Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Major and Minor Minerals
Why in the News?
The Ministry of Mines has reclassified Barytes, Felspar, Mica, and Quartz as major minerals, aligning with the National Critical Mineral Mission to boost India’s industrial growth.
Major and Minor Minerals in India
What are Major Minerals?
- Major minerals are those with high economic value, used in industrial applications, energy production, and metallurgy.
- Regulation: Controlled by the Central Government under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act).
- Examples:
- Metallic Minerals: Iron ore, Copper, Bauxite, Gold, Manganese, Zinc, Lead.
- Energy Minerals: Coal, Lignite, Uranium.
- Industrial Minerals: Limestone, Rare Earth Elements, Graphite, Gypsum.
What are Minor Minerals?
- Minor minerals have lower economic value and are mainly used in construction, local industries, and ornamental purposes.
- Regulation: Controlled by State Governments under the MMDR Act, which gives them the power to grant leases and regulate mining activities.
- Examples:
- Building Materials: Sand, Gravel, Stone, Marble.
- Non-Metallic Minerals: Dolomite, Mica, Quartz, Felspar, Clay (until reclassified as major minerals).
Key Reasons for Reclassification:
- Extraction of Critical Minerals: These minerals are found with Lithium, Beryl, Niobium, Tin, and Tantalum, essential for energy transition, space, and healthcare industries.
- Industrial & Strategic Importance: Barytes is used in oil drilling, electronics, radiation shielding, while Quartz, Felspar, and Mica are crucial for ceramics, glass, and semiconductor industries.
- Improved Regulation & Transparency: Reclassification ensures scientific mining, reporting, and compliance under Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), reducing illegal extraction and enhancing exploration.
- No Impact on Existing Leases: Current leases remain valid for 50 years, allowing miners to adapt to new rules without disruption, with revenue continuing to benefit State Governments.
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following minerals:
- Bentonite
- Chromite
- Kyanite
- Sillimanite
In India, which of the above is/are officially designated as major minerals?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bathou Faith and its Philosophy
Why in the News?
The Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) government in Assam has officially included ‘Bathouism’ as an option in the religion column of key application forms, including admission forms, birth and death certificates.
What is Bathouism?
- Bathouism is the traditional faith of the Bodo people, primarily practiced in Assam and the foothills of Bhutan.
- It is a nature-centric religion that worships Bathoubwrai, the supreme deity believed to govern the universe.
- The central symbol of Bathouism is the Sijou plant (Euphorbia antiquorum), representing Bathoubwrai and planted in sacred enclosures (Bathou Thansali).
- Bathou Puja is performed to seek divine blessings for prosperity, health, and well-being.
- The Assam government has recently recognized Bathouism as a distinct faith, allowing its inclusion in official documents.
Philosophy of Bathouism
- Bathouism is based on five fundamental elements, known as Ba (five) Thou (deep thought), representing natural forces:
- Bar (Air) – Symbolizes breath, movement, and life force.
- San (Sun) – Represents light, energy, and warmth.
- Ha (Earth) – Stands for stability, fertility, and sustenance.
- Or (Fire) – Denotes transformation and purification.
- Okhrang (Sky) – Represents infinite wisdom and cosmic balance.
- Bathoubwrai (Sibwrai) is considered almighty, omniscient, and eternal, beyond time and space. He is indestructible—fire cannot burn him, water cannot moisten him, air cannot dry him, and weapons cannot pierce him.
- Bathouism promotes:
- Truthfulness, honesty, and righteousness.
- Respect for elders, ancestors, and nature.
- Peaceful coexistence and non-violence.
- Gratitude through rituals and pujas.
- Bathou rituals involve five bamboo sticks symbolizing the five elements, with offerings of rice beer, milk, flowers, and incense.
- Ancestral veneration and community harmony are integral aspects of the faith.
PYQ:
[2014] Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
(d) Sankhya and Yoga |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SOUL Conclave
Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the first edition of the School of Ultimate Leadership (SOUL) Leadership Conclave at Bharat Mandapam in New Delhi.
Bhutan’s PM Tshering Tobgay was the keynote speaker, emphasizing India’s leadership role in shaping governance and public service.
What is the SOUL Leadership Conclave?
- The SOUL Leadership Conclave (School of Ultimate Leadership Conclave) is a premier leadership summit inaugurated by PM Modi.
- It is aimed at cultivating transformational leaders beyond traditional political hierarchies.
- The event is designed to bring together leaders from diverse sectors, including politics, business, sports, media, spirituality, and public policy, to share their insights and experiences on leadership.
- The conclave serves as the foundation for the upcoming SOUL Leadership Institution, an exclusive leadership training academy in Gandhinagar, Gujarat.
Key Features of SOUL Conclave:
- Multi-Sector Leadership: Brings together leaders from various fields to promote cross-sector collaboration and knowledge-sharing.
- Training & Development: Focuses on nurturing ethical and globally competent leaders, beyond traditional political dynasties.
- SOUL Leadership Institute: A 22-acre, ₹150 crore campus is being developed in Gandhinagar, Gujarat, for formal leadership training.
- Global Leadership Insights: Discusses policymaking, governance, and leadership challenges with national and international leaders.
- Strengthening India’s Leadership Pipeline: Aims to train future leaders in governance, economics, diplomacy, and innovation.
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Explain the difference between the computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE 2021) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on India’s Gross Domestic Product (2021), and India from realizing its potential GDP (2020).
An economy grows through two key factors: supply (production of goods and services) and demand (spending on these goods and services). Among demand sources, investment is crucial as it creates a multiplier effect, boosting jobs and income. Consumption follows growth but cannot drive it alone, as sustainable expansion requires strong investment and production.
Today’s editorial talks about India’s GDP growth factors based on demand and supply. This content would help in GS Paper 3 mains Paper.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
An economy’s growth is like navigating two interconnected boats—one representing the supply or production of goods and services.
Is consumption enough to drive growth?
Consumption plays a crucial role in driving economic growth, but it is not sufficient on its own for sustainable long-term growth.
- Consumption-Led Growth is Slower: While consumption boosts demand, it does not create long-term productive capacity. Example: India’s GDP growth in recent years has been driven by consumption (60.3% of GDP in 2023), but it lags behind China’s investment-driven growth.
- Limited Multiplier Effect: Unlike investment, increased consumption has a weaker impact on overall income and job creation. Example: If people buy more smartphones, it benefits retailers but does not significantly boost domestic production if phones are imported.
- Investment is Crucial for Sustainable Growth: Higher investment in infrastructure, industries, and technology leads to job creation and productivity gains. Example: China’s high investment rate (41.3% of GDP in 2023) has helped it achieve rapid economic growth and higher per capita income than India.
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Why is economic growth dependent on two factors?
- Balanced Growth Requires Both Supply & Demand: Economic growth happens when goods and services are produced (supply) and purchased (demand) in a balanced manner.
- Example: A country increasing factory production (supply) must also have enough consumers to buy the products (demand), ensuring sustainable growth.
- Mismatch Leads to Economic Problems
-
- If demand > supply, inflation rises due to excessive spending with limited goods.
- If supply > demand, businesses suffer from unsold stock, leading to job losses.
- Example: Post-pandemic, supply chain disruptions led to high demand but low supply, causing inflation.
- Investment Drives Long-Term Growth: Investment in infrastructure, industries, and technology increases production capacity (supply) while also creating jobs, which boosts spending power (demand).
- Example: China’s high investment in infrastructure and manufacturing led to rapid economic growth by expanding both supply and demand.
- Government Policies Impact Both Sides: Fiscal and monetary policies help balance supply-side growth (e.g., industrial incentives) and demand-side expansion (e.g., tax cuts or subsidies).
- Example: India’s Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme boosts manufacturing (supply), while government social schemes increase purchasing power (demand).
- Exports and Imports Affect Domestic Growth: A strong export sector increases supply, bringing foreign exchange, while controlled imports ensure domestic industries remain competitive.
- Example: India’s IT exports generate revenue (supply), while consumer imports like electronics influence domestic demand.
What role does investment play in economic growth?
- Boosts Production Capacity: Investment in factories, infrastructure, and technology increases the ability to produce goods and services, leading to higher GDP. Example: China’s heavy investment in manufacturing and infrastructure helped it become the world’s largest exporter.
- Creates Employment Opportunities: New industries and infrastructure projects generate jobs, increasing income and overall demand in the economy. Example: India’s road and metro projects have created millions of direct and indirect jobs, boosting economic activity.
- Multiplier Effect on Demand & GDP: Investment leads to increased income, which in turn increases consumption and demand, further driving growth. Example: A ₹100 investment in building highways can create ₹125 in overall economic output due to increased business activities along the route.
- Encourages Private Sector Confidence: When the government invests in key sectors, it builds confidence among private businesses to invest further. Example: India’s Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for electronics manufacturing has attracted global tech firms to set up production units.
- Leads to Technological and Industrial Development: Investments in research, innovation, and new industries enhance productivity and global competitiveness. Example: South Korea’s investment in R&D and technology made it a leader in electronics and automobile industries.
How have India and China experienced changes in per capita income?
- Similar Per Capita Incomes in the Early 1990s: In the early 1990s, India and China had nearly equal per capita incomes, with both countries being 1.5% of the U.S. average. Example: In 1992, both nations were considered low-income economies with similar economic structures.
- China’s Investment-Led Growth Model: China prioritized high investment rates, focusing on infrastructure, state-owned enterprises, and manufacturing. Example: In 1992, China’s investment rate was 39.1% of GDP, much higher than India’s 27.4%.
- Diverging Growth Post-2000s: India’s investment rate rose to 35.8% in 2007, almost matching China’s, but declined after 2012 due to policy uncertainty and global economic slowdown.Example: By 2013, China’s investment rate increased to 44.5%, while India’s fell to 31.3%.
- China’s Faster Rise in Per Capita Income: By 2023, China’s per capita income was 5 times India’s in nominal terms and 2.4 times higher in purchasing power parity (PPP). Example: As a percentage of U.S. per capita income in 2023: China: 15%, India: 3%.
- India’s Consumption-Driven Growth Model: India’s economic growth has been mainly driven by domestic consumption, while China maintained higher investment levels. Example: In 2023, consumption was 60.3% of India’s GDP, compared to 39.1% in China.
- Long-Term Impact on Growth and Inequality: India’s lower investment and trade deficits have led to slower per capita income growth, affecting job creation and economic equality. Example: China’s investment rate in 2023 was 41.3%, whereas India’s was only 30.8%, limiting economic expansion.
What measures has the Indian government taken to promote investment in India?
- Infrastructure Development: The government has launched massive infrastructure projects to boost investment and improve connectivity. Example: PM Gati Shakti (National Master Plan) aims to integrate multi-modal transport networks and reduce logistics costs.
- Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Introduced to boost manufacturing and attract foreign and domestic investments in key sectors. Example: PLI schemes for electronics, pharmaceuticals, and renewable energy have encouraged global firms to set up production in India.
- Corporate Tax Reforms: India reduced corporate tax rates to make the investment climate more competitive. Example: In 2019, the corporate tax rate was slashed to 22% for existing companies and 15% for new manufacturing firms.
- Ease of Doing Business & FDI Reforms: Simplified regulatory processes, digital approvals, and single-window clearances to attract investments. Example: 100% FDI allowed in sectors like defense, telecom, and insurance under automatic route.
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Way forward:
- Enhancing Investment-Led Growth: India should focus on increasing capital formation by boosting infrastructure, industrial productivity, and R&D investments. Strengthening public-private partnerships (PPPs) and expanding the PLI scheme to emerging sectors can accelerate long-term economic growth.
- Balancing Consumption and Supply-Side Expansion: While consumption remains a key driver, policies should encourage domestic manufacturing and export competitiveness to reduce reliance on imports. Strengthening skill development and labour market reforms will enhance productivity and job creation.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to the Judiciary;
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court recently halted a Lokpal order that sought to include High Court judges under its jurisdiction, calling the anti-corruption body’s interpretation “very disturbing.”
Why did the Supreme Court stay the Lokpal order?
- Violation of Judicial Independence (Article 50 & Article 121): The Supreme Court held that bringing High Court judges under Lokpal’s jurisdiction undermines judicial independence, which is a part of the Basic Structure Doctrine.
- Article 50 mandates the separation of the judiciary from the executive, preventing interference in judicial functioning.
- Article 121 prohibits Parliament from discussing the conduct of judges except in matters of impeachment, reinforcing judicial autonomy.
- Judges Are Appointed Under the Constitution (Article 124 & Article 217): The Supreme Court rejected Lokpal’s argument that High Courts were created by British laws, emphasizing that all judges are appointed under the Constitution.
- Article 124 establishes the Supreme Court, while Article 217 governs the appointment of High Court judges, ensuring their independence from executive control.
- Judicial Oversight Is an Internal Process (Article 124(4) & Article 217(1)(b)): The Supreme Court reaffirmed that judicial misconduct should be handled internally, either through the in-house procedure or the impeachment process.
- Article 124(4) (for Supreme Court judges) and Article 217(1)(b) (for High Court judges) provide for removal only through Parliamentary impeachment, making external investigations by the Lokpal unconstitutional.
What is suo motu case?
Suo motu (Latin: on its own motion) refers to the Supreme Court or High Courts taking up a case on their own initiative, without a formal petition being filed.
In which circumstances do courts in India exercise suo motu powers?
- Constitutional Concerns (Separation of Powers, Judicial Independence): Courts intervene suo motu when an issue threatens constitutional principles like the separation of powers or judicial independence.
- Example: In re: Article 370 of the Constitution (2023) – The Supreme Court took up the matter of abrogation of Article 370 to examine whether the Union government’s decision upheld constitutional principles.
- Fundamental Rights Violations: Courts act suo motu when fundamental rights under Articles 14 (equality), 19 (freedom), and 21 (right to life) are violated.
- Example: Suo Motu Writ Petition (Criminal) No.1 of 2020 – The Supreme Court intervened during COVID-19 migrant crisis, directing the government to provide food, shelter, and transport to stranded workers.
- Public Interest or Institutional Integrity: Courts take suo motu cognizance to protect public interest and prevent harm to democratic institutions.
- Example: Suo Motu Cognizance of Lakhimpur Kheri Violence (2021) – The Supreme Court intervened to monitor the UP government’s investigation into the killing of protesting farmers, ensuring transparency and accountability.
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Why did the Lokpal order bring High Court judges under its jurisdiction?
- Interpretation of ‘Public Servants’ Under Lokpal Act: The Lokpal classified High Court judges as public servants under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, making them subject to its jurisdiction.
- Reliance on Section 14(1)(f) of the Lokpal Act: This section grants Lokpal jurisdiction over any body or authority established by an Act of Parliament.
- The Lokpal argued that High Courts were established by British Parliamentary Acts (Indian High Courts Act, 1861 & Government of India Act, 1935), making them fall within this clause.
- Distinction Between High Courts and Supreme Court: The Lokpal reasoned that Article 124 of the Constitution explicitly established the Supreme Court, but Article 214 only recognized High Courts, implying that High Courts were not directly created by the Constitution.
- Based on this, the Lokpal ruled that Supreme Court judges were outside its jurisdiction, but High Court judges were not.
- Lack of Explicit Exemption for Judges: The 2013 Lokpal Act does not explicitly exclude High Court judges from its jurisdiction, which the Lokpal interpreted as allowing it to investigate them.
- Case-Specific Justification: The complaint involved a High Court judge allegedly influencing judicial decisions for personal benefit. The Lokpal argued that since the judge was serving in a High Court of a State reorganized by an Act of Parliament, it had jurisdiction over the matter.
Way forward:
- Judicial Accountability Within Constitutional Framework: Strengthen in-house mechanisms for judicial oversight while ensuring compliance with constitutional provisions like Articles 124(4) and 217(1)(b), which mandate impeachment as the sole removal process for judges.
- Clarify Lokpal’s Jurisdiction Through Legislative Review: Amend the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, to explicitly define its jurisdiction, ensuring it does not encroach upon judicial independence while maintaining transparency in the judiciary.
Mains PYQ:
Q Judicial Legislation is antithetical to the doctrine of separation of powers as envisaged in the Indian Constitution. In this context justify the filing of large number of public interest petitions praying for issuing guidelines to executive authorities. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: India-China relation;
Why in the News?
India’s Foreign Secretary Vikram Misri visited China in January 2025, where both countries made important announcements about their future relationship.
What are the latest diplomatic discussions between India and China?
- Resumption of Direct Air Services: After nearly five years, both nations agreed to restart direct flights, aiming to enhance connectivity and facilitate people-to-people exchanges.
- Facilitation of Journalist Exchanges: The two countries decided to ease the process for journalists to operate in each other’s territories, promoting better mutual understanding and media cooperation.
- Revival of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra: Plans were made to resume the annual pilgrimage to Mount Kailash in Tibet, a significant site for Hindu devotees, which had been suspended since 2020 due to the pandemic and border tensions.
- Addressing Economic and Trade Issues: Both sides discussed specific concerns in economic and trade areas, aiming to resolve issues and promote long-term policy transparency and predictability.
- Commitment to Strengthening Bilateral Relations: High-level meetings underscored the importance of mutual support and understanding, with both nations expressing a desire to move beyond past disputes and enhance cooperation across various sectors.
What are the challenges between India and China?
- Border Disputes and Military Standoff: The unresolved Line of Actual Control (LAC) dispute remains a major flashpoint. Example: The 2020 Galwan Valley clash led to casualties on both sides and heightened tensions, leading to prolonged military deployments in Ladakh.
- Trade Imbalance and Economic Restrictions: India faces a significant trade deficit with China, as it imports more than it exports. Example: In 2023, India’s trade deficit with China exceeded $100 billion, prompting India to impose restrictions on Chinese investments and apps.
- Geopolitical Rivalry and Strategic Alliances: Both countries compete for influence in South Asia, the Indian Ocean, and global institutions. Example: China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which India opposes, includes projects in Pakistan and Sri Lanka, challenging India’s regional influence.
- China’s Support to Pakistan and India’s Response: China’s close ties with Pakistan, including military and economic aid, pose security concerns for India. Example: China’s role in developing Gwadar Port in Pakistan and supplying weapons to Pakistan’s military affects India’s security calculus.
- Tensions in Multilateral Forums: India and China often clash diplomatically in international organizations. Example: China has blocked India’s bid for UNSC permanent membership and has repeatedly blocked India’s attempts to list Pakistan-based terrorists in the UN.
What measures has the Indian government taken after the Galwan clash?
- Strengthening Military Presence and Infrastructure at LAC: India rapidly deployed additional troops, upgraded surveillance, and enhanced military infrastructure along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
- Example: India constructed all-weather roads, bridges, and airstrips, such as the Darbuk-Shyok-Daulat Beg Oldi (DSDBO) road in Ladakh, to improve troop movement.
- Ban on Chinese Apps and Economic Restrictions: The government banned over 300 Chinese apps, citing security concerns and took steps to reduce economic dependence on China.
- Example: TikTok, PUBG Mobile, WeChat, and AliExpress were among the banned apps, impacting China’s digital market in India.
- Increased Focus on Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India): India pushed for domestic manufacturing in defense, telecom, and electronics to reduce reliance on Chinese imports.
- Example: The government placed restrictions on Chinese firms participating in 5G trials, and promoted Indian alternatives in the telecom sector.
- Diplomatic and Strategic Realignments: India strengthened partnerships with like-minded countries to counterbalance China’s influence.
- Example: India reinforced ties with the Quad alliance (U.S., Japan, Australia, India), holding Malabar naval exercises to enhance security cooperation.
- Revised Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Policies: India introduced stricter FDI regulations, requiring government approval for investments from China and other neighboring countries.
- Example: The new FDI rules in 2020 prevented automatic approvals for Chinese investments in Indian startups and infrastructure projects.
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Way forward:
- Strengthening Diplomatic and Strategic Engagement: India and China should prioritize sustained diplomatic dialogue and confidence-building measures to prevent conflicts and enhance cooperation in multilateral forums.
- Example: Establishing a structured mechanism for LAC dispute resolution and expanding bilateral trade dialogues to address economic concerns.
- Enhancing Economic and Technological Self-Reliance: India should continue efforts toward Atmanirbhar Bharat by boosting domestic manufacturing, diversifying supply chains, and strengthening critical sectors like semiconductors and defence.
- Example: Expanding the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme to reduce dependency on Chinese imports and developing strategic alliances for tech collaborations.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Article 101(4)
Why in the News?
Amritpal Singh’s detention has raised concerns over his parliamentary position, as Article 101(4) states that an MP’s seat can be vacated after 60 consecutive absences without permission. He has missed 46 sittings so far.
About Article 101(4) and its Feature
- Article 101(4) states that if a Member of Parliament (MP) is absent from all meetings of the House for a period of 60 days, their seat may be declared vacant.
- The 60-day period is counted continuously (excluding adjournments but including recess).
- If the MP remains absent without prior permission from the House, the seat can be vacated under Article 101(4).
- No MP has ever lost a seat under Article 101(4) in practice.
- The House may grant condonation (excuse the absence) if a valid reason is provided.
- This provision ensures active participation of MPs and prevents prolonged absenteeism.
- If an MP does not attend any session of Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha for 60 days without permission, the House can initiate proceedings to declare the seat vacant.
Legal Options
- Like past MPs, Amritpal can formally request permission to remain absent due to his incarceration.
- Former MP from Uttar Pradesh Atul Rai received similar permission in 2023 while in jail.
- The Lok Sabha must formally vote to declare his seat vacant, making disqualification unlikely unless actively pursued.
PYQ:
[2012] Regarding the office of the Lok Sabha speaker, consider the following statements:
- He/She holds the office during the pleasure of the President.
- He/She need not be a member of the House at the time of his/her election but has to become a member of the House within six months from the date of his/her election.
- If he/she intends to resign, the letter of his/her resignation has to be addressed to the Deputy Speaker.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Consumer Helpline (NCH)
Why in the News?
The National Consumer Helpline (NCH) has seen a 300% rise in complaints in Arunachal Pradesh, reflecting increased awareness and trust in consumer grievance redressal.
What is National Consumer Helpline (NCH)?
- NCH is an initiative of the Department of Consumer Affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution to provide a nationwide grievance redressal system for consumers.
- It offers advice, guidance, and assistance to consumers facing issues with products, services, and unfair trade practices.
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- Toll-Free Consumer Helpline: 1800-11-4000 / 1915 (Available from 9:30 AM – 5:30 PM, except national holidays).
- Multi-Channel Complaint Registration: Website, mobile app, email, WhatsApp, and SMS-based complaint filing.
- Covers a Wide Range of Sectors: E-commerce, telecom, banking, insurance, transport, healthcare, digital payments, etc.
- Operated under: The Centre for Consumer Studies at the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA).
How has the NCH succeeded in Northeast India?
- Complaints rose from 9,162 in 2020 to 36,609 in 2024, with Arunachal Pradesh seeing a 50-fold rise in consumer grievances.
- 517% increase in online complaint registrations; introduction of regional language assistance to enhance accessibility.
- Workshops, SHG partnerships, and NGO collaborations helped rural and tribal communities understand consumer rights.
- “Jago Grahak Jago” initiatives, grants to NE states, and Panchayat training programs increased consumer participation.
- Consumers experienced faster redressal in cases like e-commerce refunds, delayed product deliveries, and service-related issues.
PYQ:
[2012] With reference to consumers rights/privileges under the provisions of law in India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. Consumers are empowered to take samples for food testing.
2. When a consumer files a complaint in any consumer forum, no fee is required to be paid.
3. In case of death of a consumer, his/her legal heir can file a complaint in the consumer forum on his/her behalf.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majorana 1 Chip
Why in the News?
Microsoft has unveiled Majorana 1, a groundbreaking quantum chip that introduces a more stable and scalable approach to quantum computing.
What is Microsoft’s Majorana 1 Chip?
- Majorana 1 is Microsoft’s latest quantum processor that introduces a new type of stable and scalable qubit based on Majorana fermions.
- Microsoft believes that this breakthrough could enable practical quantum computing by 2027-29.
- Majorana Fermions:
- First theorized by Ettore Majorana in 1937.
- Exotic particles that act as their own antiparticles.
- Microsoft engineered them using topological conductors, making qubits more stable and resistant to errors.
Features of Majorana 1 Chip:
- Uses topological qubits, which require less error correction compared to traditional superconducting qubits.
- More scalable, allowing the quantum chip to reach up to 1 million qubits in the future.
- Built from indium arsenide-aluminum topo-conductors, unlike conventional silicon-based quantum chips.
- Operates at near absolute zero temperature, tuned with magnetic fields to create a stable quantum environment.
- Currently an 8-qubit chip, but designed with an architecture that supports significant expansion.
What is Quantum Computing?
- Quantum computing is a new approach to computation based on the principles of quantum mechanics that allows computers to process information exponentially faster than classical computers.
- Unlike classical computers that use binary bits (0 or 1), quantum computers use qubits, which can exist in both 0 and 1 simultaneously (superposition).
- Key Principles of Quantum Computing:
- Superposition: Qubits exist in multiple states at once.
- Entanglement: –Qubits can be linked, meaning a change in one affects the other instantly.
- Quantum Tunneling: Qubits can pass through energy barriers.
- Quantum Interference: Enhances correct probabilities while canceling out incorrect ones.
- Quantum computers solve complex problems that are impossible for classical computers, such as simulating molecules, optimizing logistics, and advancing AI.
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PYQ:
[2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?
(a) Cloud Services
(b) Quantum Computing
(c) Visible Light Communication Technologies
(d) Wireless Communication Technologies |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BOD
Why in the News?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has raised concerns over the water quality of the Ganga at Triveni Sangam in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. The river is failing to meet bathing standards due to high Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and faecal coliform contamination.
Key Findings of the Ganga Water Quality Assessment at Triveni Sangam:
- Water is unsafe for bathing as per Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) standards.
- BOD levels exceeded the permissible limit of 3 mg/L on multiple days in January 2025.
- Government releasing 10,000-11,000 cusecs of fresh water to improve quality.
- Faecal coliform levels (E. coli) far exceed safe limits due to sewage contamination.
- Safe limit: 2,500 MPN/100 ml; Detected levels: 49,000 MPN/100 ml (Ganga) and 33,000 MPN/100 ml (Yamuna).
What is Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)?
- BOD measures the amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down organic matter in water.
- Higher BOD levels indicate higher organic pollution, which can lead to oxygen depletion and aquatic life destruction.
- Safe limit for bathing water is below 3 mg/L.
- Excessive BOD levels suggest sewage, industrial waste, or decomposing organic matter contamination.
- BOD levels above safe limits can cause waterborne diseases and disrupt aquatic ecosystems.
PYQ:
[2017] Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for:
(a) Measuring oxygen levels in blood
(b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems
(c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystems
(d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar? (2013)
Q) If a particular area is brought under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which one of the following statements best reflects the consequence of it? (CSP 2022)
(a) This would prevent the transfer of land of tribal people to non-tribal people.
(b) This would create a local self-governing body in that area.
(c) This would convert that area into a Union Territory.
(d) The State having such areas would be declared a Special Category State. |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on internal security challenges linked with border management (2013), and Fifth Schedule (2022).
The India-Myanmar borderlands lack reliable data despite ongoing conflicts and crises. In Manipur, restricted access and security issues make it hard to document humanitarian needs. Misinformation worsens the situation. Around 58,000 people live in relief camps, while 12,000 fled to Mizoram and 7,000 to Nagaland, Assam, and Meghalaya. Data collection remains fragmented.
Today’s editorial discusses issues related to Manipur, which are relevant for GS Paper 3 (Mains) under the Security section.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The Manipur conflict is complex, and security issues make it hard to access certain areas leads to major gaps in tracking humanitarian needs.
How has the complexity of the conflict contributed to significant gaps in documenting humanitarian needs?
- Restricted Access and Security Concerns: The conflict’s complexity leads to restricted access for humanitarian organizations and data collectors due to security risks. Example: Adverse security conditions hinder the ability to thoroughly assess needs in certain areas.
- Breakdown of Information Chains: The physical and social separation of communities (like the Meitei and Kuki-Zomi) disrupts the flow of accurate information. Example: The separation makes it difficult to get a comprehensive understanding of the needs of both communities, as information does not flow freely between them.
- Unaccounted Populations: Official counts often only consider those in registered relief camps, overlooking unregistered individuals living with relatives, in temporary shelters, or displaced across multiple locations. Example: Many individuals displaced outside of registered camps or those who have left the State entirely are not included in official estimates, leading to underreporting.
- Altered Healthcare Access and Documentation: The conflict changes how people seek medical care, especially in conflicted regions, making it difficult to track health-related issues. Example: Residents of Kuki-Zomi-dominated hill districts can no longer easily access major hospitals in Imphal, leading to indirect routes and potentially undocumented health crises.
- Misinformation and Disinformation: The spread of inaccurate information clouds the true picture, making it difficult to form an empirical understanding of the conflict’s impact. Example: The text mentions that misinformation and disinformation cloud an empirical understanding of the conflict.
Why do the India-Myanmar borderlands remain a data-deficient region despite their long history of armed conflict, displacement, and humanitarian crises?
- Challenging Geography: The region’s complex topography, characterized by rugged mountains and dense forests, complicates access for data collection efforts. For example, the difficult terrain has hindered the effective implementation of border initiatives such as fencing, which has faced significant logistical challenges over the years.
- Inadequate Infrastructure: There is a lack of basic infrastructure, including roads and communication networks, which impedes the movement of researchers and humanitarian workers.
- The Moreh Integrated Check Post (ICP) in Manipur, intended to facilitate trade and connectivity, has experienced slow construction and inadequate facilities, reflecting broader infrastructural deficiencies in the region.
- Political Sensitivities: The presence of various insurgent groups and ongoing conflicts creates a volatile environment that discourages data collection. Security concerns often prevent researchers and NGOs from engaging with local communities to gather necessary information on humanitarian needs.
- Shared Ethnic Ties and Cross-Border Dynamics: The interconnectedness of ethnic communities across the border complicates the situation further. Policies such as the cancellation of the Free Regime Movement (FMR) agreement have disrupted traditional social networks, making it difficult to assess the socio-economic conditions on both sides effectively.
- Restricted Access for Humanitarian Organizations: Government-imposed restrictions and logistical challenges prevent humanitarian agencies from collecting and reporting crucial data.
- Example: After Myanmar’s 2021 military coup, aid organizations faced severe restrictions in conflict-hit areas like the Sagaing Region, resulting in major data gaps on displacement and food insecurity.
Why does Manipur need a shift towards ‘greater common good’ politics?
- Ethnic Divisions and Communal Tensions: The conflict between the Meitei and Kuki-Zomi communities has created deep mistrust and segregation, making governance difficult. A politics of “greater common good” would prioritize reconciliation and collective welfare over ethnic identity-based politics.
- Humanitarian Crisis and Governance Failures: Prolonged displacement, lack of adequate relief measures, and deteriorating healthcare require governance focused on inclusive development rather than ethnic-based power struggles.
- Example: Over 58,000 displaced individuals are still in relief camps, struggling with food, water, and medical shortages due to lack of coordinated efforts.
- Economic and Social Stability: Manipur’s economic potential is hindered by violence, blockades, and an unstable law-and-order situation. A governance approach focused on the “greater common good” would foster investment, economic recovery, and social stability.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Imposition of President’s Rule: On February 13, 2025, Manipur was placed under President’s Rule following the resignation of Chief Minister. This decision was made due to nearly two years of ethnic violence and political turmoil that had resulted in over 250 deaths and widespread unrest.
- Suspension of the State Assembly: The state assembly has been put under suspended animation, which means it will not function until the situation stabilizes. This is the 11th instance of President’s Rule being imposed in Manipur since its statehood.
- Security Measures: The central government has directed security forces to take all necessary steps to restore order in Manipur. This includes deploying additional military and paramilitary forces to manage the fragile security situation, which has seen recent escalations in violence.
- Appointment of a Security Advisor: Following the invocation of Article 355 of the Indian Constitution, a security advisor was appointed to assist the Chief Minister in managing law and order.
- Investigation into Violence: The Ministry of Home Affairs has handed over important cases related to the violence to the National Investigation Agency (NIA) for effective investigation, indicating a commitment to addressing the root causes of the unrest.
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Way forward:
- Inclusive Dialogue and Reconciliation: Establish a truth and reconciliation commission involving all ethnic communities to foster trust, address grievances, and create a roadmap for long-term peace and stability.
- Sustainable Development and Governance Reforms: Focus on infrastructure development, livelihood generation, and transparent governance to ensure equitable growth, reduce ethnic tensions, and rebuild public confidence in state institutions.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Telecom sector;
Why in the News?
The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), a global organization launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2019, recently released a report assessing how well Indian telecom networks can handle disasters.
What does the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure report state?
- Multi-Hazard Risk Assessment: The report conducted a comprehensive risk assessment across 0.77 million telecom towers, evaluating vulnerabilities to various disasters such as floods, cyclones, and earthquakes, which informs infrastructure planning and resilience strategies.
- Disaster Risk and Resilience Index: A new index was developed to assess the vulnerability of telecom infrastructure based on factors like disaster intensity and frequency, enabling targeted risk management efforts.
- Technical and Governance Enhancements: Recommendations include improving technical planning and design of telecom infrastructure to withstand disasters, as well as integrating disaster resilience into sectoral policies through risk-informed governance.
- Financial Instruments and Collaboration: The report advocates for establishing risk-sharing mechanisms to protect telecom operators financially, alongside promoting cross-sectoral collaboration for coordinated disaster response efforts.
- Last-Mile Connectivity and Digital Solutions: Emphasizing the importance of inclusive emergency responses, the report calls for enhancing last-mile connectivity and leveraging digital solutions to ensure rapid service restoration during crises.
Why do telecom networks face elevated risks in coastal regions in times of disaster and calamity?
- High Exposure to Cyclones & Storm Surges: Coastal areas frequently experience high-speed winds and storm surges, which can damage telecom towers and disrupt communication. Example: During Cyclone Amphan (2020), telecom networks in West Bengal and Odisha were severely impacted due to tower collapses and flooding.
- Vulnerability of Undersea Cable Landing Stations: Undersea cables connect India to global internet infrastructure, and their landing stations are located in coastal regions. Damage to these stations can cause widespread internet outages. Example: In 2023, a disruption in undersea cables near the Red Sea affected internet speeds in South Asia, including India.
- Power Failures Due to Flooding & Infrastructure Damage: Coastal disasters often lead to massive power outages, affecting telecom towers and network operating centres that rely on continuous electricity. Example: During Cyclone Tauktae (2021), heavy rainfall and flooding in Mumbai led to prolonged telecom disruptions due to power cuts and submerged backup generators.
Why are undersea cables better than overland cables?
- Higher Capacity: Undersea cables can carry vast amounts of data, with total capacities reaching terabits per second, significantly surpassing the capabilities of satellite communications, which typically offer much lower bandwidth (around 1 gigabit per second).
- Lower Latency: The signal transmission time is considerably shorter with undersea cables than with satellite links. For example, latency over a fibre submarine cable is around 120 milliseconds, while satellite communications can introduce delays of approximately 650 milliseconds due to the long distances signals must travel to and from space.
- Cost-Effectiveness: Laying undersea cables is generally more economical than deploying satellite systems for large-scale data transmission. The initial investment in submarine cables, while significant, is offset by their capacity and reliability, making them a more sustainable option for long-term infrastructure.
- Reliability and Stability: Undersea cables are less susceptible to environmental factors that can disrupt overland cables, such as weather conditions or physical damage from construction activities. Their placement on the seabed provides a level of protection against many potential hazards.
- Global Connectivity: Submarine cables are essential for connecting continents and regions that are separated by water. They facilitate international data traffic and play a critical role in global communications, making them indispensable for the functioning of the Internet and other communication networks.
Does power failure create major problems?
- Disrupts Communication During Emergencies: Telecom towers and network operating centres require continuous power to function. When electricity is cut off, mobile networks and internet services fail, hindering disaster response.
- Example: During Cyclone Fani (2019), Odisha experienced massive power outages, causing mobile networks to shut down, and delaying rescue operations.
- Limits Functionality of Backup Systems: Most telecom towers rely on battery or diesel generators, but these backups last only a few hours. If the fuel supply is disrupted, networks remain down for extended periods.
- Example: In the Assam floods (2022), fuel shortages prevented telecom towers from running generators, prolonging communication blackouts.
- Affects Undersea & Land-based Network Infrastructure: Power failures at undersea cable landing stations and data centres can cause large-scale internet outages, affecting national and global connectivity.
- Example: A power failure at a Chennai cable landing station in 2021 disrupted international internet traffic.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Resilient Power Solutions: Deploy renewable energy sources like solar-powered telecom towers and battery storage systems to ensure uninterrupted network operations during disasters.
- Enhancing Risk-Informed Governance: Integrate disaster resilience planning into telecom policies, mandate robust backup power solutions, and establish coordinated emergency response frameworks for rapid service restoration.
Mains PYQ:
Q Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India.(UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of climate change;
Why in the News?
Between February 8 and 13, the total area of sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic shrank to 15.76 million sq km, breaking the previous record low of 15.93 million sq km from early 2023, according to a BBC analysis of data from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC).
What are the reasons for the record low?
- Warm Air and Ocean Temperatures: Elevated air and sea temperatures have significantly contributed to the melting of both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice. Warmer conditions, particularly towards the end of summer, have led to increased melting rates, especially in the Antarctic region.
- Wind Patterns: Changes in atmospheric dynamics, including stronger westerly winds associated with the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), have disrupted sea ice formation and stability. In the Antarctic, these winds can break apart ice more easily due to its thinner and more mobile nature compared to the thicker Arctic ice.
- Delayed Freezing: In the Arctic, a delayed freezing process around regions like Hudson Bay has occurred due to unusually warm ocean temperatures, preventing the formation of new ice during winter.
- Increased Freshwater Input: The melting of glaciers and ice shelves adds freshwater to the oceans, which can alter ocean stratification and impact sea ice formation. While freshwater can initially encourage sea ice growth in some contexts, it also leads to changes that may ultimately reduce overall sea ice extent.
- Feedback Mechanisms: The loss of sea ice creates feedback loops that further exacerbate warming. As less ice remains to reflect sunlight, more solar radiation is absorbed by the ocean, leading to increased temperatures and further melting of ice.
What does “dip” mean?
- In the context of the recent report on sea ice, the term “dip” refers to a significant decrease or reduction in the extent of sea ice coverage. Specifically, it denotes the record low measurement of combined Arctic and Antarctic sea ice, which fell to 15.76 million square kilometres, marking a decline from previous levels.
- This “dip” highlights the alarming trend of diminishing sea ice, which is crucial for regulating global temperatures and maintaining ecological balance in polar regions.
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What could be its impact?
- Accelerated Global Warming: Less sea ice means more ocean water is exposed to sunlight, absorbing heat instead of reflecting it. Example: The Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the global average, leading to extreme weather patterns worldwide.
- Disruptions in Ocean Currents: Melting sea ice releases freshwater into the ocean, reducing salinity and slowing down deep-water circulation. Example: The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which influences global climate patterns, is weakening due to increased freshwater from melting Arctic ice.
- Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Sea ice loss affects marine species dependent on stable ice conditions for survival. Example: Polar bears rely on sea ice for hunting seals. As ice declines, they face starvation and habitat loss. Similarly, krill populations in Antarctica, a key food source for whales and penguins, are declining due to changing ice conditions.
- More Extreme Weather Events: Changes in polar ice influence atmospheric circulation, leading to unpredictable weather. Example: The weakening of the polar vortex due to Arctic warming has been linked to severe cold waves in North America and Europe, such as the Texas winter storm in 2021.
- Coastal and Infrastructure Damage: Rising temperatures due to ice melt contribute to permafrost thawing, which destabilizes infrastructure in polar regions. Example: In Siberia, Russia, thawing permafrost has caused buildings and roads to collapse, posing a major economic and environmental challenge.
What measures have been taken at the international level?
- International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (2025): The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNESCO have declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation. This initiative aims to raise awareness about the importance of glaciers and ice sheets, which store a significant portion of the world’s freshwater, and to promote actions to mitigate their melting.
- Global Cryosphere Watch: The WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch network, which includes scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has been actively monitoring and reporting on cryosphere changes. Their findings highlight alarming trends in ice loss and emphasize the need for immediate action to address these issues.
- Collaborative Research Initiatives: Various international scientific collaborations are underway to study and model the impacts of climate change on sea ice. These efforts involve researchers from multiple countries working together to gather data, analyze trends, and develop strategies for adaptation and mitigation.
- Climate Action Frameworks: Global climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, encourage countries to commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which are a primary driver of climate change affecting sea ice.
- Public Awareness Campaigns: International organizations are engaging in campaigns to educate the public about the significance of sea ice and glaciers in regulating global climate systems.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Climate Mitigation Efforts: Nations must enhance commitments under the Paris Agreement by accelerating renewable energy adoption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and implementing carbon pricing mechanisms to curb global warming.
- Enhancing Polar and Oceanic Monitoring: Strengthen international collaboration for real-time satellite monitoring, expand scientific research on polar ice dynamics, and develop adaptive strategies to protect vulnerable ecosystems and coastal communities.
Mains PYQ:
Q How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
Why in the News?
The latest edition of PLFS report (October-December 2024) has highlighted key labour market indicators.
About Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
- The PLFS is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) to assess employment and unemployment trends in India.
- Launched in April 2017, PLFS provides quarterly estimates for urban areas and annual estimates for both rural and urban areas.
- Key Indicators:
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): Percentage of people working or seeking jobs.
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): Percentage of people employed.
- Unemployment Rate (UR): Percentage of job seekers unable to find employment.
- Current Weekly Status (CWS): Employment status based on work done in the last 7 days.
- Survey Methodology:
- Urban Areas: Rotational Panel Sampling (each household surveyed four times).
- Data Collected (Oct-Dec 2024): 5,742 urban units surveyed, covering 1,70,487 individuals across 45,074 households.
- Publication: Quarterly Bulletins for urban areas, Annual Reports for rural and urban regions.
Key Highlights of PLFS (Oct-Dec 2024)
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): 50.4% (↑ from 49.9% in 2023).
- Male LFPR: 75.4% (↑ from 74.1% in 2023).
- Female LFPR: 25.2% (↑ from 25.0% in 2023).
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): 47.2% (↑ from 46.6% in 2023).
- Male WPR: 70.9% (↑ from 69.8% in 2023).
- Female WPR: 23.2% (↑ from 22.9% in 2023).
- Unemployment Rate (UR): 6.4% (↓ from 6.5% in 2023).
- Male UR: 5.8% (unchanged).
- Female UR: 8.1% (↓ from 8.6% in 2023).
PYQ:
[2023] Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements.
[2013] Disguised unemployment generally means:
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
(b) alternative employment is not available
(c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
(d) productivity of workers is low |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Saturn’s Rings
Why in the News?
A new study has challenged previous assumptions, suggesting that Saturn’s rings could be as old as the Solar System (~4.5 billion years old).
About Saturn and Its Rings
- Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is famous for its iconic ring system, made up of billions of ice and rock particles ranging in size from tiny grains to massive chunks.
- It is primarily composed of water ice (95%), with some dust and rocky debris.
- The rings are divided into seven main sections (A to G), with gaps like the Cassini Division.
- Scientists have debated whether the rings formed with Saturn (~4.5 billion years ago) or if they are only 100-400 million years old.
- Over time, tiny space rocks should darken the rings, yet they remain surprisingly bright.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Earlier estimates, based on Cassini data, suggested the rings were 100-400 million years old because they looked clean and bright.
- The new study suggests that micrometeoroid collisions remove dust efficiently, preventing the rings from darkening over time.
- High-speed micrometeoroid impacts (~108,000 km/h) cause dust to vaporize, rather than accumulate.
- The vaporized dust either escapes Saturn’s gravity, falls into the planet’s atmosphere, or gets ejected into space, keeping the rings pristine.
- 100 million years ago, the Solar System was stable, making ring formation unlikely.
- 4 billion years ago, the Solar System was chaotic, increasing the chances of violent planetary collisions that could have formed Saturn’s rings.
Various Missions to Saturn
Saturn has been explored by multiple spacecraft, each providing valuable insights into its rings, atmosphere, and moons.
1. Pioneer 11 (1979)
- First spacecraft to fly past Saturn, capturing basic images.
2. Voyager 1 & Voyager 2 (1980-1981)
- Discovered new moons and ring structures.
- Provided detailed images of Saturn’s rings.
3. Cassini-Huygens (1997-2017)
- A NASA-ESA-ASI mission that orbited Saturn for 13 years.
- Key discoveries:
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- Confirmed liquid oceans on Enceladus.
- Found methane lakes on Titan.
- Observed Saturn’s rings losing material into the planet’s atmosphere.
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PYQ:
[2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satellites or moons?
(a) Jupiter
(b) Mars
(c) Saturn
(d) Venus |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iron Age; Important Sites
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu CM recently proclaimed that the Iron Age began on Tamil soil over 5,300 years ago (4th millennium BCE), based on findings from Mayiladumparai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, and Kilnamandi.
Iron Age in India
- The Iron Age in India was initially thought to have begun around 700-600 BCE.
- Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting found in Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
- Recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu suggest that iron metallurgy was established in South India as early as 3300 BCE.
Notable Iron Age Sites in India:
- Central and Northern India
- Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools and slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
- Malhar (Chandauli, UP): Furnaces and iron slag indicate a major iron metallurgy center (1200 BCE).
- Dadupur (UP): Large-scale iron smelting evidence dating back to 1000 BCE.
- Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
- Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).
- Western and Central India
- Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
- Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
- Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).
- South India
- Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Large-scale iron smelting and slag deposits (1200 BCE).
- Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Iron tools and burial urns linked to Megalithic culture (1000 BCE).
- Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Recent findings date iron usage to 3300 BCE, making it one of the oldest sites of iron metallurgy in India.
- Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): Iron artifacts and slag deposits, indicating early smelting practices (1100 BCE).
Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries
- Earlier studies in Mayiladumparai Excavation (2022) suggested that the Iron Age began 4,200 years ago (3rd millennium BCE).
- This timeline coincides with the Copper/Bronze Age in North India, indicating a technological divergence between the regions.
- The latest State Archaeology Department’s report, “Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu”, confirms that Iron smelting began as early as 3,345 BCE – 2,953 BCE.
- Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to the early adoption of iron technology.
- Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu predates much of North India.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polarized Moonlight
Why in the News?
Scientists at Macquarie University, Sydney, have discovered that two species of nocturnal bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas) rely on polarised moonlight for navigation.
What is Polarised Moonlight?
- Polarised moonlight refers to moonlight that has undergone scattering in Earth’s atmosphere, causing its waves to oscillate in a specific direction.
- Unlike direct moonlight, which is unpolarised, the light that scatters in the sky becomes linearly polarised, meaning its electric field aligns in a fixed plane.
- The moon emits unpolarised light, but when it interacts with air molecules and dust particles in the atmosphere, it scatters and becomes polarised.
- The intensity of polarised moonlight is much lower than polarised sunlight, making it harder for most animals to detect.
- The pattern of polarisation in moonlight remains stable, allowing nocturnal animals to use it as a reliable navigation tool.
- Why is it Important for Navigation?
- Many nocturnal animals, including bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas), rely on celestial cues to orient themselves.
- Unlike the moon’s direct position, which changes with phases and cloud cover, the polarisation pattern remains detectable throughout the night.
- This enables ants to navigate effectively even under crescent or waning moons, where light intensity is significantly lower.
E-Vector Pattern and Ant Navigation
- Polarised moonlight forms a distinct pattern in the sky, known as the E-vector pattern.
- This pattern shifts based on the moon’s position, but its orientation remains stable, allowing insects like ants to use it as a natural compass.
- The E-vector pattern aligns at 90° to the moon’s direct light, creating a predictable navigation reference.
- How do Bull Ants use it?
- Ants detect the E-vector pattern in the night sky using their specialised compound eyes, which are sensitive to polarised light.
- Even in dim conditions, they adjust their movements according to the orientation of polarised moonlight.
- Researchers found that when the E-vector was artificially rotated, the ants changed their paths accordingly, confirming that they rely on this pattern.
- When the moonlight disappeared (during a new moon phase), the ants struggled to navigate, further proving their dependence on polarised lunar light.
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries. (UPSC CSE 2017) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on Energy Security (2017), and uneven distribution of mineral oil (2021).
Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met Qatar’s Amir Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al-Thani to strengthen India-Qatar ties into a “strategic partnership” focused on trade, investments, technology, energy, and people-to-people connections. They also discussed key global and regional issues. This is the Amir’s second state visit to India, following his 2015 visit.
Today’s editorial talks about the trade relations between Qatar and India. This content would help in mains answer writing GS Paper 2 in International Relations.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India and Qatar agreed to strengthen their relationship as a “strategic partnership,” aim to double trade to $28 billion in five years, and attract $10 billion in Qatari investment into India.
What are the trade relations between India and Qatar?
- Strategic Partnership and Trade Goals: India and Qatar have elevated their bilateral relations to a strategic partnership, aiming to double their trade from approximately USD 14 billion to USD 28 billion over the next five years. This agreement was formalized during discussions between the Indian Prime Minister and Qatari Amir Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al-Thani.
- Key Exports and Imports: In the fiscal year 2022-23, India’s exports to Qatar were valued at USD 1.96 billion, while imports from Qatar reached USD 16.8 billion. Major exports from Qatar to India include liquefied natural gas (LNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and petrochemicals, whereas India exports cereals, textiles, machinery, and precious stones to Qatar.
- Energy Cooperation: Qatar is India’s largest supplier of LNG and LPG, accounting for over 48% of India’s LNG imports and 29% of its LPG imports in FY 2022-23. This energy trade has been a cornerstone of the bilateral relationship, with long-term contracts in place for continued supply.
- Investment Opportunities: Qatari investments in India have surpassed USD 1.5 billion, focusing on sectors such as telecommunications, retail, and infrastructure. Indian companies are also increasingly investing in Qatar, with significant contributions from firms like Larsen & Toubro and Wipro.
- Future Prospects: Both countries are exploring avenues beyond energy, looking to enhance cooperation in technology, manufacturing, and entrepreneurship. The recent discussions included the potential for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to further facilitate trade relations.
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Why is Qatar important to India?
- Energy Security: As a major LNG supplier, Qatar plays a crucial role in ensuring India’s energy security, accounting for over 48% of India’s LNG imports. Example: India imports around 8.5 million tonnes of LNG annually from Qatar, covering a significant portion of its energy demand.
- Trade & Investment: Bilateral trade is growing, with plans to double it to $28 billion and explore a Free Trade Agreement (FTA). Example: Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) has invested in Indian companies like Reliance Jio and Adani Green Energy.
- Indian Diaspora & Remittances: Over 800,000 Indians work in Qatar, making them the largest expatriate group.Example: Indian workers send billions in remittances to India annually, supporting the economy and families back home.
- Strategic & Security Cooperation: The new Strategic Partnership Agreement enhances cooperation in defence, intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism. Example: India and Qatar conduct joint naval exercises to ensure maritime security in the Gulf region.
- Geopolitical & Diplomatic Influence: Qatar plays a key role in West Asian diplomacy, including mediation in conflicts like Israel-Palestine and Taliban negotiations. Example: India engages with Qatar on regional issues to maintain stability and secure energy interests.
What are the benefits of recent deals between India and Qatar related to LNG?
- Duration and Volume: The new agreement extends the supply of 7.5 million metric tons per annum (MMTPA) of LNG from Qatar to India for an additional 20 years, from 2028 to 2048. This is an extension of the existing contract that was set to expire in 2028.
- Pricing Structure: The renewed deal is expected to offer LNG at rates lower than current prices, potentially saving India around $6 billion over the life of the contract. The pricing structure will differ from previous terms, eliminating fixed charges and allowing for more flexible pricing based on market conditions.
- Energy Security: This agreement is crucial for India’s energy security, as Qatar currently supplies about 35% of India’s LNG imports. The deal ensures a stable and reliable supply of natural gas, which is essential for various sectors, including power generation, fertilizers, and city gas distribution.
What are the challenges between India and Qatar?
- Legal & Human Rights Issues: Several Indian workers face legal challenges in Qatar, including imprisonment and labor rights concerns. Example: Former Indian Navy officer Commander Purnendu Tiwary remains in Qatari custody, despite the repatriation of seven other detained Indian naval personnel in 2024.
- Geopolitical Differences: India and Qatar have differing views on regional issues like Israel-Palestine and Middle East conflicts. Example: India supports a two-state solution, while Qatar has close ties with Hamas, leading to potential diplomatic frictions.
- Economic Dependence on Energy Imports: India heavily relies on Qatar for LNG imports, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations and supply disruptions. Example: Any geopolitical instability in the Gulf or energy price hikes could impact India’s energy security and trade balance.
Way forward:
- Diversifying Economic Engagement: Reduce dependency on energy trade by expanding cooperation in manufacturing, technology, and digital infrastructure. Example: Strengthening investments in sectors like fintech, healthcare, and logistics through bilateral agreements and joint ventures.
- Enhancing Diplomatic and Security Cooperation: Deepen collaboration in counterterrorism, maritime security, and intelligence sharing to address regional security concerns. Example: Conduct more frequent joint naval exercises and establish structured dialogues on geopolitical issues like the Israel-Palestine conflict.
- Addressing Legal and Labor Concerns: Strengthen diplomatic mechanisms to protect Indian workers’ rights and ensure fair treatment of those facing legal challenges in Qatar. Example: Expand labor agreements, improve grievance redressal mechanisms, and negotiate for faster repatriation of detainees, including Commander Purnendu Tiwary.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges in the education sector; Demographic dividend;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Ministry of Education released the Unified District Information System for Education Plus (U-DISE+) data for the years 2022-23 and 2023-24.
Could India’s demographic dividend end before it becomes rich and ageing?
- Declining School Enrolment Signals a Shrinking Youth Population: U-DISE+ data (2022-24) shows a 15.5 million drop (6%) in school enrolment since 2018-19, reflecting a demographic shift. This means that fewer young people will enter the workforce in the future.
- Over the past decade, school enrolment in India has dropped by 24.51 million (9.45%), with elementary-level enrolment seeing the sharpest decline of 18.7 million (13.45%). While secondary enrolment fell by 1.43 million (3.75%), senior secondary enrolment increased by 3.63 million (15.46%).
- Shift in Schooling Patterns: Government and aided school enrolments have declined significantly, while private schools saw only a slight rise. The number of schools has also reduced by 79,109 (5.1%) since 2017-18, reflecting a long-term demographic transition rather than a temporary trend.
- Falling Fertility Rate Below Replacement Level: India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) dropped to 2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.1. A declining birth rate leads to an ageing population without sufficient workforce replenishment.
- Aging Population Before Achieving High-Income Status: Japan and China leveraged their demographic dividend before ageing, but India may age before industrializing fully. It leads to a higher dependency ratio and increased pension and healthcare burdens.
- Labor Market and Economic Growth Concerns: China’s workforce peaked in 2011, leading to labour shortages and slower growth. India might face a similar scenario. It led to reduced economic productivity and difficulty sustaining high GDP growth.
- Decline in Number of Schools and Future Workforce Readiness: The number of schools in India declined by 79,109 (5.1%) from 2017-18 to 2023-24, indicating fewer children. Fewer skilled workers, potentially impacting India’s aspirations to become a global manufacturing and service hub.
- Demographic Shift: The school-age population (6-17 years) has decreased by 17.30 million (5.78%) due to lower fertility rates (2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.10), leading to fewer children in elementary and secondary education.
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What challenges are associated with enrollment?
- Economic Strain Due to a Shrinking Workforce: A declining working-age population may slow economic growth, limiting India’s ability to generate sufficient income to support an aging society. Example: India’s fertility rate dropped to 2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a future decline in the labor force.
- Educational System Under Pressure: Falling elementary-level enrollment has reduced demand for schools and teachers, potentially affecting education quality. Meanwhile, senior secondary enrollment increased by 3.63 million (15.46%) over the past decade, putting strain on higher education infrastructure. Example: Elementary school enrollment fell by 18.7 million (13.45%) in the last decade, signaling a demographic shift impacting resource allocation.
- Growing Educational and Economic Inequality: Government and aided schools, which serve marginalized communities, saw a sharp enrollment decline of 19.89 million (13.8%) and 4.95 million (16.41%), respectively, while private schools saw a slight increase, widening the education gap. Example: Enrollment in private unaided schools rose by 1.61 million (2.03%), indicating a shift toward private education that is less accessible to low-income groups.
How might this impact society?
- Shrinking Workforce & Economic Slowdown: Fewer young people entering the job market may lead to labor shortages, reducing economic productivity. Example: Japan and South Korea struggle with aging populations, leading to workforce gaps and slower growth.
- Increased Social Inequality: Government school enrollment decline disproportionately affects marginalized communities, widening the education gap. Example: In rural India, fewer children in government schools may limit upward mobility and economic opportunities.
- Strain on Higher Education & Skill Shortages: A decline in secondary-level enrollment can result in fewer skilled workers, affecting industries reliant on educated labor. Example: IT and manufacturing sectors may face talent shortages, impacting India’s competitiveness in global markets.
- Higher Dependency Ratio & Welfare Burden: With an aging population and fewer workers, the burden on healthcare and pension systems will rise. Example: Countries like Italy and Germany face financial stress due to increased elderly care costs.
- Changing Consumer & Housing Markets: Lower youth populations may reduce demand for housing, schooling, and consumer goods, shifting economic dynamics. Example: Fewer school-age children may lead to school closures, teacher unemployment, and real estate downturns in urban centers.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to transform the education system by ensuring universal access, equity, and quality learning from early childhood to higher education.
- Targets a 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in school education by 2030 and emphasizes vocational training to meet future workforce demands.
- Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: A centrally sponsored initiative that integrates existing education programs to provide inclusive and equitable education from pre-school to senior secondary levels.
- Focuses on reducing gender and social disparities, enhancing infrastructure, and promoting digital learning.
- Skill India Mission: Aim to train over 400 million people in industry-relevant skills to support economic growth.
- Includes Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) for skill training and certification to boost employability.
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Way forward:
- Enhancing Educational Access & Quality: Need to strengthen government school infrastructure, improve teacher training, and expand digital learning to bridge educational disparities and ensure skill readiness.
- Strategic Workforce & Economic Planning: Align skill development programs with future industry needs, promote labor-intensive sectors, and implement policies to balance workforce participation and aging demographics.
Mains PYQ:
Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.(UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Chief election commission;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court agreed to give priority to a hearing on February 19 regarding petitions challenging a new law that gives the central government more control over appointing the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (ECs).
What are the issues related to CEC?
- Challenge to the 2023 Law: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions challenging the validity of the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023. This law is under scrutiny because it excludes the Chief Justice of India (CJI) from the selection panel for Election Commissioners.
- Petitioners argue that the government excluded the CJI from the selection process, making it a “mockery of democracy”. They allege that the appointments of the CEC and EC under the 2023 law disregard a Constitution Bench ruling that mandated the inclusion of the CJI in the selection panel.
- Opposition Dissent: Congress submitted a dissent note, stating that the process of choosing the Election Commissioner and CEC should be free from executive interference and that removing the CJI exacerbates concerns about the integrity of the electoral process.
- Concerns About Neutrality: The current selection committee composition, consisting of the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition, is viewed by some as being biased towards the ruling party, which could impinge on the Election Commission’s neutrality.
What is the process for the appointment of CEC?
- Article 324 of the Constitution – Empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) to supervise, direct, and control elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
- Tenure & Conditions (Article 324(5)) – The CEC enjoys a fixed tenure and can only be removed in the manner prescribed for a Supreme Court judge (i.e., through impeachment). However, Election Commissioners can be removed based on the CEC’s recommendation.
- Supreme Court Judgments:
- S.S. Dhanoa v. Union of India (1991) – Reaffirmed the security of tenure for Election Commissioners.
- T.N. Seshan v. Union of India (1995) – Strengthened the autonomy of the Election Commission.
- Anoop Baranwal Case (2023) – Laid down a structured appointment process to ensure neutrality, later altered by the 2023 Act.
- Prior to 2023 Law: The Supreme Court had directed that the CECs and Election Commissioners be appointed by the President based on the advice of a Selection Committee comprising the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha/leader of the single largest party in Opposition, and the Chief Justice of India.
- The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Act, 2023 – Codified the appointment process but replaced the CJI with a Cabinet Minister in the selection process. According to this act, Election Commissioners are selected by a committee consisting of the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition or the leader of the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha.
- Recent Appointment: Gyanesh Kumar was recently appointed as the new CEC, and Dr. Vivek Joshi as an Election Commissioner.
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What are the legal and constitutional basis of CEC?
- Section 7(1) of the Act: The petitions specifically challenge the validity of Section 7(1) of the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act. This section outlines the selection committee for appointing the CEC and Election Commissioners, which includes the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister.
- The petitions before the Supreme Court question whether Parliament has the authority to nullify or amend a Constitution Bench judgment through legislation
- Article 141 of the Constitution: The Supreme Court will consider whether the 2023 Act circumvents or dilutes the apex court’s authority to pronounce binding decisions under Article 141 of the Constitution.
- Dilution of Supreme Court Judgment: Petitioners argue that the 2023 law dilutes the Supreme Court’s judgment in the Anoop Baranwal case, which aimed to ensure an independent Election Commission free from executive influence.
Way forward:
- Restore Judicial Oversight: Reinstate the Chief Justice of India in the selection panel to uphold judicial independence and maintain the neutrality of the Election Commission.
- Legislative Safeguards: Enact a comprehensive law ensuring a transparent and bipartisan appointment process, reducing executive dominance and reinforcing democratic principles.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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