Why in the News?
The fire on MV Wan Hai 503 near Kannur exposed India’s weak maritime safety. With over 140 hazardous containers onboard, it posed a major risk during the monsoon, threatening the environment and lives.
What are the major types of peacetime maritime accidents faced by the Indian coast?
- Sinking of merchant ships – leads to cargo loss, traffic disruption, and environmental damage.
- Fire onboard vessels – threatens coastal life, property, and marine ecology.
- Oil spills – have long-lasting environmental impacts and are difficult to contain.
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Why was the MV Wan Hai 503 incident a significant maritime safety challenge?
- Presence of Hazardous Cargo: Over 140 of the 1,754 containers onboard contained hazardous materials, posing a high risk of toxic release and chemical explosions. Eg: Multiple colors of smoke (brown, white, grey, black) indicated different substances burning simultaneously.
- Proximity to Coastline During Fire: The ship began drifting dangerously toward the Indian coast near Azhikkal, Kerala, during monsoon rough seas, increasing the threat of coastal disaster. Eg: The tow rope initially snapped under pressure, risking further drift and collision with the shore.
- Complexity of Fire-Fighting and Towing: Fire-fighting was complicated by weather conditions and ship instability, requiring precise coordination. Eg: An Indian Navy helicopter had to airdrop a salvage team to pass a steel wire rope for safe towing to deeper waters.
- Multi-Agency Emergency Response Needed: The incident required rapid coordination between the Indian Navy, Coast Guard, and the ship owner’s team using tugs. Eg: The ship was finally stabilized 45 nautical miles offshore, where the water depth was nearly one kilometre, minimizing risk to coastal areas.
How did Indian agencies respond to the fire on MV Wan Hai 503?
- Rapid firefighting efforts amid adverse conditions: The Indian Coast Guard initiated firefighting operations despite rough seas caused by the monsoon. Eg: Firefighting continued while the ship drifted dangerously toward the Kerala coast, with thick smoke from burning hazardous cargo.
- Coordinated aerial and naval action: The Indian Navy deployed a helicopter to airdrop a salvage team onto the ship and deliver a steel wire rope to secure it. Eg: The steel rope enabled safe towing after the initial tow rope snapped due to tension and sea conditions.
- Strategic towing and risk mitigation: Indian agencies, in coordination with the ship owner’s agents and tugboats, towed the vessel 45 nautical milesaway from the coast to prevent environmental and coastal damage. Eg: The vessel was moved to deeper waters (1 km depth) to minimize the impact of any further explosion or sinking.
Why are gas-carrying and oil-laden ships considered severe fire and explosion hazards?
- High flammability of cargo: Gas and crude oil are highly combustible, making these ships extremely prone to fires and explosions if containment fails. Eg: Even a minor spark can ignite vapours from gas or oil, causing catastrophic fires onboard.
- Large volume of hazardous material: These vessels carry enormous quantities of flammable substances, which amplify the scale of damage during accidents. Eg: The New Diamond VLCC was carrying 2,70,000 tonnes of crude oil when it caught fire off Colombo in 2020.
- Critical maritime chokepoint risks: Accidents involving such vessels at strategic locations like the Suez Canal or Strait of Malacca can disrupt global trade and cause widespread damage. Eg: A gas carrier explosion at a maritime chokepoint could halt international shipping routes, impacting global supply chains.
What are the key areas India needs to strengthen in maritime fire-fighting and salvage operations? (Way forward)
- Rapid Salvage Capability: India must improve its ability for quick salvage of sinking or damaged vessels to prevent cargo loss, environmental damage, and navigation disruption. Eg: During the MV Wan Hai 503 incident, timely towing by the Indian Navy helped avert a coastal disaster, but highlighted the need for faster salvage deployment.
- Multi-agency Coordination: Effective response to maritime emergencies requires seamless coordination among the Coast Guard, Navy, port authorities, and private salvage firms. Eg: The successful control of the New Diamond VLCC fire involved joint efforts from Indian and Sri Lankan naval forces.
- Advanced Fire-fighting Infrastructure: India needs to upgrade fire-fighting equipment on patrol vessels and at key ports, especially for handling hazardous cargo and oil/gas fires. Eg: The Coast Guard’s patrol vessels are now fitted with basic fire-fighting systems, but large-scale fires require specialised ships and foam-based suppression systems.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] What are the ways in which oil pollution affects the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution particularly harmful for a country like India?
Linkage: Maritime Accident Response” explicitly talks about the “oil spills” as one of the three major peacetime maritime accidents that the Indian coast needs protection against. It also states that oil is a “more severe fire hazard” than hazardous cargo, especially in the context of gas-carrying merchant ships. This question directly addresses the environmental and national impact of oil pollution, which is a significant aspect of maritime accidents and firefighting efforts.
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Why in the News?
The tragic aircraft accident in Ahmedabad on June 12, 2025, has once again thrown a spotlight on India’s deeply flawed aviation accident investigation system.
Why is the AAIB’s independence in question despite being a statutory body?
- Operational Control by MoCA: Although the AAIB is technically autonomous, it functions under the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA), which also regulates airlines through the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA). Eg: In the Air India AI171 crash (2025), both the investigation and regulation were under MoCA’s control, raising concerns of bias and lack of transparency.
- Leadership Appointments by the Same Authority: The MoCA appoints the heads of both the DGCA and the AAIB, undermining the bureau’s credibility as an independent investigative body. Eg: This centralized appointment structure is unlike the railway sector, where investigations are done by the Commissioner of Railway Safety, independent of the Railway Ministry.
- Suppression of Uncomfortable Findings: Independent reviews and reports exposing deeper faults are often buried or ignored. Eg: The Air Marshal J.K. Seth Committee Report (1997) identified serious aviation safety issues, but it was never implemented because it told inconvenient truths.
What systemic flaws affect India’s aviation safety framework?
- Lack of Functional Independence in Investigations: The Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) operates under the same ministry (MoCA) that regulates the aviation sector, compromising neutrality. Eg: After the Air India AI171 crash in June 2025, concerns were raised that the investigation might not be impartial due to overlapping roles of MoCA and AAIB.
- Fragmented Oversight and Regulatory Capture: Aviation oversight in India suffers from poor coordination, limited resources, and influence by the very entities it is supposed to regulate. Eg: The J.K. Seth Committee Report (1997) pointed out such flaws, including regulatory capture, yet its recommendations remain largely unimplemented.
- Reactive Rather Than Preventive Safety Culture: India’s aviation safety system often responds after accidents occur, rather than identifying and mitigating risks in advance.Eg: Multiple helicopter and flying school crashes in 2024–25 were not adequately investigated for systemic lapses, highlighting the absence of a proactive safety mechanism.
How does MoCA’s control lead to conflict of interest in aviation oversight?
- MoCA Controls Both Regulation and Investigation: MoCA oversees the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) and also controls the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB), creating an inherent conflict between promoting aviation and investigating its failures. Eg: In the Air India AI171 crash (2025), MoCA was in charge of both regulating the airline and investigating the crash, raising doubts about impartiality.
- Lack of Independent Appointments: Senior officials in both DGCA and AAIB are appointed by MoCA, making it difficult for these bodies to act independently or challenge government or airline lapses. Eg: The J.K. Seth Committee (1997) warned about lack of independence due to MoCA’s direct control over top appointments, yet no structural change followed.
- Investigative Findings May Be Influenced or Suppressed: When the regulator and investigator are under the same authority, reports may be watered down or delayed to avoid political or bureaucratic accountability. Eg: The Kozhikode crash (2020) report’s recommendations were not fully implemented, with experts citing MoCA’s influence in diluting critical findings.
Why is pilot error often blamed in aviation accident reports?
- Legally Convenient: Blaming the pilot simplifies legal liability and expedites insurance claims, avoiding lengthy investigations or broader accountability. Eg: In many crash reports, including Aurangabad crash (1993), pilot error was highlighted while structural or operational flaws were downplayed.
- Shields Other Stakeholders: It protects airlines, maintenance agencies, air traffic control, and the regulator from scrutiny or punishment. Eg: In the Air India Express IX611 case (2018), suspected overloading was ignored while responsibility was pushed toward the flight crew.
- Systemic Culture of Scapegoating: There’s a lack of a genuine no-blame culture in India’s aviation safety framework. Pilots, even posthumously, become convenient scapegoats. Eg: After the Kozhikode crash (2020), the pilot was quickly blamed, although systemic issues like runway design and poor weather protocols were also contributing factors.
Way forward:
- Ensure Structural Independence of Investigative Bodies: Transfer the AAIB and DGCA out of the Ministry of Civil Aviation’s direct control and make them statutory authorities reporting to Parliament. This will eliminate conflict of interest and promote credible, impartial investigations.
- Promote a No-Blame Safety Culture: Need to amend existing rules to prevent automatic criminal liability for pilots unless gross negligence is proven (e.g., Rule 19(3) of Aircraft Rules, 1937).
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005?
Linkage: The article explicitly frames an aircraft accident as a “wake-up call” and argues that India needs a system that “prevents failures, and not just manages the damage.” It states, “We cannot keep firefighting. We need a system that prevents failures”. This directly relates to the concept of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), which emphasises proactive measures and preparedness over reactive response.
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Why in the News?
The Union Finance Ministry has capped spending under the Mahatma Gandhi National Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) at 60% of its total annual allocation for the first half of FY 2025-26.
About MGNREGS:
- Legal Foundation: MGNREGS is a rights-based Centrally Sponsored Scheme launched under the MGNREGA Act of 2005 to ensure the Right to Work for rural households.
- Origins:
- The idea of employment guarantee in India began with Maharashtra’s pilot, Employment Guarantee Scheme (MEGS), in 1965 under the V. Naik government.
- At the national level, the idea was first proposed in 1991 by then PM P. V. Narasimha Rao and later enacted in 2005.
- Employment Guarantee: It provides 100 days of wage employment per year to any adult willing to do unskilled manual labour in rural India.
- Legal Obligation: It is the first law in India that imposes a legal duty on the government to provide employment and compensate for non-compliance.
- Development Goal: The scheme aims to promote livelihood security, inclusive growth, and rural development.
Key Features:
- Statutory Right: Employment under MGNREGS is a legal entitlement, not just a welfare scheme.
- Eligibility: Any rural adult aged 18 or above can apply and must be offered work within 15 days.
- Proximity and Wages: Work must be provided within 5 km of the applicant’s residence with minimum wage, and delays attract compensation.
- Unemployment Allowance: If work is not provided on time, the state must pay an allowance.
- Demand-Driven Model: The scheme is worker-initiated, requiring the government to respond to demand.
- Transparency and Audits: Regular social audits and online updates ensure accountability in job cards, muster rolls, and fund use.
- Local Implementation: It is decentralised, led by Gram Panchayats, with support from block and state officials, and centrally funded.
- Women’s Inclusion: At least one-third of beneficiaries must be women, enhancing gender equity.
- Sustainable Assets: Projects focus on durable rural infrastructure like ponds, roads, canals, and plantations.
Rationale Behind the Spending Cap:
- Expenditure Control: This cap is part of the Monthly/Quarterly Expenditure Plan to prevent front-loading of funds and mid-year shortages.
- Previous Trends: In earlier years, over 70% of funds were spent by September, creating dues of ₹15,000–25,000 crore.
- Current Status: As of June 2025, 28% of the budget is already used, while ₹19,200 crore in dues remain from FY25.
- Criticism: Experts argue the cap undermines the demand-driven design of the act and may violate the legal right to work.
| [UPSC 2006] Consider the following statements in respect of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005:
1. The Act provides 100 days of employment to households as a fundamental right.
2. Women are given priority such that half of the employment seekers are women.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
Passively Managed Funds—those that track a market index without active stock selection—have become increasingly popular among investors seeking low-cost, predictable returns.
About Passively Managed Funds:
- Passively managed funds, commonly known as passive funds, are investment vehicles designed to replicate the performance of a specific market index, such as the Nifty Fifty or the Sensex.
- Unlike actively managed funds, the fund manager in a passive fund does not select stocks or make frequent buy-and-sell decisions.
- Instead, the fund holds the same stocks in the same proportion as the underlying index.
- How Passive Funds Work?
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- These funds track a benchmark index by investing in all or a representative sample of the securities in that index.
- The objective is to mirror the index’s returns, not to outperform it.
- As a result, they incur lower management costs and have minimal portfolio turnover.
Types of Passive Funds:
- Index Funds:
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- These are mutual funds that can be purchased or redeemed directly from the fund house.
- Transactions are processed only once a day, based on the day’s closing Net Asset Value.
- They offer ease of use and are suitable for systematic investment plans and long-term investors.
- Exchange Traded Funds:
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- These are funds listed on stock exchanges, like the National Stock Exchange or the Bombay Stock Exchange.
- Investors buy or sell units during trading hours through brokers, just like stocks.
- They require a dematerialised account and are suitable for investors seeking intraday trading flexibility.
Advantages of Passive Funds:
- Low Expense Ratios: Because no active research or trading is involved.
- Transparency: Holdings closely follow a well-known index.
- Diversification: Spreads investment risk across multiple securities.
- No Human Bias: Avoids mistakes due to the fund manager’s poor decisions.
Limitations:
- No Outperformance: Returns will always be close to the index and cannot exceed it.
- Tracking Error: Slight variation between the fund’s performance and the index due to operational reasons.
- Limited Flexibility: Cannot adapt to sudden market downturns.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
Statement I: As regards returns from an investment in a company, generally, bondholders are considered to be relatively at lower risk than stockholders.
Statement II: Bondholders are lenders to a company, whereas stockholders are its owners.
Statement III: For repayment purposes, bondholders are prioritised over stockholders by a company.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
(a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct, and both of them explain Statement I *
(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct, and Statement I explains Statement II
(c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I
(d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct |
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Why in the News?
Researchers from Chennai have discovered a new species of jumping spider, ‘Spartaeus karigiri’, belonging to the Spartaeinae subfamily.
About the Spartaeus karigiri :
- Spartaeus karigiri is a newly discovered species of jumping spider, part of the Spartaeinae subfamily within the Salticidae (jumping spider) family.
- It was first identified in the Karigiri (Elephant Hill) region of Devarayanadurga, Karnataka, and is named after this location.
- The species marks the first recorded instance of the Spartaeus genus being found in India, extending its previously known range from Southeast Asia.
- Field specimens were also collected from Villupuram district in Tamil Nadu, suggesting a broader habitat.
Key Features:
- Genus Identification: Belongs to the Spartaeus genus, known for its intelligent predation and visual hunting tactics.
- Habitat: Found in rocky outcrops and forested terrain; prefers crevices and protected microhabitats.
- Hunting Behaviour: Likely exhibits web-invasion hunting methods and prey mimicry, similar to other Spartaeinae members.
| [UPSC 2025] Regarding the Peacock tarantula (Gooty tarantula), consider the following statements:
I. It is an omnivorous crustacean.
II. Its natural habitat in India is only limited to some forest areas.
III. In its natural habitat, it is an arboreal species.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only (b) I and III (c) II only (d) II and III * |
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Why in the News?
Two recent maritime accidents off Kerala’s coast have spotlighted shipping safety, ecological risks, and the International Maritime Organisation’s (IMO) role in global maritime regulation.
About the International Maritime Organisation (IMO):
- Overview: The IMO is a UN specialised agency that regulates international shipping and aims to prevent marine pollution from ships.
- Establishment: It was established in 1948 via a UN conference in Geneva and formally came into existence in 1958. It is headquartered in London, United Kingdom.
- Membership: It has 175 member states and 3 associate members. India joined in 1959.
- Objective: To develop a fair and effective global regulatory framework for the shipping industry that is universally adopted and consistently implemented.
- Legal Functions: It also addresses liability and compensation and facilitates international maritime traffic through legal frameworks.
- World Maritime Day: It observes World Maritime Day on the last Thursday of September each year to promote awareness of maritime significance.
- IMO Governance Structure:
- Assembly: The highest governing body meets every 2 years.
- Council: Comprises 40 members serving 2-year terms, acts as the executive organ, and focusing on safety and pollution control.
- Committees: Five main committees and multiple subcommittees draft and adopt conventions, codes, and guidelines for maritime operations.
- SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) Convention: Originating after the Titanic disaster, SOLAS mandates lifeboat capacity on both ship sides and is regularly updated by the IMO to meet modern safety standards.
India and IMO:
- Overseeing Agency: IMO-related matters in India are handled by the Directorate General of Shipping.
- Council Representation: India is a Category B member of the IMO Council, indicating its growing maritime influence.
- Future Goals: Under Vision 2030 and Amrit Kaal Vision 2047, India plans to set up a dedicated IMO cell.
- Conventions Not Yet Ratified: India has not yet ratified the 2004 Ballast Water Convention and the 2010 HNS Convention.
- Flags of Convenience (FOC): Many ships operate under FOCs (e.g., Liberia, Marshall Islands) to bypass stringent regulations.
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Who is Liable for Environmental Damage and Lost Cargo?
- Owner Liability: Ship owners are liable for both cargo loss and environmental damage under international law.
- Bill of Lading: Cargo is transported under a bill of lading, a legal contract between ship owner and cargo holder.
- Marine Insurance: P&I Clubs (Protection & Indemnity) cover liabilities related to cargo loss, environmental damage, and loss of life.
- Liability Caps: While cargo liability is capped, environmental claims—especially for oil or toxic spills—can be uncapped and costly.
- Polluter Pays Principle: The MARPOL Convention enforces that polluters bear the cost of environmental damage, even if national law limits compensation.
- Wreck Liability: The Nairobi Convention (2007) holds ship owners responsible for wreck removal or financial liability within 200 nautical miles of a nation’s coast.
- Recent Examples: Accidents like Wan Hai 503 and ELSA 3, involving toxic spills and lost containers, show the importance of robust legal frameworks.
| [UPSC 2022] With reference to the ‘Polar Code’, which one of the following statements best describes it?
Options: (a) It is the international code of safety for ships operating in polar waters.*
(b) It is the agreement of the countries around the North Pole regarding the demarcation of their territories in the polar region.
(c) It is a set of norms to be followed by the countries whose scientists undertake research studies in the North Pole and South Pole.
(d) It is a trade and security agreement of the member countries of the Arctic Council. |
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Why in the News?
India has earned top ratings from the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for aviation safety, outperforming global averages in key areas.
About the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO):
- Establishment: It is a specialised UN agency created in 1944 under the Chicago Convention.
- Headquarters: It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada.
- Core Role: It sets global standards for aviation safety, security, efficiency, and environmental sustainability.
- Global Reach: It has 193 member states, including India.
- Safety Oversight: It conducts safety audits through its Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme (USOAP).
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- Safety and Order: ICAO works to ensure the safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation.
- Equitable Access: It promotes fair access for all countries to operate international airlines.
- Legal Frameworks: The organisation helps develop aviation laws to uphold safety standards amid industry expansion.
- International Cooperation: It supports regional agreements and global collaboration in air transport policy and practice.
India and ICAO: Recent Safety Audit
- Audit Timeline: ICAO conducted its latest audit of India’s DGCA in November 2022.
- Improved Performance: India’s Effective Implementation score improved from 69.95% (2018) to 85.65% (2022).
- Category-Wise Scores: India scored above the global average in all eight USOAP categories, including:
- Legislation, Organisation, Licensing, Operations, Airworthiness, Accident Investigation, Air Navigation, and Aerodromes.
- Operational Excellence: In Operations, India scored 94.02%, outperforming the global average (72.28%), the US (86.51%), and China (90%).
- Airworthiness Strength: India scored 97.06%, higher than the US (89.13%) and China (94.83%).
- Comparative Timeline: India was audited in 2022, while the US and China were reviewed in 2024.
- Market Rank: India is the third-largest domestic aviation market after the US and China.
- Fastest Growing: It is also the fastest-growing major aviation market, highlighting its expanding global significance.
| [UPSC 2025] GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentation.
Which of the following statements is/are correct in respect of GAGAN?
I. It is designed to provide additional accuracy and integrity.
II. It will allow more uniform and high-quality air traffic management.
III. It will provide benefits only in aviation but not in other modes of transportation.
Options: (a) I, II and III (b) II and III only (c) I only (d) I and II only* |
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Why in the News?
Following the tragic crash of the Air India Boeing 787 Dreamliner in Ahmedabad, authorities concluded the identities of the victims using DNA analysis.
What is DNA?
- Overview: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is the molecule that carries genetic instructions essential for the development, growth, and reproduction of all living organisms.
- Location in the Body: It is present in nearly every human cell and is unique to each person, except for identical twins.
- Structure: DNA is made up of four chemical bases—Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Thymine (T)—arranged in sequences that encode genetic data.
- Biological Fingerprint: Due to its individual uniqueness, DNA acts like a biological fingerprint, useful in crime investigations and disaster victim identification.
How DNA Identification Works?
- Use in Forensics: DNA is extracted from human remains when visual identification is not possible due to burns, decomposition, or trauma.
- Reference Matching: Extracted DNA is compared with:
- Family reference samples (from parents, children, siblings)
- Personal belongings (like a toothbrush, razor, or hairbrush)
- Sample Reliability: Bones and teeth are preferred in degraded conditions, as they preserve DNA more effectively.
- Forensic Accuracy: Specialized forensic labs analyze and match DNA sequences, confirming identity with high levels of accuracy.
Common DNA Analysis Methods:
- Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis:
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- Focuses on short, repeating sequences of DNA that vary among individuals.
- Requires nuclear DNA, typically from well-preserved samples.
- Considered the gold standard for forensic identification.
- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis:
-
- Extracts DNA from mitochondria, not the nucleus, making it more resilient in degraded samples.
- Inherited only from the mother, allowing tracing through the maternal lineage.
- Y-Chromosome Analysis:
-
- Targets Y chromosomes, passed from father to son.
- Useful for identifying male victims when paternal relatives are available.
- Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Analysis:
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- Detects single-letter changes in the DNA sequence.
- Applied when DNA is highly degraded and other methods are less effective.
- Can be used with reference items like personal hygiene tools.
| [UPSC 2000] Assertion (A): DNA Finger-printing” has become a powerful tool to establish paternity and identity of criminals in rape and assault cases. Reason (R): Trace evidence such as hairs, saliva and dried semen are adequate for DNA analysis.
Options: (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not a correct explanation of A (c) A is true, but R is false (d) A is false, but R is true |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: The article points out several trade and economic tensions between the U.S. and India. These include disagreements over the actual size of the U.S. trade deficit with India, the increase of tariffs on steel and aluminium imports from 25% and 10% to 50%, which also affects India, and warnings of possible tariffs on Apple products if they are made in India. |
Mentor’s Comment: Israel’s bold “Rising Lion” operation against Iran on June 13, 2025, is a major turning point in Middle East politics. By killing top Iranian military and nuclear officials and bombing over 100 key sites, Israel has taken one of the most serious actions in its long rivalry with Iran. Both countries have described it as a historic moment, showing how serious the situation is. This is more than just a military move — it could have huge effects on the region and the world, including risks to energy supplies, rising tensions, and economic problems. It raises important questions about whether such surprise attacks can really prevent conflict or if they make things worse in an already unstable region.
Today’s editorial focuses on the analysis of the Israeli attack on Iran and its impact. This content is very relevant to GS Paper II (International Relations) Mains.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Israeli military launched the “Rising Lion” operation against Iran, which is a very big step up in tensions in the Middle East.
What are the strategic objectives behind Israel’s “Rising Lion” operation against Iran?
- Neutralizing Nuclear and Missile Capabilities: Israel seeks to dismantle Iran’s ability to develop or deploy nuclear weapons and long-range missiles. Eg: Over 200 Israeli Air Force jets attacked 100+ targets, including nuclear sites and missile installations.
- Eliminating Key Military Leadership: The operation targets Iran’s military command to disrupt strategic coordination and weaken retaliation capabilities. Eg: High-ranking officials like the Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces and Revolutionary Guard commanderswere assassinated.
- Asserting Regional Military Superiority: By launching a preemptive, technology-driven blitzkrieg, Israel aims to reinforce its deterrence and reshape regional power dynamics. Eg: The campaign follows 21 months of pressure on Iran and its proxies, including provocative assassinationsand systematic airstrikes.
Why has the Israeli campaign raised concerns about regional and global stability?
- Risk of Regional Escalation: The conflict could widen if Iran retaliates or drags its proxies into action, destabilizing the Middle East. Eg: The Sunni Arab world fears blowback through attacks on oil facilities, incitement of Shia minorities, or revival of terrorist networks like ISIS.
- Threat to Global Oil Supply Chains: Hostilities near key maritime chokepoints like the Strait of Hormuz can disrupt global energy flows. Eg: About 20% of global oil passes through the Strait; any Iranian attempt to block it could trigger oil price surgesand inflation.
- Economic Fallout and Global Instability: A prolonged or messy war could amplify existing economic challenges like inflation, supply chain shocks, and geopolitical tension. Eg: The conflict may cause stock market instability, worsen the impact of other regional conflicts, and reverse global growth momentum.
How has U.S. foreign policy influenced the escalation of the Israel-Iran conflict?
- Withdrawal from the Iran Nuclear Deal: The U.S. pulled out of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) in 2018, dismantling diplomatic progress and increasing Iran’s nuclear activity. Eg: Under Trump 1.0, the U.S. exited the deal and applied “maximum pressure” sanctions, leading to heightened tensions and mistrust.
- Economic Strangulation Strategy: U.S. actions aimed to weaken Iran economically and diplomatically, increasing regional hostility. Eg: The U.S. pressured Saudi Arabia to flood the oil market, reducing Iran’s oil revenues, and pushed the IAEAto condemn Iran before the Israeli attack.
- Military and Diplomatic Alignments: The U.S. built strategic ties and military alignments with Israel and other regional players to isolate Iran. Eg: The June 12 IAEA resolution, U.S. airstrikes on al-Houthis, and renewed ties with Pakistan signal coordinated steps that emboldened Israeli action.
What are the implications of the conflict for the Sunni Arab world and global oil supply chains?
- Strait of Hormuz Vulnerability: The conflict raises the risk of disruption in the Strait of Hormuz, a vital energy chokepoint. Eg: Nearly 20% of global oil supply passes through this strait, and Iran may block or threaten its use in retaliation.
- Shia-Sunni Sectarian Tensions: Iran could incite Shia minorities in Sunni-ruled countries, destabilizing domestic security. Eg: Countries like Saudi Arabia and Bahrain fear internal unrest or uprisings, particularly in Shia-dominated regions.
- Proxy Warfare and Regional Blowback: Iran-backed militias or proxies may target Sunni governments or U.S. allies, increasing regional instability. Eg: Attacks by Hezbollah, Houthis, or Iraqi militias could threaten infrastructure in UAE or Saudi Arabia.
- Oil Price Surge and Inflation: Threats to supply lines or actual conflict could lead to global oil price spikes, impacting inflation. Eg: Fear of escalation alone can push prices upward, hurting import-dependent economies like India, and driving global market volatility.
- Policy Dilemma for Sunni Arab States: Sunni states face a strategic dilemma—balancing between opposing Iran and avoiding regional escalation. Eg: Countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE are wary of openly backing Israel, fearing retaliation and regional backlash.
What could be the impact on India?
- Oil Price Volatility and Economic Stress: Rising tensions threaten energy security, as India imports over 85% of its crude oil. Eg: A spike in Brent crude prices due to disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz would increase India’s current account deficit, raise fuel prices, and trigger inflation.
- Geopolitical Balancing Challenge: India must maintain a delicate diplomatic balance between Israel, Iran, and the U.S. Eg: India has strong strategic ties with Israel (defence and tech) but also energy and connectivity interests with Iran (e.g., Chabahar Port), making neutrality harder to maintain.
- Threat to Diaspora and Trade Routes: Escalation could impact the safety of the Indian diaspora in the Gulf and disrupt maritime trade routes. Eg: Over 8 million Indians live in West Asia. Any conflict-induced displacement or shipping disruptions through the Persian Gulf would hurt remittances and exports.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Energy Diversification and Strategic Reserves: India should diversify oil import sources (e.g., from Latin America, Africa) and expand strategic petroleum reserves to cushion against supply shocks. Eg: Fast-track deals with Brazil, UAE, and the U.S., while increasing domestic oil storage capacity.
- Pursue Proactive and Balanced Diplomacy: India must engage in quiet diplomacy with both Israel and Iran, reaffirming strategic ties without compromising neutrality. Eg: Leverage platforms like BRICS, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), and G20 to promote regional de-escalation and safeguard Indian interests.
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Why in the News?
The tragic crash of Air India flight AI171 in Ahmedabad on June 12, 2025, which killed over 300 people, is a shocking reminder of how poor aviation safety is in India. This is not a one-time event, but part of a long series of deadly air accidents over the years that show serious problems in the system.
What governance failures led to the AI171 crash?
- Lack of Regulatory Oversight: Authorities like the DGCA and MoCA failed to enforce basic safety measures, such as proper runway maintenanceand bird hazard management. Eg: Overgrown grass near the runway in Ahmedabad attracted birds, possibly causing engine failure due to bird ingestion.
- Failure to Act on Past Warnings: Despite repeated aviation accidents over decades, systemic safety reforms were not implemented, and accountabilitywas routinely evaded. Eg: After major crashes like Mangaluru (2010) and Kozhikode (2020), safety lapses were identified but ignored by aviation authorities.
- Politicisation and Poor Leadership Appointments: Key aviation bodies were headed by bureaucrats or politically appointed officials lacking technical expertise in aviation safety. Eg: Professionals were bypassed in favour of public-relations-focused appointees at DGCA and AAI, weakening institutional response to risks.
Why is DGCA under criticism post-AI171 incident?
- Lack of Regulatory Oversight: Authorities like the DGCA and MoCA failed to enforce basic safety measures, such as proper runway maintenanceand bird hazard management. Eg: Overgrown grass near the runway in Ahmedabad attracted birds, possibly causing engine failure due to bird ingestion.
- Failure to Act on Past Warnings: Despite repeated aviation accidents over decades, systemic safety reforms were not implemented, and accountabilitywas routinely evaded. Eg: After major crashes like Mangaluru (2010) and Kozhikode (2020), safety lapses were identified but ignored by aviation authorities.
- Politicisation and Poor Leadership Appointments: Key aviation bodies were headed by bureaucrats or politically appointed officials lacking technical expertise in aviation safety. Eg: Professionals were bypassed in favour of public-relations-focused appointees at DGCA and AAI, weakening institutional response to risks.
How does a lack of accountability affect aviation safety in India?
- Recurring Accidents without Systemic Change: When no one is held responsible, critical safety lapses continue unchecked across the aviation sector. Eg: Despite the Mangaluru (2010) and Kozhikode (2020) crashes, Air India and regulators did not implement robust safety reforms.
- Blame Shift to Pilots: Authorities often scapegoat pilots instead of addressing deeper infrastructure and regulatory issues, undermining fair investigations. Eg: In the AI171 crash, DGCA named the pilots publicly, violating ICAO norms, instead of probing systemic failings.
- No Judicial Enforcement of Reforms: Weak legal follow-up allows ministries and aviation bodies to evade reforms even after Public Interest Litigations or inquiries. Eg: After the Mangaluru crash, a PIL listing DGCA and MoCA violations was dismissed by the Supreme Court, citing procedural grounds.
Which global aviation norms were violated in this crash’s aftermath?
- Violation of ICAO Confidentiality Norms: The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) mandates that crew identities be protected during and after investigations to maintain fairness and objectivity. Eg: The DGCA named the pilots involved in the AI171 crash, breaching ICAO Annex 13, which prohibits revealing crew names before the final report.
- Neglect of Pre-Monsoon Runway Safety Protocols: ICAO standards require strict runway maintenance, especially before seasonal weather shifts, to prevent bird strikes and foreign object damage. Eg: In the AI171 crash, video evidence showed untrimmed grass near the runway at Ahmedabad airport, attracting birds and violating global runway wildlife hazard management norms.
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What reforms are needed to strengthen aviation safety oversight? (Way forward)
- Professionalisation of Regulatory Bodies: Appoint trained aviation professionals—not bureaucrats—to head institutions like the DGCA and AAI for evidence-based decision-making and technical leadership. Eg: ICAO recommends that civil aviation authorities be led by aviation experts to ensure technical integrity.
- Independent and Transparent Accident Investigations: Create an autonomous investigation body separate from the Ministry of Civil Aviation to probe accidents, publish findings without interference, and fix systemic gaps. Eg: The U.S. NTSB operates independently of the FAA and reports directly to Congress, ensuring accountability.
- Enforcement of International Standards: Enforce strict compliance with ICAO safety protocols, such as restricting construction near flight paths and maintaining airport surroundings. Eg: The presence of a high-rise building in AI171’s flight path violated ICAO’s obstacle clearance norms.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] “International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above the territory. What do you understand by airspace? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggests ways to contain the threat.
Linkage: “International civil aviation laws” and “airspace”, which are fundamental legal and operational aspects governing the aviation sector. In this article talks about the violations of “International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards” in India’s aviation system, underscoring the importance of understanding the legal and regulatory framework of the aviation sector.
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Why in the News?
North Bengal’s tea gardens are in crisis, especially for women workers, due to climate change, pests, low wages, and reduced production, causing economic struggles and increased gender-based hardships.
What challenges do women tea workers face due to climate change and poor labour conditions?
- Extreme Heat Exposure: Women work under open skies with no shade, facing soaring temperatures due to climate change. Eg: Workers suffer from headaches, vomiting, and exhaustion while plucking leaves during peak summer months like April and May.
- Lack of Basic Facilities: Absence of crèches, sanitation, and rest shelters forces women to manage both labour and childcare in unsafe conditions. Eg: Children are hung in cloth cradles tied to trees as mothers continue work in the gardens.
- Human-Wildlife Conflict: Encroachment of wildlife into tea estates due to changing weather patterns increases risk of attacks. Eg: Leopard attacks have injured several women, despite efforts like using whistles to drive them away.
Why is tea yield and quality declining in North Bengal?
- Erratic Rainfall Patterns: The monsoon is no longer evenly spread, with rainfall occurring in short, intense bursts, affecting soil moisture and crop cycle. Eg: Dry spells during critical growth months like February and March reduce yields and degrade leaf quality.
- Rising Temperatures: Increasing heat reduces the ideal climatic conditions necessary for tea cultivation, impacting both quantity and flavour. Eg: Temperatures crossing 30°C for extended periods lead to loss of the tea’s aroma and taste.
- Increased Pest and Disease Attacks: Climate change weakens tea bushes, making them more vulnerable to pests and diseases. Eg: Frequent pest attacks force farmers to use chemical sprays, which also degrade leaf quality.
How do low wages impact the lives of tea plantation workers?
- Economic Hardship: Low daily earnings make it difficult for workers to meet basic needs such as food, healthcare, and education. Eg: A worker earning only Rs 250 per day struggles to support their family after losing a spouse.
- Lack of Childcare Support: Insufficient income prevents access to proper childcare facilities, forcing unsafe alternatives at the workplace. Eg: In some cases, children are kept in cloth cradles tied to trees due to the absence of crèche facilities.
- No Scope for Upward Mobility: With stagnant wages and no savings, workers remain stuck in poverty with no chance to improve living standards. Eg: Despite long-standing demands to increase wages to Rs 600 per day, many still earn significantly less, affecting their long-term well-being.
What climate-resilient practices are tea estates adopting?
- Organic Farming: Switching to organic methods reduces chemical use and improves soil health for long-term sustainability. Eg: Some estates have gone fully organic, avoiding chemical fertilisers and promoting natural soil enrichment.
- Soil Conservation Techniques: Practices like mulching and intercropping help retain moisture, reduce erosion, and maintain fertility during erratic rainfall. Eg: Estates use mulching and intercropping with legumes to prevent soil erosion and conserve moisture during dry spells.
- Water Management Strategies: Creation of water bodies and rainwater harvesting enhances water availability during prolonged dry periods. Eg: Gardens are building water bodies to improve microclimates and ensure irrigation in the absence of seasonal showers.
Why is the tea sector overlooked in policy and climate action?
- Lack of Market Visibility: Despite being globally consumed, tea lacks strong marketing and policy attention compared to other cash crops. Eg: Unlike coffee, tea receives little brand promotion, limiting public and policymaker focus.
- Neglect of Women Labour Force: Tea is the largest employer of women labourers, yet there is inadequate investment in their welfare or working conditions. Eg: No crèche facilities exist in many gardens, forcing women to hang children from trees during work.
- Insufficient Climate Funding: Small growers lack access to funds and technical guidance to adopt climate-resilient practices. Eg: High cost of herbal pesticides prevents adoption, while most farmers rely on peer advice instead of expert support.
Way forward:
- Improve Working Conditions and Wages: Ensure minimum wage revision, provide shade, drinking water, crèche facilities, and medical support for women tea workers to enhance their safety and well-being.
- Promote Climate-Resilient Practices with Institutional Support: Encourage organic farming, soil conservation, and afforestation, backed by government funding and policies tailored to protect both workers and the environment.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the major challenges faced by Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.
Linkage: The tea gardens are experiencing “prolonged dry spells” and a drop in the “groundwater table”, highlighting a critical challenge for irrigation and water management in the tea heartland.
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Why in the News?
Under the Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA), the Ministry of Tribal Affairs has sanctioned the creation of District and State-level Forest Rights Act (FRA) Cells across 18 States and Union Territories.
About Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA)
- Launch: It was launched in October 2024 by Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
- Mission Goal: The initiative aims to promote holistic development of tribal communities by addressing gaps in infrastructure, livelihoods, education, and health.
- Geographical Reach: The program covers over 63,843 tribal-dominated villages across 30 States/UTs, 2,911 blocks, and 549 districts, benefitting over 5 crore tribal people.
- Funding: The total budget is ₹79,156 crore, with a central share of ₹56,333 crore and a state share of ₹22,823 crore.
- Inspiration: DAJGUA is modelled after the PM-JANMAN Scheme, which focuses specifically on the welfare of Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
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What are FRA Cells under DAJGUA?
- Overview: FRA Cells are administrative support units created under the Dharti Aba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyaan (DAJGUA) to assist in implementing the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.
- Funding Support: These cells are funded directly by the Union Ministry of Tribal Affairs, marking the first instance of central government financing a structured FRA support mechanism.
- Objective: The core aim of FRA Cells is to help tribal claimants and Gram Sabhas prepare and submit forest rights claims, especially in tribal-dominated districts.
- Goal: FRA Cells aim to reduce delays and rejections in forest rights applications by improving documentation quality and data management.
Key Features of FRA Cells:
- Coverage Scale: As of 2025, a total of 324 district-level and 17 state-level FRA Cells have been approved across 18 States and Union Territories.
- Funding Allocation: Each district-level cell is provided ₹8.67 lakh, and each state-level cell receives ₹25.85 lakh, funded as Grants-in-Aid General by the Centre.
- Operational Functions: FRA Cells assist in document collection, Gram Sabha resolution drafting, conversion of forest villages into revenue villages, land demarcation, digitization, and record uploads to official portals.
- Limitations: FRA Cells do NOT interfere with the decision-making powers of statutory authorities like Gram Sabhas, Sub-Divisional Level Committees (SDLCs), or District Level Committees (DLCs).
- Leading States: The highest number of FRA Cells have been approved in Madhya Pradesh (55), Chhattisgarh (30), Telangana (29), Maharashtra (26), Assam (25), and Jharkhand (24).
Back2Basics: Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006
- Overview: The law is officially called The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006.
- Objectives: FRA seeks to recognize and vest forest land rights to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have traditionally depended on forests but lacked formal land ownership.
- Major Provisions: It provides for:
- Ownership of Minor Forest Produce (MFP)
- Community rights such as grazing and water use
- Habitat rights for PVTGs
- Community Forest Resource (CFR) rights to manage and protect forests
- Institutional Framework: The Act is implemented through a multi-tier system consisting of Gram Sabhas, Forest Rights Committees (FRCs), SDLCs, DLCs, and State Monitoring Committees.
- Significance: FRA provides legal protection from evictions, supports livelihoods, and enhances local forest governance through community participation and legal recognition.
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| [UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?
Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj (c) Ministry of Rural Development (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs* |
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Why in the News?
For the first time since India’s independence, the Shipki La pass in Himachal Pradesh has been opened to domestic tourists, marking a historic shift in India’s border tourism strategy.
About Shipki La Pass:
- It is a high-altitude mountain pass at 3,930 meters in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh, on the India–Tibet (China) border.
- It is one of only 3 official border trading points between India and Tibet, along with Nathu La (Sikkim) and Lipulekh (Uttarakhand).
- The Sutlej River (called Langqen Zangbo in Tibet) enters India near Shipki La, adding geographical importance to the area.
- The pass lies along National Highway 5 (NH5) and is considered one of the highest motorable roads in India.
- Historically, it served as a major trade route, enabling exchange of salt, wool, spices, yak tails, and tea between India and Tibet.
- Trade was stopped in 1962 after the India-China war, resumed in 1992, but was halted again during COVID-19.
- On June 9, 2025, Himachal Pradesh opened the pass to Indian tourists for the first time since Independence.
- The initiative is part of a “Border Tourism” strategy, which includes the launch of the Sarhad Van Udyan (Border Forest Park).
- It is also being considered as an alternate route for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
Other Important Himalayan Passes:
- Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir:
- Khardung La (5,359 m) – Among the highest motorable passes; connects Leh with Nubra Valley.
- Zoji La – Links Srinagar with Leh; vital for year-round Ladakh access.
- Chang La, Baralacha La, Umling La (5,798 m) – Crucial for Leh connectivity and defense.
- Rezang La – Famous for the 1962 India-China war battle.
- Karakoram Pass, Aghil Pass, Demchok Pass – Strategic India-China border passes.
- Himachal Pradesh:
- Rohtang Pass – Connects Kullu with Lahaul-Spiti; key for tourism and logistics.
- Parang La – Links Spiti Valley and Parvati Valley; used by trekkers and herders.
- Shipki La – Now open to tourists; historical Indo-Tibetan trade route.
- Uttarakhand:
- Lipulekh Pass (5,632 m) – Used for Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
- Mana Pass – One of the highest vehicle-accessible passes; connects to Tibet.
- Niti Pass, Milam Pass, Kuthi Pass – Historical trade and pilgrimage routes.
- Sikkim:
- Nathu La – Major border trade route; part of the ancient Silk Route.
- Jelep La – Historical route linking Sikkim with Lhasa via Chumbi Valley.
- Arunachal Pradesh:
- Se La, Bum La – Connect to Tawang and Bhutan border.
- Pangsau Pass, Diphu Pass – Connect Arunachal with Myanmar; important for WWII history and connectivity.
| [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?
Options: (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La (d) Shipki La |
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Why in the News?
Authorities have recovered the black box from the crash site of the recent incident in Ahmedabad.
About Black Boxes:
- Purpose: Black boxes are essential flight data recording devices used in aircraft to aid in accident investigation and flight safety analysis.
- Development: Australian scientist David Warren in 1954, developed the first practical FDR after investigating mid-air explosions.
- Color and Visibility: Despite the name, black boxes are painted bright orange with reflective material to make them easily visible after a crash.
- Two Main Types: Aircraft typically have two black boxes:
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- Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and
- Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR).
- Single Unit: Some aircraft integrate both functions into a single combined unit.
- How does it work?
- Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): The CVR records cockpit audio, including pilot conversations, radio transmissions, alarm sounds, and background noises like engine hum or warning tones.
- Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR): The DFDR logs key flight performance data, including altitude, airspeed, direction, engine parameters, and system operations, capturing thousands of data points per second.
- Installation Location: Black boxes are usually installed in the tail section of the aircraft, as this area is statistically more likely to remain intact in a crash.
- Recording Capacity: The CVR records the last 2 hours of cockpit audio on a continuous loop, while the DFDR stores up to 25 hours of flight data.
- Durability and Protection: Black boxes use solid-state memory chips housed in crash-survivable casings that can endure high-impact forces, extreme temperatures (up to 1,100°C), and deep-sea pressure.
- Underwater Locator Beacons (ULBs): Each black box includes a beacon that emits signals for up to 30 days, aiding search teams in locating the devices in the event of a water crash.
Use of Black Boxes in India:
- Regulation in India: In India, aircraft crash investigations are conducted by the Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau (AAIB) under the Ministry of Civil Aviation, using black box data as primary evidence.
- Recent Development (April 2025): India established its first dedicated Flight Recorders Laboratory in New Delhi, strengthening the country’s capability to analyze crash data independently and efficiently.
| [UPSC 2025] GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) uses a system of ground stations to provide necessary augmentation. Which of the following statements is/are correct in respect of GAGAN?
I. It is designed to provide additional accuracy and integrity.
II. It will allow more uniform and high-quality air traffic management.
III. It will provide benefits only in aviation but not in other modes of transportation.
Options: (a) I, II and III (b) II and III only (c) I only (d) I and II only* |
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Why in the News?
The Finance Ministry has firmly denied recent online rumours suggesting that the government is planning to impose Merchant Discount Rate (MDR) charges on UPI transactions.
About Merchant Discount Rate (MDR):
- Overview: MDR refers to the fee charged to merchants by banks or payment service providers for processing digital payments made via credit cards, debit cards or other digital modes.
- Purpose: It serves to compensate multiple stakeholders involved in a digital transaction, including the issuing bank, acquiring bank, payment gateway, and network operator.
- Fee Structure: MDR is typically calculated as a percentage of the total transaction amount, usually ranging from 1% to 3%, depending on the transaction and merchant type.
- RBI Regulation: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) regulates MDR, and merchants are NOT permitted to pass this fee onto customers.
- Discontinuation: To promote cashless payments, the government waived MDR on UPI and RuPay card transactions in 2020, benefiting small merchants and consumers.
How does it work?
- Transaction Flow: When a customer pays digitally, the payment amount is credited to the merchant’s account after deducting the MDR fee.
- Example: If a customer pays ₹1,000 and the MDR is 2%, the merchant receives ₹980, while the remaining ₹20 is distributed among the banks and service providers.
- Automatic Deduction: The MDR amount is automatically deducted by the settlement system at the time of transaction processing.
- Variable Rates: The MDR rate may vary depending on factors such as the type of card used, nature of business, monthly transaction volume, and average transaction value.
- Merchant Agreements: Merchants are required to sign MDR agreements with their payment service providers before they begin accepting digital payments.
- Operational Cost: MDR is treated as a part of the merchant’s operational costs when offering customers the convenience of digital payment options.
| [UPSC 2017] Which one of the following best describes the term “Merchant Discount Rate” sometimes seen in news?
Options: (a) The incentive given by a bank to a merchant for accepting payments through debit cards pertaining to that bank.
(b) The amount paid back by banks to their customers when they use debit cards for financial transactions for purchasing goods or services.
(c) The charge to a merchant by a bank for accepting payments from his customers through the bank’s debit cards. *
(d) The incentive given by the Government to merchants for promoting digital payments by their customers through Point of Sale (PoS) machines and debit cards. |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: The article points out several trade and economic tensions between the U.S. and India. These include disagreements over the actual size of the U.S. trade deficit with India, the increase of tariffs on steel and aluminium imports from 25% and 10% to 50%, which also affects India, and warnings of possible tariffs on Apple products if they are made in India. |
Mentor’s Comment: In a major decision, five small U.S. businesses won a legal case against former President Donald Trump’s wide-ranging tariffs in the U.S. Court of International Trade. On May 28, 2025, the court ruled that the tariffs—ranging from 10% to 135% and affecting over 100 countries—were unconstitutional and illegal. This ruling matters globally, especially for countries like India, now facing increased 50% tariffs on steel and aluminium.
Today’s editorial focuses on the US Courts’ decision on tariffs, a key issue relevant to GS Paper II (International Relations) in the UPSC syllabus.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, on May 28, 2025, a U.S. court ruled that the tariffs, ranging from 10% to 135% and applied to over 100 countries, were against the Constitution and not legal.
What was the legal challenge to Trump’s tariffs?
- Unlawful Executive Overreach: Five small U.S. businesses challenged Trump’s tariffs at the U.S. Court of International Trade (CIT), arguing that the President exceeded legal authority by imposing tariffs without Congressional approval. Eg: Firms dealing in wines, bicycles, and fishing equipment claimed economic harm.
- Violation of Separation of Powers: The lawsuit argued that the President’s sweeping tariffs bypassed legislative and judicial checks, undermining the constitutional framework. Eg: The court noted that trade rules must involve Congress, not unilateral executive orders.
- Misuse of National Emergency Powers: The court ruled that invoking a “national emergency” does not justify rewriting international tariff agreements. Eg: The CIT stated that such powers cannot be used to override trade commitments under WTO rules.
Why did the court reject the “national emergency” claim?
- Lack of Legal Basis: The court ruled that there was no statutory authority for the President to impose retaliatory global tariffs under a vague “national emergency.” Eg: Tariffs up to 135% were applied without Congressional sanction.
- Overreach of Executive Powers: The court stated that invoking national emergency powers cannot allow the President to override trade laws and international commitments. Eg: It held that such use disrupts the constitutional separation of powers.
- Absence of Real Emergency: The court found no credible evidence of an immediate or actual threat that would justify emergency trade measures. Eg: The cited trade deficit was not a sudden crisis but a long-standing economic condition.
- Distortion of Trade Deficit Data: The administration failed to account for services and arms trade while citing trade deficits as justification. Eg: U.S. cited a $44.4 billion deficit with India, while it actually runs a $35–40 billion surplus when services are included.
- Violation of International Obligations: The court emphasized that the tariffs contradicted U.S. commitments under WTO agreements and eroded global trade norms. Eg: The U.S. applied tariffs even to uninhabited territories like the Heard and McDonald Islands, showcasing arbitrariness.
How did the U.S. justify tariffs on India after WTO talks?
- National Security Pretext: The U.S. continued to claim national security grounds for the imposition of tariffs, even after WTO rulings against it. Eg: Despite WTO panels rejecting the justification in 2022, the U.S. raised steel and aluminium tariffs to 50% on India.
- Strategic Trade Leverage: The U.S. argued that enhanced tariffs served as negotiation tools to pressure trade partners into deals. Eg: The U.S. claimed the tariffs on India helped gain leverage in talks to finalize a bilateral trade agreement.
- Mutually Agreed Solution Bypass: Though India and the U.S. reached a “mutually agreed solution” at the WTO in 2023, the U.S. still extended new tariffs on India. Eg: The 50% tariffs imposed in 2025 contradicted the earlier settlement, undermining trust in WTO dispute resolution.
Which issues must India address in a U.S. trade deal?
- Removal of Additional Tariffs: India must ensure that the U.S. removes punitive tariffs on Indian exports like steel and aluminium, currently raised to 50%. Eg: The continuation of high tariffs impacts India’s manufacturing sector and export competitiveness.
- Digital Services Tax Clarity: India should seek guarantees that its digital services taxes will not face retaliation from the U.S. Eg: U.S. firms operating in India’s tech sector may be affected unless taxation issues are resolved amicably.
- Protection from Remittance Tax: India needs to negotiate exemption from the proposed 3.5% tax on remittances under the Trump One Big Beautiful Bill (OBBB). Eg: This would impact millions of Indian diaspora workers sending money back home.
- H-1B Visa Concerns: India must address growing restrictions and backlash against H-1B visas, which are vital for its IT and service industry. Eg: Tech companies rely heavily on H-1B visas for skilled Indian professionals working in the U.S.
- Cross-Border Services and Data Flows: India must ensure smooth cross-border delivery of services, including clear data flow regulations and digital trade provisions. Eg: This is critical for India’s BPO and fintech industries, which depend on uninterrupted digital transactions.
Way Forward:
- Pursue Balanced Trade Negotiations:
India should negotiate a comprehensive trade deal that protects its strategic sectors, ensures reciprocity, and strengthens economic resilience without compromising on national interests.
- Strengthen WTO and Multilateral Engagements:
India must continue to uphold and reform the WTO-based trade framework, using it as a platform to address disputes, promote fair trade practices, and build coalitions with like-minded nations.
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Why in the News?
India’s path to becoming a “Viksit Bharat” by 2047 relies on transforming its urban areas, as over 60% of the population is expected to live in cities by the 2060s.
What are the main challenges India faces in achieving efficient urban mobility?
- Insufficient Public Transport Coverage: Only 37% of urban residents have easy access to public transport, compared to over 50% in countries like Brazil and China. Eg: Many Tier-2 cities still lack proper metro or bus services.
- Shortage of Urban Buses: India needs about 2,00,000 urban buses, but currently has only 35,000 (including e-buses). Eg: Overcrowded buses in Delhi and Bengaluru during peak hours show the supply-demand gap.
- Poor Last-Mile Connectivity: Even when metros are available, the cost and difficulty of reaching homes or offices from stations reduce usage. Eg: Metro commuters in Mumbai often rely on expensive auto-rickshaws for last-mile travel.
- High Cost and Low Returns from Metro Projects: Metros are expensive and slow to build, with lower-than-expected ridership, making cost recovery hard. Eg: Many phases of the Jaipur Metro remain underutilized due to low footfall.
- Limited Government Subsidies and Private Investment: Unlike developed nations, India cannot afford large recurring subsidies, and private investment is low due to uncertain returns. Eg: E-bus projects in Pune face delays due to funding and maintenance challenges.
Why is the current investment in metro and e-bus infrastructure falling short?
- High Cost and Low Ridership: Metro projects involve huge capital and operational costs, but often fail to attract enough passengers to recover expenses. Eg: The Lucknow Metro struggles with low ridership despite high investment.
- Fare Sensitivity and Last-Mile Issues: People are price-sensitive, and poor last-mile connectivity discourages use of metros and e-buses. Eg: In Hyderabad, a small hike in metro fares led to a drop in daily commuters.
- Unsustainable Operational Models: E-buses have high replacement and maintenance costs, making them financially unviable in the long run. Eg: Many cities like Nagpur face challenges maintaining their e-bus fleets without subsidies.
How do trams compare to e-buses in terms of long-term cost-effectiveness?
- Higher Long-Term Profitability: Trams show about 45% profitability over their typical 70-year life cycle, making them more financially sustainable. Eg: European cities like Vienna continue to expand tram networks due to long-term cost benefits.
- Lower Operational and Replacement Costs: Trams require less frequent replacements and have lower running costs compared to e-buses, which face high battery and maintenance expenses. Eg: Kolkata’s tram system, though outdated, still operates at a lower cost than many new e-bus services.
- Better Scalability and Climate Alignment: Trams are more scalable in dense cities and better aligned with climate goals due to zero tailpipe emissions and use of electricity from clean sources. Eg: The planned Kochi tram project is being promoted as a sustainable alternative to road-based transport.
Which schemes support urban transport in the Budget 2024?
- PM e-Bus Sewa – Payment Security Mechanism: Aims to deploy and ensure reliable operations of 10,000 urban buses, including electric ones. Eg: Cities like Ahmedabad are using this to expand their bus fleet and improve service reliability.
- PM e-Drive Scheme (PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement): Supports procurement of 14,000 e-buses, 1,10,000 e-rickshaws, as well as e-trucks and e-ambulances. Eg: New Delhi is using funds to order e-ambulances and expand its e-rickshaw fleet under this initiative.
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Way forward:
- Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Planning: Develop seamless connectivity between metro, buses, e-rickshaws, trams, and non-motorised transport (NMT) to reduce last-mile gaps and improve user convenience.
- Prioritise Cost-Effective and Sustainable Modes: Encourage trams and trolleybuses in high-density corridors through life-cycle cost analysis, while ensuring targeted subsidies for low-income commuters and investment in green fuels like bio-CNG and hydrogen.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India?
Linkage: The article talks about different types of public transport like buses, metros, trams, and trolleybuses, and how important it is to choose options that are affordable and effective. It stresses the need for a strong and efficient public transport system to deal with the growing challenges of travel in cities. As more people move to cities, the article says urban areas will play a key role in driving India’s economic growth, making good public transport even more important.
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Why in the News?
Bangladesh is seeing major political change as interim leader Dr. Muhammad Yunus delays elections to April 2026 and proposes the “July Proclamation” to reform or replace the 1972 Constitution.
Why is the ‘July Proclamation’ seen as a threat to Bangladesh’s democratic foundations?
- Lacks Democratic Legitimacy: It is being pushed by an unelected interim regime without a popular mandate or proper parliamentary debate. Eg: Prof. Yunus’ government is not elected, yet is trying to undertake constitutional reforms meant for a legislature.
- Distorts Historical Legacy: The move seeks to marginalize the legacy of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and diminish the significance of December (Victory Day) and August (Mujib’s assassination), promoting July as a new political start. Eg: The July Proclamation downplays Bangladesh’s founding narrative to suit a new political agenda.
What are the risks of an unelected interim government pursuing constitutional reforms?
- Lack of Legitimacy and Public Mandate: An interim government is not elected by the people and lacks the constitutional authority to undertake major reforms meant for a parliament or constituent assembly. Eg: In Bangladesh, Prof. Yunus’ government is implementing reforms without elections, violating democratic norms.
- Potential for Power Consolidation: Such reforms can be used to prolong the tenure of the interim regime, sideline opposition, and weaken checks and balances, paving the way for authoritarian rule. Eg: The banning of the Awami League and the extension of election dates to 2026 raise concerns of power entrenchment.
- Political Instability and Polarisation: Constitutional changes without bipartisan consensus can lead to unrest, legitimacy crises, and deep political divisions. Eg: The BNP, though opposed to the Awami League, is uncomfortable with the July Proclamation, showing a lack of political unity.
How could the proposed humanitarian corridor affect regional security?
- Violation of Sovereignty and Military Tensions: A demilitarised humanitarian corridor, especially if monitored by international forces, may be seen as a breach of national sovereignty by host countries.
Eg: The Bangladesh Army chief objected to international enforcement in the Rakhine region, fearing it would undermine Bangladesh’s sovereignty.
- Risk of Weapon Smuggling and Armed Group Access: Without effective monitoring mechanisms, such corridors could be exploited by international armed groups to smuggle weapons and infiltrate conflict zones. Eg: Concerns exist that the proposed corridor into Myanmar’s Rakhine province may be misused by armed groups, threatening both Myanmar and Indian border security.
- Uncertain Aid Distribution and Escalation of Conflicts: There’s no guarantee that humanitarian aid will reach only the intended civilian population (like Rohingya) and not be diverted to militant factions, escalating regional conflicts. Eg: India fears that lack of clarity over corridor enforcement could worsen militancy in the Northeast and Indo-Myanmar border areas.
| Note: The humanitarian corridor to Myanmar’s Rakhine province is a proposed initiative — not yet implemented — and it was publicly supported by Professor Muhammad Yunus, the Chief Adviser to the interim government of Bangladesh, in a speech on June 7, 2025. |
Why does the sidelining of major parties like BNP and Awami League raise democratic concerns?
- Undermining of Political Representation: Exclusion of major political parties weakens democratic legitimacy and narrows the space for public representation and opposition. Eg: The ban on the Awami League and the marginalisation of the BNP prevents millions of citizens from having their voices heard in the political process.
- Emergence of Proxy or Unrepresentative Forces: The vacuum created by sidelining mainstream parties can be filled by unaccountable or extremist groups, increasing political instability. Eg: The rise of the National Citizens Party (NCP), referred to as the ‘King’s Party’ by the BNP, raises fears of state-sponsored political manipulation.
Way forward:
- Inclusive Political Dialogue and Election Roadmap: The interim government must initiate an inclusive dialogue involving all major political parties, including the BNP and Awami League, to build consensus on constitutional reforms and ensure free and fair elections.
- Limit Powers of the Interim Government: Clearly define and restrict the mandate of the interim government to conduct elections only, avoiding any major constitutional or policy decisions that should be left to an elected Parliament.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] Critically examine the compulsions which prompted India to play a decisive roles in the emergence of Bangladesh.
Linkage: Understanding India’s historical role is crucial for comprehending the current political landscape in Bangladesh, especially as the interim government seems to want to ensure “that the legacy of 1971.
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Why in the News?
The Union Ministry of Power is considering a policy to restrict the temperature range of new air conditioners (ACs) in India to between 20°C and 28°C.
Important Facts and Keywords related to ACs:
- Efficiency Ratings: ACs have ratings like SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio) or EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio). A higher rating means the AC uses less power to cool the same space.
- Inverter Technology: Some ACs use inverter compressors, which adjust speed instead of turning on and off repeatedly. This saves energy and keeps the room temperature more stable.
- Humidity Control: ACs also help by removing moisture from the air. This keeps humidity around 40–60%, which feels more comfortable and prevents mold.
- Cooling Capacity: ACs are measured in tons. A “ton” of cooling comes from the amount of heat needed to melt 1 ton (~2,000 pounds) of ice in 24 hours.
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How do Air Conditioners Work?
- Basic Idea: Air conditioners (ACs) work like a heat-moving machine. They take heat from inside your room and push it outside, making the room cooler. They do this using a special fluid called a refrigerant, and a system called the vapour-compression cycle.
- Main Parts and What They Do:
- Evaporator: This part is inside your room. The refrigerant, which is very cold here, absorbs heat from the indoor air and turns into a gas. It also removes moisture, so your room feels less humid.
- Compressor: This is outside the house. It squeezes the refrigerant gas, making it very hot (about 90°C) and high-pressure. This part uses the most electricity in the AC.
- Condenser: The hot gas then flows through the condenser coil outside. It releases heat into the outdoor air and turns back into a liquid.
- Expansion Valve: This part lowers the pressure of the liquid refrigerant, making it cold again before it goes back to the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
- Refrigerant: The refrigerant is a specially designed gas that changes state easily at low temperatures and pressures, making it ideal for absorbing and releasing heat rapidly. Modern refrigerants like R-32 or R-410A are more energy-efficient and environmentally safer than older ones like CFCs and HCFCs.
Why limit AC Temperature settings?
- Energy Efficiency Data: According to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), setting an AC to 24°C instead of a lower setting can save 6% electricity per 1°C increase.
- National Impact: If adopted widely, this temperature setting could help India save 20 billion units of electricity annually.
- Health Risks at Low Temperatures: Temperatures below 18°C are linked to hypertension, asthma, and respiratory infections, especially among children, the elderly, and people with weakened thermoregulation.
- Evidence from Global Studies: Research in Japan, the UK, and New Zealand shows that slightly warmer indoor settings lead to better respiratory and cardiovascular health.
- WHO Recommendation: The World Health Organization advises 18°C as the minimum safe indoor temperature in temperate climates.
- Thermal Comfort Standards: Guidelines like ASHRAE-55 and ISO 7730 suggest optimal indoor temperatures between 20°C and 24°C for lightly clothed people, with adjustments based on local climate and culture.
Global Cooling Trends and the Need for Regulation:
- Global AC Usage Growth: As of 2022, there were an estimated 2 billion air conditioners in use worldwide, with residential units tripling since 2000, especially in India and China.
- Access Gap in Asia-Pacific: Despite this growth, 43% of the Asia-Pacific population still lacks access to adequate cooling solutions.
- Environmental Impact: Air conditioning significantly increases electricity use and carbon emissions, especially in countries with fossil fuel-dependent grids.
- India’s AC Load Projection: By 2030, India’s total connected AC load is expected to reach 200 gigawatts, requiring urgent demand management strategies.
- Consumer Awareness Tools: Initiatives like default settings at 24°C and energy labelling empower consumers to make informed energy-efficient choices.
- Benefits of Regulation: A regulated temperature range can help lower energy consumption, reduce peak power demand, and support public health.
| [UPSC 2003] Consider the following statements:
1. Steam at 100°C and boiling water at 100°C contain the same amount of heat.
2. Latent heat of fusion of ice is equal to the latent heat of vaporization of water.
3. In an air-conditioner, heat is extracted from the room-air at the evaporator coils and is rejected out at the condenser coils.
Which of these statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) Only 2 (d) Only 3* |
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Why in the News?
The Working Group on Avian Checklists has released AviList, the world’s first unified global bird checklist to standardize bird classification and support global research and conservation.
What is AviList?
- Overview: AviList is the first unified global checklist of bird species, officially launched on June 12, 2025.
- Who developed it: It was developed by the Working Group on Avian Checklists, with representatives from BirdLife International, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the International Ornithologists’ Union, the American Ornithologists’ Society, and Avibase.
- Purpose: The checklist aims to eliminate confusion caused by conflicting taxonomies and to improve global coordination in bird research and conservation.
- Standalone feature: AviList replaces separate resources like the IOC World Bird List and the Clements Checklist with a single, consensus-based taxonomy.
- Accessibility: It is freely available at www.avilist.org and will be updated annually to reflect the latest scientific consensus.
- Target Users: AviList supports ornithologists, birdwatchers, conservationists, researchers, and policymakers globally.
Key Features of AviList:
- Standardized Taxonomy: Combines inputs from global and regional checklists to ensure taxonomic consistency.
- Comprehensive Coverage: Lists 11,131 species, 19,879 subspecies, 2,376 genera, 252 families, and 46 orders.
- Consensus-Driven Process: Taxonomic decisions are made through structured milestone assessments and expert committee voting.
- Transparency in Changes: Provides clear justifications for taxonomic updates, especially those involving disputed species.
- Living Document: Designed to evolve continuously with new scientific discoveries and updates.
- Conservation Impact: Helps improve biodiversity assessments and conservation planning by clarifying species boundaries.
| [UPSC 2015] With reference to an organization known as ‘BirdLife International’, consider the following statements:
1. It is a Global Partnership of Conservation Organizations.
2.The concept of ‘biodiversity hotspots’ originated from this organization.
3. It identifies the sites known/referred to as ‘Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas’.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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