant historical period (the last four decades) and across both internal and external migration.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Free Speech Index
Why in the News?
A global survey by The Future of Free Speech, a US -based think tank, has ranked India 24th out of 33 countries in terms of support for free speech.
| The right to freedom of speech and expression is guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution, allowing citizens to express their opinions freely. This right includes various forms of expression like speech, writing, art, and digital media, RTI, and even the right not to speak. However, it is subject to reasonable restrictions as outlined in Article 19(2), including security, public order, and decency. |
About the Free Speech Index
- The Future of Free Speech, an independent U.S.-based think tank released this report titled ‘Who in the World Supports Free Speech?’.
- It evaluates public attitudes towards free speech across 33 countries, highlighting trends, regional variations, and challenges to freedom of expression worldwide.
- It emphasized the decline in support for protecting controversial speech, despite strong abstract support for free speech in many countries.
India’s Ranking:
- India is ranked 24th out of 33 countries in the 2024 Global Free Speech Index, with a score of 62.6.
- While Indians generally consider free speech important, 37% of respondents support restrictions on criticizing government policies, which is the highest percentage among the surveyed countries.
- India is an exception to the general trend, as public support for free speech does not align with actual protections, pointing to increasing government restrictions on expression.
Global Highlights:
- Norway (87.9) and Denmark (87.0) lead the rankings, demonstrating strong commitment to free speech and dissent.
- Indonesia (56.8), Malaysia (55.4), and Pakistan (57.0) showed the biggest improvements, although they still ranked lower on the scale.
- Several democratic nations, including the US, Israel, and Japan, have seen a decline in free speech support since 2021.
- Countries like Hungary (85.5) and Venezuela (81.8) scored high, indicating a disconnect between government-imposed restrictions and public attitudes towards free speech.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.
[2018] Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement?
(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution.
(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV.
(c) Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III.
(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Muzhara Movement
Why in the News?
On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.
About Muzhara Movement
- Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
- They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
- The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
- This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
- The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
- In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
- A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
- The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.
Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements
|
Details |
| Champaran Satyagraha (1917) |
- Led by Mahatma Gandhi in Bihar against the tinkathia system, where peasants were forced to grow indigo on part of their land.
- Resulted in the Champaran Agrarian Act (1918), which abolished oppressive practices.
|
| Kheda Satyagraha (1918) |
- Organized in Gujarat after crop failures when the government refused to remit land revenue.
- Gandhi and Sardar Patel supported peasants in withholding revenue payments until demands were met.
|
| Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) |
- Led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat against a 30% hike in land revenue.
- The movement succeeded, and Patel earned the title “Sardar” for his leadership.
|
| Tebhaga Movement (1946-47) |
- Initiated by the Kisan Sabha in Bengal, demanding a two-thirds share of produce for tenants instead of the customary half.
- Despite being suppressed violently, it highlighted peasant rights.
|
| Telangana Movement (1946-51) |
- A communist-led peasant guerrilla struggle in Andhra Pradesh against feudal landlords and the Nizam’s oppressive regime.
- Achieved redistribution of land and improved
|
PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for:
(a) the reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third,
(b) the grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land,
(c) the uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom,
(d) writing off all peasant debts |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Program for Dairy Development (NPDD)
Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the Revised National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD), enhancing its scope and funding to modernize and expand the dairy sector across India.
About the National Programme for Dairy Development (NPDD)
- It is implemented by the Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying (DAHD).
- The scheme has been operational since February 2014, initially targeting the development of dairy cooperatives and expanding infrastructure to support dairy activities.
- In July 2021, the scheme was restructured to align with the goals of the 15th Finance Commission cycle (2021-2026), to run from 2021 to 2026 with an enhanced budget.
- It focuses on providing technical and financial assistance to improve the dairy infrastructure in India, including enhancing milk procurement, processing, and marketing capabilities.
- It also aims to provide training facilities for dairy farmers, improving their skills and fostering rural development.
Revised Components of NPDD Scheme:
The Revised NPDD, a Central Sector Scheme, is designed with two primary components that focus on dairy infrastructure development and cooperative strengthening:
Component A: Dairy Infrastructure Improvement
- This component focuses on improving essential dairy infrastructure, such as the installation of milk chilling plants, advanced milk testing laboratories, and certification systems for quality assurance.
- Special attention is given to the North Eastern Region (NER), hilly areas, and Union Territories (UTs), where support is provided for the formation of new dairy cooperative societies and the strengthening of milk procurement and processing systems.
- Grant support will be provided for the formation of 2 Milk Producer Companies, ensuring a more efficient procurement system.
Component B: Dairying through Cooperatives (DTC)
- This component focuses on fostering dairy development through cooperative models in partnership with the Government of Japan and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
- It aims to sustainably develop dairy cooperatives, improve production, processing, and marketing infrastructure in 9 key states: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
- This component seeks to introduce international best practices in cooperative management and dairy technologies.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Which of the following grants direct credit assistance to the households?
1. Regional Rural Banks
2. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
3. Land Development Banks
Select the correct answer using codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
Why in the News?
New Zealand has expressed its willingness to join the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).
About Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI)
- India launched the IPOI at the East Asia Summit in November 2019 to promote cooperation for a free, open, and rules-based Indo-Pacific.
- The initiative aims to strengthen maritime security, stability, and development in the region by fostering multilateral engagement among Indo-Pacific nations.
- It builds on India’s Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) vision, which emphasizes the importance of collaborative efforts in regional maritime governance.
- The IPOI operates as a voluntary, non-treaty-based arrangement, relying on existing frameworks like the EAS mechanism, ensuring flexibility and adaptability in cooperation.
- The IPOI is structured around 7 key pillars, with specific countries taking the lead in each area:
- Maritime Security: UK and India
- Maritime Ecology: Australia and Thailand
- Maritime Resources: France and Indonesia
- Capacity Building and Resource Sharing: Germany
- Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: India and Bangladesh
- Science, Technology, and Academic Cooperation: Italy and Singapore
- Trade, Connectivity, and Maritime Transport: Japan and the US
Mandate of IPOI:
- The IPOI seeks to establish a rules-based regional order in the Indo-Pacific, facilitating the free movement of goods, services, and people while respecting the sovereignty of nations.
- The initiative enhances regional maritime security by fostering cooperation among countries to tackle shared challenges such as piracy, illegal fishing, smuggling, and other maritime crimes.
- IPOI aims to boost regional capacity for disaster risk reduction and management, encouraging collaboration on disaster preparedness and response, thus minimizing the effects of natural disasters.
- As a non-treaty, voluntary initiative, IPOI offers flexibility, allowing nations to participate according to common interests without adding new institutional responsibilities.
PYQ:
[UPSC 2011] The strategic significance of South-East Asia lies in its:
(a) It was the hot theatre during the Second World War.
(b) Its location between the Asian powers of China and India.,
(c) It was the arena of superpower confrontation during the Cold War period.,
(d) Its location between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and its preeminent maritime character. |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar?” (2013)
Reason: The movement of non-state actors, the potential for cross-border terrorism, and the involvement of external actors in Balochistan could link to India’s internal security challenges and the complexities of managing its own borders. |
Mentor’s Comment: Balochistan’s ongoing insurgency isn’t just a Pakistan issue—it’s a case study in how internal unrest, resource conflicts, and external interventions shape regional security. For UPSC aspirants, this article is crucial for understanding India’s border security challenges (GS3) and the broader geopolitical game involving China and Pakistan (GS2). The mention of the Balochistan Liberation Army (BLA), the hijacking incident, and Pakistan’s military response highlights patterns of insurgency and counterinsurgency—offering insights into how states manage separatist movements, a key aspect of internal security answers. Additionally, CPEC’s impact on local communities echoes concerns about economic imperialism and sovereignty, making this a relevant talking point in India’s foreign policy discourse.
Today’s editorial discusses the challenges in Pakistan’s Balochistan province and how India can strategically respond. This analysis is relevant for GS Paper 2 (International Relations) and GS Paper 3 (Internal Security).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Pakistan’s internal politics will shape the unrest in Balochistan. However, due to low trust in the military and government, meaningful talks between insurgents and the leadership seem unlikely.
What are the key reasons behind the ongoing insurgency in Balochistan?
- Historical Grievances and Forced Integration (1948): Many Baloch nationalists argue that Balochistan was forcefully incorporated into Pakistan in 1948 without the consent of its people. Example: Multiple insurgencies have occurred over the decades (1950s, 1960s, 1970s, mid-2000s) due to political and economic marginalization.
- Political and Socio-Economic Marginalization: The region remains underdeveloped despite its vast natural resources (coal, copper, gold, gas). The Baloch people feel excluded from governance and decision-making. Example: Even with rich gas reserves, local communities face power shortages while other provinces benefit from Balochistan’s resources.
- Military Suppression and Human Rights Violations: Pakistan’s military and intelligence agencies have employed heavy-handed tactics such as enforced disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and crackdowns on dissent. Example: The mass protests led by Baloch women against custodial killings and forced disappearances highlight the ongoing repression.
- China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and Resource Exploitation: Large-scale infrastructure projects, like Gwadar Port, were developed without consulting local communities, causing displacement and demographic changes. Example: Chinese fishing trawlers have disrupted local fishermen’s livelihoods, leading to economic hardships and resentment.
- Growing Insurgent Coordination and External Factors: Various Baloch insurgent groups (BLA, BLF, BRG) have improved their coordination, launching high-profile attacks on security forces and infrastructure. Example: The Baloch Raji Aajoi Sangar (BRAS) alliance has intensified attacks, including the March 2024 train hijacking and past assaults on Chinese workers and security installations.
What is China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)?
The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a $62 billion infrastructure project linking China’s Xinjiang to Pakistan’s Gwadar Port, enhancing trade, energy, and connectivity but facing security, debt, and geopolitical concerns.
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How has the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) impacted the socio-political landscape of Balochistan?
- Economic Disparities and Local Alienation: Despite promises of economic growth, local Baloch communities have seen minimal benefits from CPEC projects, leading to resentment. Example: Gwadar Port’s development has largely benefited Chinese and Pakistani investors, while local fishermen face economic hardships due to Chinese deep-sea fishing trawlers.
- Increased Security Presence and Military Crackdown: To safeguard CPEC projects, Pakistan has intensified military operations in Balochistan, leading to human rights abuses and forced displacements. Example: The establishment of the Special Security Division (SSD) for CPEC has led to increased military checkpoints and reports of enforced disappearances.
- Rise in Insurgency and Targeted Attacks: Baloch insurgent groups view CPEC as a form of exploitation, leading to increased attacks on Chinese nationals and Pakistani security forces. Example: The Baloch Liberation Army (BLA) has carried out multiple attacks, including the 2022 suicide bombing in Karachi targeting Chinese teachers associated with CPEC projects.
- Demographic Changes and Marginalization of Locals: Large-scale infrastructure projects have led to an influx of outsiders, creating fears among Baloch communities about losing their cultural and economic dominance. Example: The settlement of non-Baloch workers in Gwadar has fueled protests, with locals demanding control over job opportunities and land rights.
- Environmental Degradation and Livelihood Losses: Industrialization and large-scale construction under CPEC have led to pollution, water shortages, and destruction of marine ecosystems, affecting local livelihoods. Example: Gwadar’s water crisis has worsened due to excessive resource extraction for CPEC-related industries, forcing residents to rely on water tankers.
How can India leverage this situation to its advantage?
- Diplomatic Advocacy for Human Rights: India can raise concerns over human rights violations in Balochistan at international forums like the UN and human rights organizations, building pressure on Pakistan. Example: Indian Prime Minister’s 2016 Independence Day speech highlighted Balochistan’s struggles, signaling diplomatic support.
- Strategic Engagement with Baloch Leadership: Engaging with Baloch exiled leaders and activists can strengthen India’s regional influence and counter Pakistan’s narrative on Kashmir. Example: India has provided a platform to Baloch leaders like Brahumdagh Bugti, who has sought asylum in India.
- Intelligence and Strategic Operations: India can enhance intelligence-sharing and non-conventional tactics to counter threats emanating from Pakistan, especially along its western borders. Example: Reports suggest Indian agencies have been monitoring CPEC activities and Pakistan’s military actions in Balochistan.
- Economic and Cultural Soft Power: India can support Baloch diaspora communities through scholarships, cultural exchanges, and humanitarian assistance to build goodwill. Example: Media outlets in India have amplified Baloch issues, increasing global awareness of Pakistan’s suppression.
- Countering CPEC’s Strategic Influence: By highlighting the environmental and economic concerns of Balochistan, India can strengthen its ties with countries skeptical of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Example: India’s opposition to CPEC, citing sovereignty concerns over PoK, aligns with global criticisms of China’s debt-trap diplomacy, helping form strategic alliances.
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Way forward:
- International Advocacy and Strategic Alliances: India should continue raising the Balochistan issue in global forums while strengthening diplomatic ties with nations wary of CPEC and China’s growing influence. Example: Collaborating with the Quad (US, Japan, Australia) and EU on human rights and regional security concerns.
- Balanced Engagement with Baloch Leadership: India can discreetly support Baloch nationalist movements through political dialogue, humanitarian aid, and economic initiatives, ensuring a calibrated approach without direct intervention. Example: Facilitating educational opportunities and cultural exchanges for Baloch youth to build long-term goodwill.
Back to Basics: Importance of Balochistan
- Strategic Location – Balochistan provides Pakistan access to the Arabian Sea, hosting Gwadar Port, a key part of CPEC, enhancing regional trade and connectivity.
- Natural Resources – It holds rich mineral reserves, including natural gas, coal, gold, and copper (e.g., Reko Diq gold-copper project).
- Energy Hub – Balochistan is crucial for Pakistan’s energy security, with major gas fields like Sui Gas Field, supplying the country since 1952.
- Defense and Security – The province borders Iran and Afghanistan, making it vital for border security and counterinsurgency operations.
- Fisheries and Maritime Importance – Its 1,000 km coastline supports Pakistan’s fishing industry, with Gwadar’s deep-sea port boosting maritime trade potential.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Gig Workers related issues;
Why in the News?
Startup founders publicly claimed to support gig workers’ rights but secretly resist laws that would actually protect them.
What is the nature of employment in urban labour chowks and mazdoor mandis?
- Daily Wage and Informal Work: Workers gather at labour chowks every morning, hoping to be hired for the day. Example: Construction workers in Delhi’s Kashmere Gate labour chowk wait for contractors to hire them for masonry or painting jobs.
- Highly Competitive and Unstable: Large numbers of workers compete for limited jobs, often accepting lower wages out of desperation. Example: In Mumbai’s Dadar labour market, carpenters and plumbers rush to secure work before others.
- Exploitative Hiring Practices: Employers and thekedars (middlemen) negotiate wages, often offering the lowest possible rates. Example: In Ahmedabad, daily wage workers in textile markets are hired at rates well below the minimum wage.
- Lack of Social Security and Benefits: No job security, health benefits, or pensions; workers are paid only for the day they work. Example: Brick kiln workers in Hyderabad have no accident coverage despite working in hazardous conditions.
- Piece-Rate and Task-Based Payment: Workers are often paid per unit of work completed rather than a fixed wage. Example: In Chennai’s wholesale vegetable markets, loaders are paid per sack carried rather than for the number of hours worked.
Who benefits the most from the presence of thekedars in the labour market?
- Employers Benefit from Lower Labour Costs: Thekedars help employers negotiate lower wages and better terms by creating a competitive environment among workers. This allows employers to maximize profits by minimizing labor costs. Example: In urban labour chowks, employers can select workers at the lowest possible wage due to the high competition among workers, which benefits the employer financially.
- Thekedars Themselves Profit from Commissions: Thekedars earn commissions or fees from both workers and employers for their services. This financial gain is a direct benefit to them. Example: In the construction industry, thekedars often receive a percentage of the workers’ wages as a commission for facilitating the hiring process.
How do digital platforms replicate the role of thekedars in modern gig work?
- Acting as Middlemen Without Responsibility: Just like thekedars, digital platforms connect workers to employers but do not recognize them as formal employees, avoiding obligations like job security or benefits. Example: Ride-hailing apps like Uber and Ola classify drivers as “partners” rather than employees, denying them benefits like PF or health insurance.
- Downward Wage Bidding: Workers must accept the lowest possible payment, as platforms set rates based on demand and supply, just like the daily wage auctions in mazdoor mandis. Example: Food delivery workers on Swiggy and Zomato have seen their per-delivery payments decrease over time as competition increases.
- Algorithm-Controlled Work Allocation: Platforms use algorithms to decide which worker gets a task, replacing the manual selection process of thekedars. Workers have no bargaining power over wages or work hours. Example: Freelancers on Upwork or Fiverr depend on algorithms that prioritize clients, making workers compete for lower pay.
- Lack of Collective Bargaining: Gig workers are isolated, just like daily wagers in urban labour markets, making unionization and collective bargaining difficult. Example: Amazon Flex workers have no union representation and must accept whatever delivery rates the company offers.
- Exploitative Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to get work, forcing them to accept low wages and poor conditions, similar to how thekedars exploit labour desperation. Example: “Insta Maids” service offers house help for ₹49 per hour, making workers compete for ratings instead of fair wages.
What are the challenges for gig workers in India?
- Lack of Job Security and Social Benefits: Gig workers are classified as “independent contractors,” denying them benefits like health insurance, provident fund, and paid leave. Example: Delivery partners for Swiggy and Zomato receive no compensation if injured while working.
- Low and Unstable Earnings: Payment structures are unpredictable, with fluctuating wages and reduced per-task payouts over time, making financial planning difficult. Example: Uber and Ola drivers often struggle as their earnings depend on peak-hour incentives, which companies frequently revise.
- Exploitation Through Rating Systems: Workers must maintain high ratings to secure jobs, forcing them to accept unreasonable customer demands and work long hours. Example: Urban Company service providers risk lower earnings or job loss if they receive poor ratings from customers, regardless of actual service quality.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
- Code on Social Security, 2020: This legislation brings gig and platform workers under the ambit of social security schemes for the first time. Example: The law mandates that gig workers be eligible for benefits like life and disability cover, health and maternity benefits, and old-age protection.
- E-Shram Portal (2021): A national database for unorganized workers, including gig workers, was launched to provide them with targeted benefits. Example: Registered workers receive a Universal Account Number (UAN) and accident insurance coverage under the Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana.
- State-Level Welfare Initiatives: Several state governments have taken initiatives to support gig workers. Example: Rajasthan introduced the Platform-Based Gig Workers Welfare Board (2023) to ensure social security benefits.
- NITI Aayog Report on Gig Economy (2022): The report highlights the need for policy interventions, including skill development, financial inclusion, and social security for gig workers. Example: Recommendations were made to extend benefits like Employee Provident Fund (EPF) and health insurance to gig workers.
- PLI Scheme and Skill Development Programs: The government has introduced skill development programs for gig workers, especially in sectors like logistics and e-commerce. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) helps gig workers upskill and transition into better-paying roles.
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Way forward:
- Strengthening Legal Protections & Social Security: Enforce minimum wages, accident insurance, and pension benefits for gig and informal workers. Example: Amend the Code on Social Security, 2020 to ensure mandatory employer contributions.
- Collective Bargaining & Fair Work Standards: Facilitate unionization and introduce fair algorithmic policies to prevent wage suppression. Example: Implement transparent rating and payment systems on digital platforms like Swiggy and Uber.
Mains PYQ:
Q Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (UPSC 2021)
Reason: The article explores “insta-commerce,” where gig workers, including women, sell via social media. While the PYQ focuses on empowerment, the article highlights challenges like job insecurity, unfair wages, and the lack of grievance redressal. This perspective offers a nuanced view of the gig economy’s impact, including its dual role in both enabling and potentially disempowering women.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Drug trafficking;
Why in the News?
Drug abuse in Kerala has increased over the past three years. In March, the Kerala High Court raised concerns about drug mafias, and the Governor met university officials to address student drug problems.
What are the key factors contributing to the surge in drug abuse cases in Kerala over the past three years?
- Increased Drug Trafficking via Coastal Routes: Kerala’s long coastline makes it a transit hub for international drug cartels. Example: In 2023, a Sri Lankan boat carrying 200 kg of heroin was intercepted off the Kerala coast.
- Rise of Synthetic & Party Drugs Among Youth: Increased use of MDMA, LSD, and methamphetamine, particularly in urban areas and college campuses. Example: In 2022, over 1,000 students were caught in possession of synthetic drugs in Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram.
- Easy Availability Through Darknet & Courier Services: Online platforms and encrypted messaging apps have facilitated drug trade. Example: In 2024, Kerala police busted a drug network using dark web transactions and fake delivery addresses.
- Widespread Consumption Beyond Urban Centers: Unlike other states, drug abuse is reported in both rural and urban districts. Example: Every district in Kerala recorded at least 500 NDPS cases in 2022, indicating a statewide crisis.
- Limited Focus on Major Suppliers & Traffickers: 94% of NDPS cases in Kerala are for possession, with only 6% related to trafficking. Example: While thousands of consumers are arrested, major drug syndicates continue operations largely unchecked.
What is the situation of drug abuse at all India levels?
- Steady Rise in NDPS Cases Across India: Cases under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act have been increasing, though some states show a decline in recent years. Example: India recorded over 1.5 lakh NDPS cases in 2023, with a significant rise in Punjab, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
- Punjab & Northeast Among the Worst-Affected Regions: Punjab has long struggled with heroin addiction, while the Northeast is affected due to drug trafficking from Myanmar’s Golden Triangle. Example: In 2024, Punjab recorded 30 cases per lakh people, the second-highest after Kerala.
- Shift from Natural to Synthetic & Pharmaceutical Drugs: Synthetic drugs (MDMA, LSD, Meth), opioids, and prescription medicines (Tramadol, Codeine-based syrups) are increasingly being abused. Example: In Mumbai, over 60% of drug-related arrests in 2023 involved synthetic drugs rather than traditional narcotics like cannabis.
- Growing Use of Dark Web & Digital Payments for Drug Trade: Cryptocurrency transactions, darknet markets, and courier services are being used for drug sales. Example: In 2023, the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) dismantled an online drug syndicate operating across multiple Indian states.
- State-Wise Variation in Drug Trafficking & Consumption Patterns: While Punjab & Northeast face opioid crises, Mumbai & Bengaluru see more party drug use, and Tamil Nadu & Andhra Pradesh have rising cannabis-related arrests. Example: In 2022, Bengaluru accounted for 63% of Karnataka’s NDPS cases, highlighting an urban concentration of drug abuse.
What are the steps taken by the Government?
- Strengthening Law Enforcement & Anti-Drug Operations: The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) and state police have intensified crackdowns on drug trafficking networks. Example: In 2023, the NCB seized over 2000 kg of drugs nationwide, including heroin and synthetic substances, in coordinated raids.
- Expansion of Rehabilitation & De-addiction Programs: The Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment runs the Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyan (NMBA) to promote awareness and rehabilitation. Example: Over 370 de-addiction centres were established under NMBA in states like Punjab, Maharashtra, and Kerala.
- Use of Technology & AI for Drug Surveillance: Government agencies monitor dark web transactions, cryptocurrency payments, and social media platforms to track drug deals. Example: In 2023, the NCB cracked a crypto-drug syndicate that was smuggling MDMA and LSD through online orders.
- Public Awareness & Educational Campaigns: Schools, colleges, and workplaces are conducting anti-drug sensitization programs to reduce youth drug abuse. Example: Kerala’s ‘Love-a-Thon’ campaign in universities aims to educate students on the dangers of substance abuse.
- International Cooperation & Border Security Measures: India has increased cooperation with Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Iran to curb cross-border drug trafficking. Example: In 2023, the Indian Navy intercepted a Pakistan-based heroin shipment worth ₹1,200 crore in the Arabian Sea.
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Way forward:
- Targeted Crackdown on Drug Supply Chains: Strengthen intelligence-led operations against major traffickers, enhance coastal & border security, and increase inter-agency coordination to dismantle drug syndicates.
- Comprehensive Prevention & Rehabilitation Strategy: Expand school-based drug education, integrate mental health support in de-addiction programs, and enhance community-based rehabilitation to address both urban and rural drug abuse.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain how narco-terrorism has emerged as a serious threat across the country. Suggest suitable measures to counter narco-terrorism. (UPSC 2024)
Reason: This question is potentially linked with narco-terrorism. The measures suggested to counter narco-terrorism would also be relevant to addressing the drug problem in Kerala, especially if it involves organized crime and cross-border elements.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Comptroller and Auditor General
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court has decided to examine a plea challenging the current process of appointing the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG).
About Office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG):
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Details |
| Role and Importance |
- Established under Article 148 of the Indian Constitution.
- Ensures efficient and lawful use of public funds.
- Audits financial accounts of Consolidated Fund of India, state funds, and public sector undertakings.
- Acts as a watchdog over government financial expenditure.
- Plays a critical role in maintaining financial accountability in governance.
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| Appointment and Term |
- Appointed by the President of India under a warrant.
- Serves a 6-year term or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
- Must take an oath to uphold the Constitution and perform duties impartially.
- Removal can only occur for misbehaviour or incapacity, through a special majority in both Houses of Parliament.
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| Independence of the CAG |
- Independence from the government: Ineligible for any government office after leaving office.
- Salary and Expenses: Equal to a Supreme Court judge, with expenses charged to the Consolidated Fund of India.
- No Ministerial Representation: No minister can represent the CAG or assume responsibility for their actions.
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Issues with the Appointment of the CAG
The current process for appointing the CAG is seen as problematic due to the centralized control by the Union government.
- The CAG is appointed by the President on the advice of the government, raising concerns about potential executive influence over a key independent body.
- Critics argue that this process compromises the CAG’s independence and calls for a neutral selection committee involving the Prime Minister, Leader of the Opposition, and Chief Justice of India.
- This would ensure that the CAG is appointed transparently and impartially, free from political interference.
- Historically, the lack of clear guidelines in Article 148 regarding the CAG’s appointment has allowed executive interference, much like the early years of judicial appointments.
Supreme Court interventions have already reformed appointment processes for bodies like the Election Commission and Central Vigilance Commission, and similar reforms for the CAG are necessary to protect its autonomy.
[UPSC 2012] In India, other than ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and for intended purpose, what is the importance of the office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)?
1. CAG exercises exchequer control on behalf of the Parliament when the President of India declares national emergency/financial emergency.
2. CAG reports on the execution of projects or programmes by the ministries are discussed by the Public Accounts Committee.
3. CAG reports are available to the Parliamentary Committees.
4. While dealing with the audit and accounting of government companies, CAG has certain judicial powers for prosecuting those who violate the law. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 3 and 4 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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