Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of climate change;
Why in the News?
Between February 8 and 13, the total area of sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic shrank to 15.76 million sq km, breaking the previous record low of 15.93 million sq km from early 2023, according to a BBC analysis of data from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC).
What are the reasons for the record low?
- Warm Air and Ocean Temperatures: Elevated air and sea temperatures have significantly contributed to the melting of both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice. Warmer conditions, particularly towards the end of summer, have led to increased melting rates, especially in the Antarctic region.
- Wind Patterns: Changes in atmospheric dynamics, including stronger westerly winds associated with the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), have disrupted sea ice formation and stability. In the Antarctic, these winds can break apart ice more easily due to its thinner and more mobile nature compared to the thicker Arctic ice.
- Delayed Freezing: In the Arctic, a delayed freezing process around regions like Hudson Bay has occurred due to unusually warm ocean temperatures, preventing the formation of new ice during winter.
- Increased Freshwater Input: The melting of glaciers and ice shelves adds freshwater to the oceans, which can alter ocean stratification and impact sea ice formation. While freshwater can initially encourage sea ice growth in some contexts, it also leads to changes that may ultimately reduce overall sea ice extent.
- Feedback Mechanisms: The loss of sea ice creates feedback loops that further exacerbate warming. As less ice remains to reflect sunlight, more solar radiation is absorbed by the ocean, leading to increased temperatures and further melting of ice.
What does “dip” mean?
- In the context of the recent report on sea ice, the term “dip” refers to a significant decrease or reduction in the extent of sea ice coverage. Specifically, it denotes the record low measurement of combined Arctic and Antarctic sea ice, which fell to 15.76 million square kilometres, marking a decline from previous levels.
- This “dip” highlights the alarming trend of diminishing sea ice, which is crucial for regulating global temperatures and maintaining ecological balance in polar regions.
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What could be its impact?
- Accelerated Global Warming: Less sea ice means more ocean water is exposed to sunlight, absorbing heat instead of reflecting it. Example: The Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the global average, leading to extreme weather patterns worldwide.
- Disruptions in Ocean Currents: Melting sea ice releases freshwater into the ocean, reducing salinity and slowing down deep-water circulation. Example: The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which influences global climate patterns, is weakening due to increased freshwater from melting Arctic ice.
- Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Sea ice loss affects marine species dependent on stable ice conditions for survival. Example: Polar bears rely on sea ice for hunting seals. As ice declines, they face starvation and habitat loss. Similarly, krill populations in Antarctica, a key food source for whales and penguins, are declining due to changing ice conditions.
- More Extreme Weather Events: Changes in polar ice influence atmospheric circulation, leading to unpredictable weather. Example: The weakening of the polar vortex due to Arctic warming has been linked to severe cold waves in North America and Europe, such as the Texas winter storm in 2021.
- Coastal and Infrastructure Damage: Rising temperatures due to ice melt contribute to permafrost thawing, which destabilizes infrastructure in polar regions. Example: In Siberia, Russia, thawing permafrost has caused buildings and roads to collapse, posing a major economic and environmental challenge.
What measures have been taken at the international level?
- International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (2025): The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNESCO have declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation. This initiative aims to raise awareness about the importance of glaciers and ice sheets, which store a significant portion of the world’s freshwater, and to promote actions to mitigate their melting.
- Global Cryosphere Watch: The WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch network, which includes scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has been actively monitoring and reporting on cryosphere changes. Their findings highlight alarming trends in ice loss and emphasize the need for immediate action to address these issues.
- Collaborative Research Initiatives: Various international scientific collaborations are underway to study and model the impacts of climate change on sea ice. These efforts involve researchers from multiple countries working together to gather data, analyze trends, and develop strategies for adaptation and mitigation.
- Climate Action Frameworks: Global climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, encourage countries to commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which are a primary driver of climate change affecting sea ice.
- Public Awareness Campaigns: International organizations are engaging in campaigns to educate the public about the significance of sea ice and glaciers in regulating global climate systems.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Climate Mitigation Efforts: Nations must enhance commitments under the Paris Agreement by accelerating renewable energy adoption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and implementing carbon pricing mechanisms to curb global warming.
- Enhancing Polar and Oceanic Monitoring: Strengthen international collaboration for real-time satellite monitoring, expand scientific research on polar ice dynamics, and develop adaptive strategies to protect vulnerable ecosystems and coastal communities.
Mains PYQ:
Q How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
Why in the News?
The latest edition of PLFS report (October-December 2024) has highlighted key labour market indicators.
About Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS)
- The PLFS is conducted by the National Statistical Office (NSO), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) to assess employment and unemployment trends in India.
- Launched in April 2017, PLFS provides quarterly estimates for urban areas and annual estimates for both rural and urban areas.
- Key Indicators:
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): Percentage of people working or seeking jobs.
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): Percentage of people employed.
- Unemployment Rate (UR): Percentage of job seekers unable to find employment.
- Current Weekly Status (CWS): Employment status based on work done in the last 7 days.
- Survey Methodology:
- Urban Areas: Rotational Panel Sampling (each household surveyed four times).
- Data Collected (Oct-Dec 2024): 5,742 urban units surveyed, covering 1,70,487 individuals across 45,074 households.
- Publication: Quarterly Bulletins for urban areas, Annual Reports for rural and urban regions.
Key Highlights of PLFS (Oct-Dec 2024)
- Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR): 50.4% (↑ from 49.9% in 2023).
- Male LFPR: 75.4% (↑ from 74.1% in 2023).
- Female LFPR: 25.2% (↑ from 25.0% in 2023).
- Worker Population Ratio (WPR): 47.2% (↑ from 46.6% in 2023).
- Male WPR: 70.9% (↑ from 69.8% in 2023).
- Female WPR: 23.2% (↑ from 22.9% in 2023).
- Unemployment Rate (UR): 6.4% (↓ from 6.5% in 2023).
- Male UR: 5.8% (unchanged).
- Female UR: 8.1% (↓ from 8.6% in 2023).
PYQ:
[2023] Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements.
[2013] Disguised unemployment generally means:
(a) large number of people remain unemployed
(b) alternative employment is not available
(c) marginal productivity of labour is zero
(d) productivity of workers is low |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Saturn’s Rings
Why in the News?
A new study has challenged previous assumptions, suggesting that Saturn’s rings could be as old as the Solar System (~4.5 billion years old).
About Saturn and Its Rings
- Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is famous for its iconic ring system, made up of billions of ice and rock particles ranging in size from tiny grains to massive chunks.
- It is primarily composed of water ice (95%), with some dust and rocky debris.
- The rings are divided into seven main sections (A to G), with gaps like the Cassini Division.
- Scientists have debated whether the rings formed with Saturn (~4.5 billion years ago) or if they are only 100-400 million years old.
- Over time, tiny space rocks should darken the rings, yet they remain surprisingly bright.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Earlier estimates, based on Cassini data, suggested the rings were 100-400 million years old because they looked clean and bright.
- The new study suggests that micrometeoroid collisions remove dust efficiently, preventing the rings from darkening over time.
- High-speed micrometeoroid impacts (~108,000 km/h) cause dust to vaporize, rather than accumulate.
- The vaporized dust either escapes Saturn’s gravity, falls into the planet’s atmosphere, or gets ejected into space, keeping the rings pristine.
- 100 million years ago, the Solar System was stable, making ring formation unlikely.
- 4 billion years ago, the Solar System was chaotic, increasing the chances of violent planetary collisions that could have formed Saturn’s rings.
Various Missions to Saturn
Saturn has been explored by multiple spacecraft, each providing valuable insights into its rings, atmosphere, and moons.
1. Pioneer 11 (1979)
- First spacecraft to fly past Saturn, capturing basic images.
2. Voyager 1 & Voyager 2 (1980-1981)
- Discovered new moons and ring structures.
- Provided detailed images of Saturn’s rings.
3. Cassini-Huygens (1997-2017)
- A NASA-ESA-ASI mission that orbited Saturn for 13 years.
- Key discoveries:
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- Confirmed liquid oceans on Enceladus.
- Found methane lakes on Titan.
- Observed Saturn’s rings losing material into the planet’s atmosphere.
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PYQ:
[2009] Which one of the following planets has largest number of natural satellites or moons?
(a) Jupiter
(b) Mars
(c) Saturn
(d) Venus |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iron Age; Important Sites
Why in the News?
Tamil Nadu CM recently proclaimed that the Iron Age began on Tamil soil over 5,300 years ago (4th millennium BCE), based on findings from Mayiladumparai, Sivagalai, Adichanallur, and Kilnamandi.
Iron Age in India
- The Iron Age in India was initially thought to have begun around 700-600 BCE.
- Radiocarbon dating pushed the timeline back to 1800 BCE, with evidence of iron smelting found in Central Ganga Plain and Eastern Vindhyas.
- Recent discoveries in Tamil Nadu suggest that iron metallurgy was established in South India as early as 3300 BCE.
Notable Iron Age Sites in India:
- Central and Northern India
- Raja Nala-ka-tila (UP): Iron tools and slag found in pre-NBP (Northern Black Polished) deposits (1400–800 BCE).
- Malhar (Chandauli, UP): Furnaces and iron slag indicate a major iron metallurgy center (1200 BCE).
- Dadupur (UP): Large-scale iron smelting evidence dating back to 1000 BCE.
- Hastinapur (UP): Iron tools associated with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture (1000 BCE).
- Takshashila (Punjab, Pakistan): Iron tools found in Gandhara settlements (800 BCE).
- Western and Central India
- Ahar (Rajasthan): Chalcolithic culture (2500–1700 BCE) showed early evidence of iron artifacts.
- Naikund (Vidarbha, Maharashtra): Discovery of an iron smelting furnace (1000 BCE).
- Mahurjhari (Nagpur, Maharashtra): Horse ornaments made of copper with iron knobs (800 BCE).
- South India
- Paiyampalli (Tamil Nadu): Large-scale iron smelting and slag deposits (1200 BCE).
- Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu): Iron tools and burial urns linked to Megalithic culture (1000 BCE).
- Mayiladumparai (Tamil Nadu): Recent findings date iron usage to 3300 BCE, making it one of the oldest sites of iron metallurgy in India.
- Sivagalai (Tamil Nadu): Iron artifacts and slag deposits, indicating early smelting practices (1100 BCE).
Iron Age in Tamil Nadu: New Discoveries
- Earlier studies in Mayiladumparai Excavation (2022) suggested that the Iron Age began 4,200 years ago (3rd millennium BCE).
- This timeline coincides with the Copper/Bronze Age in North India, indicating a technological divergence between the regions.
- The latest State Archaeology Department’s report, “Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu”, confirms that Iron smelting began as early as 3,345 BCE – 2,953 BCE.
- Limited availability of copper ores in South India might have led to the early adoption of iron technology.
- Excavations in Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai indicate that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu predates much of North India.
PYQ:
[2017] With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polarized Moonlight
Why in the News?
Scientists at Macquarie University, Sydney, have discovered that two species of nocturnal bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas) rely on polarised moonlight for navigation.
What is Polarised Moonlight?
- Polarised moonlight refers to moonlight that has undergone scattering in Earth’s atmosphere, causing its waves to oscillate in a specific direction.
- Unlike direct moonlight, which is unpolarised, the light that scatters in the sky becomes linearly polarised, meaning its electric field aligns in a fixed plane.
- The moon emits unpolarised light, but when it interacts with air molecules and dust particles in the atmosphere, it scatters and becomes polarised.
- The intensity of polarised moonlight is much lower than polarised sunlight, making it harder for most animals to detect.
- The pattern of polarisation in moonlight remains stable, allowing nocturnal animals to use it as a reliable navigation tool.
- Why is it Important for Navigation?
- Many nocturnal animals, including bull ants (Myrmecia pyriformis and Myrmecia midas), rely on celestial cues to orient themselves.
- Unlike the moon’s direct position, which changes with phases and cloud cover, the polarisation pattern remains detectable throughout the night.
- This enables ants to navigate effectively even under crescent or waning moons, where light intensity is significantly lower.
E-Vector Pattern and Ant Navigation
- Polarised moonlight forms a distinct pattern in the sky, known as the E-vector pattern.
- This pattern shifts based on the moon’s position, but its orientation remains stable, allowing insects like ants to use it as a natural compass.
- The E-vector pattern aligns at 90° to the moon’s direct light, creating a predictable navigation reference.
- How do Bull Ants use it?
- Ants detect the E-vector pattern in the night sky using their specialised compound eyes, which are sensitive to polarised light.
- Even in dim conditions, they adjust their movements according to the orientation of polarised moonlight.
- Researchers found that when the E-vector was artificially rotated, the ants changed their paths accordingly, confirming that they rely on this pattern.
- When the moonlight disappeared (during a new moon phase), the ants struggled to navigate, further proving their dependence on polarised lunar light.
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) The question of India’s Energy Security constitutes the most important part of India’s economic progress. Analyze India’s energy policy cooperation with West Asian Countries. (UPSC CSE 2017) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on Energy Security (2017), and uneven distribution of mineral oil (2021).
Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi met Qatar’s Amir Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al-Thani to strengthen India-Qatar ties into a “strategic partnership” focused on trade, investments, technology, energy, and people-to-people connections. They also discussed key global and regional issues. This is the Amir’s second state visit to India, following his 2015 visit.
Today’s editorial talks about the trade relations between Qatar and India. This content would help in mains answer writing GS Paper 2 in International Relations.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India and Qatar agreed to strengthen their relationship as a “strategic partnership,” aim to double trade to $28 billion in five years, and attract $10 billion in Qatari investment into India.
What are the trade relations between India and Qatar?
- Strategic Partnership and Trade Goals: India and Qatar have elevated their bilateral relations to a strategic partnership, aiming to double their trade from approximately USD 14 billion to USD 28 billion over the next five years. This agreement was formalized during discussions between the Indian Prime Minister and Qatari Amir Sheikh Tamim Bin Hamad Al-Thani.
- Key Exports and Imports: In the fiscal year 2022-23, India’s exports to Qatar were valued at USD 1.96 billion, while imports from Qatar reached USD 16.8 billion. Major exports from Qatar to India include liquefied natural gas (LNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and petrochemicals, whereas India exports cereals, textiles, machinery, and precious stones to Qatar.
- Energy Cooperation: Qatar is India’s largest supplier of LNG and LPG, accounting for over 48% of India’s LNG imports and 29% of its LPG imports in FY 2022-23. This energy trade has been a cornerstone of the bilateral relationship, with long-term contracts in place for continued supply.
- Investment Opportunities: Qatari investments in India have surpassed USD 1.5 billion, focusing on sectors such as telecommunications, retail, and infrastructure. Indian companies are also increasingly investing in Qatar, with significant contributions from firms like Larsen & Toubro and Wipro.
- Future Prospects: Both countries are exploring avenues beyond energy, looking to enhance cooperation in technology, manufacturing, and entrepreneurship. The recent discussions included the potential for a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) to further facilitate trade relations.
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Why is Qatar important to India?
- Energy Security: As a major LNG supplier, Qatar plays a crucial role in ensuring India’s energy security, accounting for over 48% of India’s LNG imports. Example: India imports around 8.5 million tonnes of LNG annually from Qatar, covering a significant portion of its energy demand.
- Trade & Investment: Bilateral trade is growing, with plans to double it to $28 billion and explore a Free Trade Agreement (FTA). Example: Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) has invested in Indian companies like Reliance Jio and Adani Green Energy.
- Indian Diaspora & Remittances: Over 800,000 Indians work in Qatar, making them the largest expatriate group.Example: Indian workers send billions in remittances to India annually, supporting the economy and families back home.
- Strategic & Security Cooperation: The new Strategic Partnership Agreement enhances cooperation in defence, intelligence sharing, and counterterrorism. Example: India and Qatar conduct joint naval exercises to ensure maritime security in the Gulf region.
- Geopolitical & Diplomatic Influence: Qatar plays a key role in West Asian diplomacy, including mediation in conflicts like Israel-Palestine and Taliban negotiations. Example: India engages with Qatar on regional issues to maintain stability and secure energy interests.
What are the benefits of recent deals between India and Qatar related to LNG?
- Duration and Volume: The new agreement extends the supply of 7.5 million metric tons per annum (MMTPA) of LNG from Qatar to India for an additional 20 years, from 2028 to 2048. This is an extension of the existing contract that was set to expire in 2028.
- Pricing Structure: The renewed deal is expected to offer LNG at rates lower than current prices, potentially saving India around $6 billion over the life of the contract. The pricing structure will differ from previous terms, eliminating fixed charges and allowing for more flexible pricing based on market conditions.
- Energy Security: This agreement is crucial for India’s energy security, as Qatar currently supplies about 35% of India’s LNG imports. The deal ensures a stable and reliable supply of natural gas, which is essential for various sectors, including power generation, fertilizers, and city gas distribution.
What are the challenges between India and Qatar?
- Legal & Human Rights Issues: Several Indian workers face legal challenges in Qatar, including imprisonment and labor rights concerns. Example: Former Indian Navy officer Commander Purnendu Tiwary remains in Qatari custody, despite the repatriation of seven other detained Indian naval personnel in 2024.
- Geopolitical Differences: India and Qatar have differing views on regional issues like Israel-Palestine and Middle East conflicts. Example: India supports a two-state solution, while Qatar has close ties with Hamas, leading to potential diplomatic frictions.
- Economic Dependence on Energy Imports: India heavily relies on Qatar for LNG imports, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations and supply disruptions. Example: Any geopolitical instability in the Gulf or energy price hikes could impact India’s energy security and trade balance.
Way forward:
- Diversifying Economic Engagement: Reduce dependency on energy trade by expanding cooperation in manufacturing, technology, and digital infrastructure. Example: Strengthening investments in sectors like fintech, healthcare, and logistics through bilateral agreements and joint ventures.
- Enhancing Diplomatic and Security Cooperation: Deepen collaboration in counterterrorism, maritime security, and intelligence sharing to address regional security concerns. Example: Conduct more frequent joint naval exercises and establish structured dialogues on geopolitical issues like the Israel-Palestine conflict.
- Addressing Legal and Labor Concerns: Strengthen diplomatic mechanisms to protect Indian workers’ rights and ensure fair treatment of those facing legal challenges in Qatar. Example: Expand labor agreements, improve grievance redressal mechanisms, and negotiate for faster repatriation of detainees, including Commander Purnendu Tiwary.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges in the education sector; Demographic dividend;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Ministry of Education released the Unified District Information System for Education Plus (U-DISE+) data for the years 2022-23 and 2023-24.
Could India’s demographic dividend end before it becomes rich and ageing?
- Declining School Enrolment Signals a Shrinking Youth Population: U-DISE+ data (2022-24) shows a 15.5 million drop (6%) in school enrolment since 2018-19, reflecting a demographic shift. This means that fewer young people will enter the workforce in the future.
- Over the past decade, school enrolment in India has dropped by 24.51 million (9.45%), with elementary-level enrolment seeing the sharpest decline of 18.7 million (13.45%). While secondary enrolment fell by 1.43 million (3.75%), senior secondary enrolment increased by 3.63 million (15.46%).
- Shift in Schooling Patterns: Government and aided school enrolments have declined significantly, while private schools saw only a slight rise. The number of schools has also reduced by 79,109 (5.1%) since 2017-18, reflecting a long-term demographic transition rather than a temporary trend.
- Falling Fertility Rate Below Replacement Level: India’s Total Fertility Rate (TFR) dropped to 2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.1. A declining birth rate leads to an ageing population without sufficient workforce replenishment.
- Aging Population Before Achieving High-Income Status: Japan and China leveraged their demographic dividend before ageing, but India may age before industrializing fully. It leads to a higher dependency ratio and increased pension and healthcare burdens.
- Labor Market and Economic Growth Concerns: China’s workforce peaked in 2011, leading to labour shortages and slower growth. India might face a similar scenario. It led to reduced economic productivity and difficulty sustaining high GDP growth.
- Decline in Number of Schools and Future Workforce Readiness: The number of schools in India declined by 79,109 (5.1%) from 2017-18 to 2023-24, indicating fewer children. Fewer skilled workers, potentially impacting India’s aspirations to become a global manufacturing and service hub.
- Demographic Shift: The school-age population (6-17 years) has decreased by 17.30 million (5.78%) due to lower fertility rates (2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.10), leading to fewer children in elementary and secondary education.
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What challenges are associated with enrollment?
- Economic Strain Due to a Shrinking Workforce: A declining working-age population may slow economic growth, limiting India’s ability to generate sufficient income to support an aging society. Example: India’s fertility rate dropped to 2.01 in 2022, below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a future decline in the labor force.
- Educational System Under Pressure: Falling elementary-level enrollment has reduced demand for schools and teachers, potentially affecting education quality. Meanwhile, senior secondary enrollment increased by 3.63 million (15.46%) over the past decade, putting strain on higher education infrastructure. Example: Elementary school enrollment fell by 18.7 million (13.45%) in the last decade, signaling a demographic shift impacting resource allocation.
- Growing Educational and Economic Inequality: Government and aided schools, which serve marginalized communities, saw a sharp enrollment decline of 19.89 million (13.8%) and 4.95 million (16.41%), respectively, while private schools saw a slight increase, widening the education gap. Example: Enrollment in private unaided schools rose by 1.61 million (2.03%), indicating a shift toward private education that is less accessible to low-income groups.
How might this impact society?
- Shrinking Workforce & Economic Slowdown: Fewer young people entering the job market may lead to labor shortages, reducing economic productivity. Example: Japan and South Korea struggle with aging populations, leading to workforce gaps and slower growth.
- Increased Social Inequality: Government school enrollment decline disproportionately affects marginalized communities, widening the education gap. Example: In rural India, fewer children in government schools may limit upward mobility and economic opportunities.
- Strain on Higher Education & Skill Shortages: A decline in secondary-level enrollment can result in fewer skilled workers, affecting industries reliant on educated labor. Example: IT and manufacturing sectors may face talent shortages, impacting India’s competitiveness in global markets.
- Higher Dependency Ratio & Welfare Burden: With an aging population and fewer workers, the burden on healthcare and pension systems will rise. Example: Countries like Italy and Germany face financial stress due to increased elderly care costs.
- Changing Consumer & Housing Markets: Lower youth populations may reduce demand for housing, schooling, and consumer goods, shifting economic dynamics. Example: Fewer school-age children may lead to school closures, teacher unemployment, and real estate downturns in urban centers.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to transform the education system by ensuring universal access, equity, and quality learning from early childhood to higher education.
- Targets a 100% Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in school education by 2030 and emphasizes vocational training to meet future workforce demands.
- Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: A centrally sponsored initiative that integrates existing education programs to provide inclusive and equitable education from pre-school to senior secondary levels.
- Focuses on reducing gender and social disparities, enhancing infrastructure, and promoting digital learning.
- Skill India Mission: Aim to train over 400 million people in industry-relevant skills to support economic growth.
- Includes Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) for skill training and certification to boost employability.
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Way forward:
- Enhancing Educational Access & Quality: Need to strengthen government school infrastructure, improve teacher training, and expand digital learning to bridge educational disparities and ensure skill readiness.
- Strategic Workforce & Economic Planning: Align skill development programs with future industry needs, promote labor-intensive sectors, and implement policies to balance workforce participation and aging demographics.
Mains PYQ:
Q National Education Policy 2020 isin conformity with the Sustainable Development Goal-4 (2030). It intends to restructure and reorient education system in India. Critically examine the statement.(UPSC IAS/2020)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Chief election commission;
Why in the News?
Recently, the Supreme Court agreed to give priority to a hearing on February 19 regarding petitions challenging a new law that gives the central government more control over appointing the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and Election Commissioners (ECs).
What are the issues related to CEC?
- Challenge to the 2023 Law: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions challenging the validity of the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act, 2023. This law is under scrutiny because it excludes the Chief Justice of India (CJI) from the selection panel for Election Commissioners.
- Petitioners argue that the government excluded the CJI from the selection process, making it a “mockery of democracy”. They allege that the appointments of the CEC and EC under the 2023 law disregard a Constitution Bench ruling that mandated the inclusion of the CJI in the selection panel.
- Opposition Dissent: Congress submitted a dissent note, stating that the process of choosing the Election Commissioner and CEC should be free from executive interference and that removing the CJI exacerbates concerns about the integrity of the electoral process.
- Concerns About Neutrality: The current selection committee composition, consisting of the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition, is viewed by some as being biased towards the ruling party, which could impinge on the Election Commission’s neutrality.
What is the process for the appointment of CEC?
- Article 324 of the Constitution – Empowers the Election Commission of India (ECI) to supervise, direct, and control elections to Parliament, state legislatures, and the offices of the President and Vice-President.
- Tenure & Conditions (Article 324(5)) – The CEC enjoys a fixed tenure and can only be removed in the manner prescribed for a Supreme Court judge (i.e., through impeachment). However, Election Commissioners can be removed based on the CEC’s recommendation.
- Supreme Court Judgments:
- S.S. Dhanoa v. Union of India (1991) – Reaffirmed the security of tenure for Election Commissioners.
- T.N. Seshan v. Union of India (1995) – Strengthened the autonomy of the Election Commission.
- Anoop Baranwal Case (2023) – Laid down a structured appointment process to ensure neutrality, later altered by the 2023 Act.
- Prior to 2023 Law: The Supreme Court had directed that the CECs and Election Commissioners be appointed by the President based on the advice of a Selection Committee comprising the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha/leader of the single largest party in Opposition, and the Chief Justice of India.
- The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Act, 2023 – Codified the appointment process but replaced the CJI with a Cabinet Minister in the selection process. According to this act, Election Commissioners are selected by a committee consisting of the Prime Minister, a Union Cabinet Minister, and the Leader of the Opposition or the leader of the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha.
- Recent Appointment: Gyanesh Kumar was recently appointed as the new CEC, and Dr. Vivek Joshi as an Election Commissioner.
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What are the legal and constitutional basis of CEC?
- Section 7(1) of the Act: The petitions specifically challenge the validity of Section 7(1) of the Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners Act. This section outlines the selection committee for appointing the CEC and Election Commissioners, which includes the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister.
- The petitions before the Supreme Court question whether Parliament has the authority to nullify or amend a Constitution Bench judgment through legislation
- Article 141 of the Constitution: The Supreme Court will consider whether the 2023 Act circumvents or dilutes the apex court’s authority to pronounce binding decisions under Article 141 of the Constitution.
- Dilution of Supreme Court Judgment: Petitioners argue that the 2023 law dilutes the Supreme Court’s judgment in the Anoop Baranwal case, which aimed to ensure an independent Election Commission free from executive influence.
Way forward:
- Restore Judicial Oversight: Reinstate the Chief Justice of India in the selection panel to uphold judicial independence and maintain the neutrality of the Election Commission.
- Legislative Safeguards: Enact a comprehensive law ensuring a transparent and bipartisan appointment process, reducing executive dominance and reinforcing democratic principles.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deposit Insurance
Why in the News?
The Centre is actively considering increasing the deposit insurance cover beyond the current ₹5 lakh limit, as confirmed by Financial Services Secretary.
What is Deposit Insurance?
- Deposit Insurance is a financial protection mechanism for depositors if a bank fails or faces restrictions imposed by the RBI.
- It ensures compensation up to a set limit, even if the bank cannot return the money.
- It is provided by Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation (DICGC), a subsidiary of RBI.
- Coverage & Exclusions:
- Covers: Savings accounts, fixed deposits (FDs), recurring deposits (RDs), current accounts (both principal & interest).
- Does NOT cover: Deposits from foreign governments, central/state governments, inter-bank deposits, and primary cooperative societies.
History of Deposit Insurance in India:
- 1962: First in Asia to introduce Deposit Insurance Corporation (DIC), covering ₹1,500 per depositor.
- 1978: Merged with the Credit Guarantee Corporation to form DICGC.
- 1993: Deposit limit raised to ₹1 lakh.
- 2020: After the PMC Bank crisis in Pune, the limit was increased from ₹1 lakh to ₹5 lakh.
- 2021: Law amended to ensure insured payouts within 90 days of a bank facing restrictions.
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About DICGC & Its Functions
- DICGC was established in 1961, a wholly-owned RBI subsidiary under the DICGC Act, 1961.
- It covers all commercial banks, regional rural banks, foreign banks in India, and cooperative banks.
- Banks pay the insurance premium; depositors do not pay any charges.
- It ensures timely compensation within 90 days of a bank’s collapse.
How does Deposit Insurance work?
- DICGC insures deposits up to ₹5 lakh per depositor per bank.
- The ₹5 lakh limit includes both principal and interest amounts.
- If a bank is facing financial distress or RBI-imposed restrictions, depositors are eligible to claim insurance under Section 18A of the DICGC Act, 1961.
- Payout Timeline:
- Within 45 days: The troubled bank must submit a list of depositors to DICGC.
- Within 90 days: DICGC processes and pays depositors up to ₹5 lakh.
- If a bank goes into liquidation, DICGC pays the insured amount within two months of receiving a claim list from the bank’s liquidator.
- When RBI restricts withdrawals from a bank, depositors are eligible to receive their insured deposits.
PYQ:
[2013] Which of the following grants/grant direct credit assistance to rural households? (2013)
- Regional Rural Banks
- National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
- Land Development Banks
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Soil Health Cards Scheme
Why in the News?
It has been 10 years since the Soil Health Card Scheme was introduced by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi on 19th February 2015 at Suratgarh, Rajasthan.
What is the Soil Health Card Scheme?
- The SHC Scheme was launched to analyze soil quality and provide personalized recommendations to farmers for nutrient management and soil fertility improvement.
- The scheme is implemented by the Department of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare.
- It has been integrated into Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) since 2022-23 under the Soil Health & Fertility component.
Key Features of the Soil Health Card Scheme:
- SHC evaluates 12 parameters, including:
- Macronutrients: N, P, K, S.
- Micronutrients: Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, B.
- Physical & Chemical Properties: pH, EC, OC.
- Samples collected twice a year (post-Rabi and Kharif).
- Grid-based sampling: 2.5 ha in irrigated areas, 10 ha in rain-fed areas.
- SHC Portal & Mobile App enable online tracking, GPS-tagged samples, and QR-coded test results.
- Village-Level Soil Testing Labs (VLSTLs): 665 VLSTLs established across 17 states for local soil testing.
- School Soil Health Programme: Implemented in 1020 schools, with 1000 soil testing labs and 125,972 students enrolled.
Successes and Limitations of SHC:
Success:
- Crop Yields & Productivity Increased (8-10%) through optimized fertilizer application.
- Farmers saved up to ₹5,000 per hectare by using balanced fertilizers.
- 665 Village-Level Soil Testing Labs (VLSTLs) established, improving soil testing accessibility.
- Technological integration (SHC Portal & Mobile App) ensures real-time monitoring.
- Encouraged sustainable farming practices, reducing soil degradation and nutrient depletion.
Limitations and Challenges:
- Many farmers are unaware of SHC benefits and continue traditional farming methods.
- Reports often reach farmers too late for implementation.
- Limited soil testing labs and trained staff in remote areas.
- Farmers need training to interpret SHC reports and apply recommendations.
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PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following statements:
The nation-wide ‘Soil Health Card Scheme’ aims at-
1. expanding the cultivable area under irrigation.
2. enabling the banks to assess the quantum of loans to be granted to farmers on the basis of soil quality.
3. checking the overuse of fertilizers in farmlands.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 arid 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Exercise Dharma Guardian
Why in the News?
India and Japan are set to commence the 6th edition of the Dharma Guardian military exercise at Mount Fuji.
Other India-Japan Military Exercises
- JIMEX (Japan-India Maritime Exercise): Naval cooperation between the Indian Navy and Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
- Veer Guardian: Joint air force exercise between the Indian Air Force (IAF) and Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).
- Malabar Exercise: Japan participates along with India, the US, and Australia (Quad nations) in this high-level naval exercise.
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About Exercise Dharma Guardian
- It is an annual joint military exercise between the Indian Army and Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), conducted alternatively in India and Japan.
- It was commenced in 2018
- The 6th edition will be held from February 25 to March 9, 2025, at Mount Fuji, Japan.
- 120 Indian soldiers from the Madras Regiment will participate, focusing on urban warfare and counter-terrorism operations.
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- Joint Counter-Terrorism Training: Focus on urban and semi-desert warfare.
- Advanced Tactical Drills: Close-quarters combat, live fire, and battlefield medical evacuation.
- 48-hour Validation Exercise: Tests real-time combat coordination.
- Cultural and Professional Exchange: Strengthens India-Japan military ties.
Significance:
- Strengthens Strategic Ties: Expands India-Japan defence cooperation under the Indo-Pacific framework.
- Enhances Regional Security: Aligns with Quad nations’ vision (India, Japan, US, Australia).
- Boosts Defence Technology Collaboration: Includes co-development of Unicorn Stealth Antenna System.
- Improves Military Readiness: Supports joint UN peacekeeping and disaster response operations.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delhi Earthquake and its causes
Why in the News?
A magnitude 4 earthquake struck New Delhi with epicentre near Dhaula Kuan. The quake was shallow (5 km depth), highlighting Delhi’s seismic vulnerability due to its location in Zone IV of India’s earthquake hazard map.
Possible Causes of the Earthquake
- Tectonic Activity along the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge:
- Delhi sits on the Delhi-Hardwar Ridge, an active seismic fault.
- Continuous collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates builds tectonic stress, leading to earthquakes when stress is released.
- Groundwater Extraction as a Seismic Trigger: Excessive exploitation alters rock pressure, potentially inducing fault movements.
- Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Activity:
- Urbanization, metro construction, and large-scale infrastructure projects alter subsurface stress.
- Vibrations from construction activities can contribute to localized seismic instability.
About the Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt
- The Aravalli-Delhi Fold Belt is a major geological formation that extends from southern Rajasthan to Haryana and Delhi.
- It consists of ancient folded rock formations that have undergone millions of years of geological transformation.
- This region has several pre-existing faults, meaning seismic activity can occur without direct tectonic subduction.
- Although historically more active, tectonic movements in the belt have slowed over time.
- These earthquakes occur due to fault reactivation and local stress accumulation rather than large-scale tectonic shifts.
- Himalayan earthquakes are caused by subduction, where the Indian plate moves under the Eurasian plate.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
[2015] The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects. |
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PYQ Relevance:
Q) Describe the benefits of deriving electric energy from sunlight in contrast to the conventional energy generation. What are the initiatives offered by our government for this purpose? (UPSC CSE 2020) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on major issues like conventional energy generation (2020) and coal-fired thermal plants (2014).
In August 2022, India updated its climate plan to the UNFCCC, promising to follow a cleaner, environmentally friendly path for growth. The country aims to cut emissions per unit of GDP by 45% by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. It also plans to get 50% of its electricity from non-fossil fuels by 2030, while keeping thermal power at 50% of the energy mix.
Today’s editorial addresses issues related to thermal power plants. This topic will be useful for GS Paper 2 and 3 in the Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
States that produce thermal power should be fairly compensated for handling the pollution caused while generating electricity for other states.
What is the extent of the pollution burden caused by thermal power plants in certain states?
- High Concentration of Polluting Power Plants: States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, and Uttar Pradesh are home to a large share of India’s thermal power plants, contributing significantly to the country’s carbon emissions. These states face disproportionate pollution as they generate much of the power consumed across India but do not benefit equally in terms of electricity consumption.
- For example, Chhattisgarh produces large amounts of electricity from thermal plants, but its per capita electricity consumption remains much lower than that of economically better-off states like Gujarat and Maharashtra.
- Disproportionate Emissions and Air Pollution: Thermal power generation is a major source of carbon dioxide (CO2) and particulate matter (PM), contributing heavily to air pollution. States like Chhattisgarh and Odisha, with a high density of coal-based plants, suffer from severe air quality deterioration, leading to health hazards like respiratory diseases.
- Externalities from Power Exporting States: States such as Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha are significant net exporters of electricity. Despite being the source of much of India’s thermal power, these states bear the brunt of the pollution without receiving adequate compensation or benefits. Chhattisgarh was the highest net exporter of electricity in 2022-23, yet it continues to face the negative environmental impacts without direct benefits.
- Impact on Local Health and Environment: The local populations near thermal power plants suffer from air pollution-induced health issues like COPD, asthma, and lung cancer. Additionally, the local environment is negatively impacted due to thermal pollution and the disposal of coal ash.
- In Bihar, which generates most of its electricity from thermal plants, residents face health risks due to pollutants emitted by nearby plants, such as NTPC‘s plants.
- Water and Soil Contamination: Thermal power plants contribute to thermal pollution in water bodies, affecting aquatic life, and displace harmful chemicals into soil, which degrades agriculture. In coal-rich states like Odisha and Jharkhand, this leads to long-term environmental damage.
- For instance, the coal ash from thermal plants in Odisha has been found to pollute the soil, reducing agricultural productivity and harming local ecosystems.
What are the environmental and health impacts of this pollution on local populations?
- Respiratory and Cardiovascular Diseases: The emission of particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) from thermal power plants significantly degrades air quality. This leads to an increase in respiratory problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD).
- For example, in Chhattisgarh, where thermal plants are concentrated, residents face high rates of respiratory illnesses due to prolonged exposure to air pollution from coal-fired power plants.
- Water and Soil Contamination: The disposal of toxic coal ash and wastewater from thermal power plants pollutes local water bodies and soil, leading to contamination of drinking water sources and agricultural land. This can cause long-term harm to both human health and local ecosystems.
- In Odisha, coal ash from thermal plants has been found to seep into nearby rivers and groundwater, impacting drinking water quality and agricultural productivity.
- Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events: The carbon dioxide (CO₂) emitted by thermal power plants contributes to global warming, leading to more frequent and severe extreme weather events like heatwaves, floods, and droughts. These events directly affect public health by increasing mortality rates, particularly among vulnerable populations like the elderly and children.
- For example, states like Uttar Pradesh and Odisha face heightened vulnerability to heatwaves and flooding, worsened by the cumulative impact of pollution from nearby thermal power plants.
What steps can be taken to mitigate the pollution caused by thermal power plants? (Way forward)
- Adoption of Cleaner Technologies: Implementing advanced technologies such as Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD), Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP), and Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) can significantly reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), particulate matter (PM), and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ). These technologies capture pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere, improving air quality.
- Switching to Cleaner Fuels and Renewable Energy Sources: Gradually transitioning from coal to cleaner energy sources like natural gas, biomass, or renewable energy (solar, wind, and hydro) can help reduce carbon emissions and other pollutants.
- The Solar power initiatives in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat, which have vast renewable energy capacities, can be expanded to replace coal-based power generation, reducing reliance on thermal plants.
- Improved Waste Management and Pollution Control Regulations: Establishing strict regulations for the management of coal ash and waste from thermal plants can help prevent contamination of water bodies and soil. The use of ash for brick-making and cement production, or proper disposal in landfills, can mitigate environmental hazards.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Pollution related issues; MSP;
Why in the News?
Recently, a parliamentary committee, led by Rajya Sabha MP Milind Deora, has suggested setting a minimum support price (MSP) for paddy residue. This aims to discourage farmers from burning stubble, which is a major cause of air pollution in Delhi.
What were the observations made by the Parliamentary standing committee?
- Stubble Burning as a Key Cause of Air Pollution: The committee acknowledged that stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana significantly contributes to Delhi’s air pollution during winter.
- Farmers’ Constraints: Farmers burn stubble due to a short window (25 days) between paddy harvesting and wheat sowing.
- State-wise Disparities: Punjab generates 16.1 million tonnes of non-basmati paddy straw annually, while Haryana generates only 4.04 million tonnes. Punjab also reported 10,990 stubble-burning incidents in 2023-24, compared to Haryana’s 1,406.
- Existing Government Schemes: The Central government provides subsidies for crop residue management machinery, but high fuel costs make their usage unfeasible for many farmers.
- Incentive Gap: Haryana provides higher financial support (₹7,000/acre for crop diversification, ₹4,000 for direct seeding of rice), whereas Punjab offers only ₹1,500 for direct seeding.
- Technological Gaps: Even after mechanized harvesting, 10-15 cm of stubble remains in fields, which cannot be manually cleared due to labour shortages.
What recommendations were given by the Panel?
- Minimum Price for Paddy Residue: Establish a mechanism to determine a minimum price for paddy residue, similar to the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for crops, in consultation with the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). The benchmark price should be announced before the Kharif season to reflect residue collection costs.
- Promote Short-Duration Paddy Varieties: Urge state governments to promote short-duration paddy varieties instead of long-duration ones like PUSA 44.
- Unified National Policy: Implement a unified national policy to integrate agricultural residue into bioenergy generation, ensuring inter-ministerial coordination.
- Real-time Forecasting: Establish real-time mapping of crop acreage and forecasting of crop maturity and weather patterns to estimate land under cultivation and assess district-wise crop yields for better planning.
- Storage Facilities: Set up interim storage facilities in districts where industries or end-users are not available within a 20–50 km range to facilitate efficient crop residue collection and transport.
- Incentives and Subsidies: Provide incentives for the transportation of stubble to discourage in-field burning and subsidize machinery for in-situ paddy straw management. Farmers should get a 50 percent subsidy for machinery and 80 percent for establishing centers for renting out machines for managing paddy straw.
- Technological Advancements: Develop technology that combines the work of harvesters and cutters to completely clear stubble from fields and promote early-maturing crop varieties.
What is Delhi govt’s 20-point Winter Action Plan?
- Real-Time Monitoring and Special Task Force: The plan includes the use of drones for real-time monitoring of pollution hotspots, marking a shift from manual inventory methods. Additionally, a special task force will be formed to oversee pollution control efforts and ensure compliance with regulations across various sectors.
- Control Measures for Pollution Sources: The action plan emphasizes controlling dust pollution through increased water sprinkling, deployment of anti-smog guns, and strict regulations on construction sites. It also addresses vehicular emissions by promoting work-from-home policies and considering the implementation of an odd-even vehicle rationing scheme during high pollution days.
- Public Participation and Emergency Measures: The plan encourages public involvement through campaigns and initiatives aimed at reducing pollution, such as banning firecrackers and promoting eco-friendly practices.
- Emergency measures like artificial rain are also proposed to mitigate severe pollution events expected around Diwali and during stubble burning seasons.
Way forward:
- Sustainable Agricultural Practices & Farmer Incentives: Strengthen financial incentives for crop residue management, promote widespread adoption of short-duration paddy varieties, and enhance technological solutions for complete stubble removal to reduce reliance on burning.
- Integrated Pollution Control & Public Awareness: Implement a coordinated air quality management framework involving real-time monitoring, stricter enforcement of emission norms, and large-scale public participation campaigns to promote eco-friendly practices and behavioural change.
Mains PYQ:
Q Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three Mega cities of the country but the air pollution is much more serious probelm in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so? (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Cyber attacks;
Why in the News?
In January, the Kaveri 2.0 web portal, which helps with property registrations in Karnataka, experienced frequent server crashes. This caused a major disruption, bringing property registration and related citizen services to a near halt in the state.
What is a DDoS attack?
- A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack is when a website or online service is flooded with too much traffic all at once, making it crash or slow down so that real users can’t access it.
- Instead of coming from one source, the attack comes from many different computers or devices that have been taken over by attackers. These devices work together to send massive amounts of fake traffic to the target, overwhelming it and causing it to stop working.
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What are other major DDoS attacks?
- Dyn DDoS Attack (2016): The Dyn DDoS attack disrupted major websites including Twitter, Netflix, and Reddit. The attack used a botnet of IoT devices, such as cameras and routers, to flood Dyn’s servers with traffic, causing widespread outages.
- GitHub DDoS Attack (2018): In 2018, GitHub was hit by one of the largest DDoS attacks in history, with traffic peaking at 1.35 terabits per second. The attack exploited memcached servers to amplify the traffic, overwhelming GitHub’s servers before mitigation efforts kicked in.
- AWS DDoS Attack (2020): Amazon Web Services (AWS) faced a 2.3 Tbps DDoS attack in 2020, which was one of the largest publicly reported DDoS attacks. AWS mitigated the attack using its cloud infrastructure and security services like AWS Shield.
- Cloudflare DDoS Attack (2021): In 2021, Cloudflare thwarted a 26 million request-per-second DDoS attack, one of the largest HTTPS DDoS attacks at the time. It was mitigated using Cloudflare’s advanced rate-limiting and traffic filtering technologies.
- Microsoft Azure DDoS Attack (2023): Microsoft Azure faced one of the largest DDoS attacks ever recorded, peaking at 3.47 terabits per second. The attack, attributed to a botnet leveraging vulnerable devices, aimed to disrupt services for enterprise clients.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Cybersecurity Regulations and Policies: In 2025, new cybersecurity regulations were introduced to enhance the existing framework, including mandatory data localization and strengthened data protection laws. The National Cyber Security Policy, established in 2013, continues to guide these efforts by providing strategies for securing cyberspace and protecting critical information infrastructure.
- Increased Budget Allocations: The Union Budget for 2025 allocated over ₹1,600 crore for cybersecurity initiatives, reflecting the government’s recognition of its importance for national security and economic stability. This includes significant funding for CERT-In and capital projects aimed at bolstering cybersecurity infrastructure across various sectors.
- Formation of Cybersecurity Agencies: The establishment of agencies such as CERT-In (Computer Emergency Response Team) and NCIIPC (National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre) has been crucial.
- These agencies are responsible for monitoring cyber threats, coordinating responses, and enhancing the security of critical sectors like banking, telecommunications, and energy.
- Skill Development Initiatives: To address the shortage of cybersecurity professionals, the government has launched skill development programs aimed at training a workforce of over 500,000 IT experts. This initiative is part of a broader strategy to create a resilient cyber ecosystem capable of responding to evolving threats.
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How can such attacks be mitigated? (Way forward)
- Traffic Filtering & AI-Based Detection: Uses firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), and AI-based threat analysis to filter out malicious traffic before it reaches the target server.
- Example: Google Cloud Armor helped mitigate a 46 million request-per-second (RPS) DDoS attack in 2022 by detecting abnormal traffic patterns and blocking it in real-time.
- Rate Limiting & Load Balancing: Restricts the number of requests a user can make in a given timeframe and distributes traffic across multiple servers to prevent overload.
- Example: Cloudflare’s Rate Limiting and Load Balancer mitigated an HTTP flood attack on a European banking institution, ensuring legitimate users were not affected.
- Bot Detection & CAPTCHAs: Uses CAPTCHA tests, behavioural analytics, and browser fingerprinting to block automated bot traffic.
- Example: GitHub (2015 DDoS Attack by China-based botnet) introduced CAPTCHA-based protection to prevent automated malicious requests targeting anti-censorship tools.
- CDN & Cloud-Based DDoS Protection: Content Delivery Networks (CDNs) and cloud-based security providers absorb attack traffic before it reaches the main infrastructure.
- Example: Amazon AWS Shield protected against a 2.3 Tbps DDoS attack (2020) by leveraging global CDN distribution and real-time attack mitigation.
- Incident Response Plan & Collaboration with Cybersecurity Agencies: Organizations monitor threats, conduct regular security audits, and coordinate with government agencies for rapid response.
- Example: Kaveri 2.0 Attack (2024, Karnataka, India) led to a cybercrime investigation and strengthened security protocols after the portal faced 6.2 lakh malicious requests in two hours.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the potential threats of Cyber attack and the security framework to prevent it.(UPSC IAS/2017)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Constitutional morality;
Why in the News?
Recently, our constitutional courts have adopted the concept of “constitutional morality” to help interpret laws and decide if they are constitutionally valid.
What is Constitutional Morality?
- Constitutional Morality refers to the set of values, principles, and norms that underlie and guide the functioning of a constitution, ensuring that laws, governance, and judicial decisions align with the foundational ideals of the constitution, such as justice, equality, and the protection of rights.
- It emphasizes respect for the rule of law, the adherence to constitutional procedures, and the recognition of constitutional rights, fostering a culture of civic responsibility and public reason.
Key features of Constitutional Morality:
- Respect for Constitutional Values: Adherence to the core principles embedded in the Constitution, including justice, equality, and freedom, even in the face of political pressure or societal trends.
- Commitment to Fundamental Rights: Ensures that the rights of individuals, especially those of marginalized and vulnerable groups, are protected and upheld, regardless of changing societal attitudes.
- Judicial Integrity and Autonomy: Courts use constitutional morality as a guide to interpret laws and adjudicate cases, ensuring decisions reflect the Constitution’s values, even when confronted with controversial issues.
- Promotion of Civic Culture: Encourages citizens to value and respect the Constitution, promoting a culture of self-restraint, responsibility, and participation in democratic processes.
- Balancing Tradition and Progress: Constitutional morality provides a framework for balancing traditional norms with progressive reforms, ensuring that reforms are in line with constitutional principles.
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What are the Origins of Constitutional Morality?
- The concept was first introduced by British historian George Grote in his book “A History of Greece,” where he discussed the reforms of the Athenian Constitution and emphasized the need for civic responsibility to prevent the usurpation of power. He described constitutional morality as a “paramount reverence for the forms of the Constitution”. Grote saw constitutional morality as a rare sentiment that includes freedom and self-restraint.
- In the Indian context, the term was popularized by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who stressed its importance in the Indian Constitution to ensure a peaceful and free democracy. Ambedkar recognized that constitutional morality was not a natural sentiment and needed to be established and promoted within the polity.
How Does Constitutional Morality Influence Judicial Interpretation and Governance?
- Guiding Judicial Decisions on Fundamental Rights: Constitutional morality serves as a guide for courts when interpreting and enforcing fundamental rights, especially in cases involving marginalized or vulnerable groups. It ensures that judicial decisions reflect constitutional principles such as equality, dignity, and justice.
- Example: In the Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018) case, the Supreme Court invoked constitutional morality to strike down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, decriminalizing consensual same-sex relations.
- Balancing Tradition with Progressive Reforms: Constitutional morality allows the judiciary to balance traditional values with progressive reforms by focusing on the Constitution’s ideals rather than fluctuating public or political opinions.
- Example: In the Sabarimala case (2018), the Supreme Court used the concept of constitutional morality to allow women of all ages to enter the Sabarimala temple.
- Ensuring Adherence to Constitutional Procedures: Constitutional morality stresses the importance of adhering to constitutional forms, rules, and procedures, ensuring that governance remains within the framework of law and order, and preventing arbitrary or undemocratic practices.
- Example: Judicial scrutiny in matters of electoral integrity, like the K.K. Verma v. Union of India case (2009), where the Court reaffirmed that elections must be conducted with strict adherence to constitutional norms, avoiding arbitrary changes to electoral laws.
- Facilitating Judicial Oversight and Accountability: Constitutional morality encourages the judiciary to hold the executive and legislature accountable, ensuring they act in accordance with the Constitution. It allows courts to question and, if necessary, invalidate actions that undermine constitutional principles.
- Example: The Keshavananda Bharti case (1973) upheld the “basic structure doctrine,” wherein the Supreme Court ruled that even constitutional amendments cannot alter the Constitution’s basic structure.
Is constitutional morality a safeguard against fluctuating societal trends in law?
- Bulwark Against Volatility: Constitutional morality ensures consistency in legal decisions, protecting fundamental rights and justice, regardless of changing societal trends.
- Example: In the Navtej Singh Johar case, the Court used constitutional morality to uphold the dignity of the LGBTQ+ community, despite fluctuating public views on same-sex relations.
- Dangerous Weapon: Critics argue constitutional morality can be used to override public opinion or traditional values, leading to judicial overreach.
- Example: In the Sabarimala case, the Court’s decision to allow women of all ages into the temple sparked controversy, with some claiming it ignored religious customs and societal norms.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Civic Education: Promote widespread understanding of constitutional morality through educational reforms, ensuring citizens are well-informed about the Constitution’s values and their role in upholding them. This can lead to greater respect for constitutional norms and active participation in democratic processes.
- Judicial Vigilance and Reform: Ensure that the judiciary continues to use constitutional morality as a guiding principle in cases of constitutional interpretation, balancing traditional values with progressive reforms. This requires ongoing judicial training and a commitment to upholding the Constitution’s spirit, particularly in times of political or social upheaval.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Constitutional Morality’ is rooted in the Constitution itself and is founded on its essential facets. Explain the doctrine of ‘Constitutional Morality’ with the help of relevant judicial decisions.(UPSC IAS/2021)
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Aravalli Range
Why in the News?
The Haryana government has proposed an ambitious 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park spread across Gurugram and Nuh, which aims to be the world’s largest safari park.
About the Aravalli Range
- The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, dating back to the Proterozoic era.
- It stretches 692 km from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
- The range acts as a natural green barrier, preventing the expansion of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
- Highest Peak: Guru Shikhar (1,722 meters) in Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
- Rivers originating from the Aravalli Range:
- Banas and Sahibi Rivers (tributaries of the Yamuna).
- Luni River, which flows into the Rann of Kutch.
- Rich in mineral resources, including copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
- The Aravalli hills play a critical role in groundwater recharge, acting as natural aquifers.
- 80% of the range is in Rajasthan, while the rest is in Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
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What is the Aravalli Safari Park Project?
- The Haryana government has proposed a 3,858-hectare Aravalli Safari Park, intended to be the world’s largest.
- The project covers 2,574 hectares in Gurugram and 1,284 hectares in Nuh.
- It will include animal enclosures, botanical gardens, aquariums, cable cars, hotels, and an animal hospital.
- Initially managed by the Tourism Department, the project is now under the Forest Department, with an expert committee overseeing its execution.
Why is there Opposition?
- Ecological Concerns: The Aravallis prevent desertification, and large-scale construction could disrupt groundwater recharge and biodiversity.
- Threat to Water Security: The region acts as an aquifer, and excessive tourism, vehicular traffic, and construction could worsen Gurugram and Nuh’s water crisis, already classified as “over-exploited” by the Central Ground Water Board.
- Legal Violations: The project falls under protected forest areas, governed by:
- Forest Conservation Act, 1980.
- Punjab Land Preservation Act (PLPA), 1900, restricting deforestation.
- T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad Judgment (1996), which extends legal protection to non-notified forest land.
PYQ:
[2011] The Himalayan Range is very rich in species diversity. Which one among the following is the most appropriate reason for this Phenomenon?
(a) It has a high rainfall that supports luxuriant vegetative growth
(b) It is a confluence of different bio-geographical zones.
(c) Exotic and invasive species have not been introduced in this region.
(d) It has less human interference. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Matsya-6000
Why in the news?
India’s 4th generation deep-ocean submersible Matsya-6000 has successfully completed wet testing at Chennai harbor, paving the way for shallow-water demonstrations at depths of up to 500 meters by 2025.
![[pib] Matsya-6000](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mats.jpg)
About Matsya-6000
- Made of titanium alloy to withstand extreme oceanic pressure.
- Built with a 2.1-meter diameter sphere to accommodate three crew members.
- Moves at speed of 5.5 km/hr using multidirectional thrusters.
- Uses GPS, underwater acoustic positioning, and joystick-controlled maneuverability.
- Operates for 12 hours, with an emergency endurance of 96 hours.
- Includes emergency buoyancy modules and high–pressure-resistant escape hatches.
- Features robotic arms for sample collection.
- Uses high–resolution imaging and oceanographic sensors for deep-sea research.
- Future Trials:
- Shallow-water tests up to 500m planned by late 2025.
- Full deep-sea trials at 6,000m scheduled for 2026.
What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?
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- The DOM launched by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) in 2021, aims to enhance India’s deep-sea exploration capabilities while supporting the Blue Economy policy.
- It focuses on resource utilization, climate monitoring, and marine biodiversity conservation.
- Develop advanced technologies for ocean mining, biodiversity assessment, and deep-sea surveillance.
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- Enable climate change research through real-time ocean data collection.
- Establish a Marine Station for Ocean Biology for research on marine ecosystems and pharmaceuticals.
- Support the Samudrayaan Mission, which includes the development of Matsya-6000, India’s first deep-ocean human submersible.
- Structural Mandate of DOM:
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- Deep-ocean survey and identification of polymetallic nodule and sulfide deposits.
- Harnessing ocean energy through wave, tidal, and thermal sources.
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Project NAKSHA
Why in the News?
Union Minister of Rural Development has inaugurated the National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations (NAKSHA) in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs).
What is Project NAKSHA?
- It is an AI-driven urban land survey and digitization initiative launched by the Department of Land Resources under the Ministry of Rural Development.
- Announced in the Union Budget 2024-25, the project aims to modernize urban land records through geospatial mapping, drone technology, and AI.
- Launched in February 2025, the initiative will digitize and update land records in 152 Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) across 26 States and 3 Union Territories (UTs) in its pilot phase.
- Survey of India is the technical partner, conducting aerial mapping and high-resolution imaging to create accurate, tamper-proof property records.
- The Madhya Pradesh State Electronic Development Corporation (MPSEDC) is developing an end-to-end web-GIS platform.
- National Informatics Centre Services Inc. (NICSI) will provide storage and data security.
- The Survey of India will provide orthorectified imagery for accurate mapping.
- Project NAKSHA builds on:
- Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) for digitizing rural land records.
- SVAMITVA Scheme, using drone technology to map village properties.
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- Pilot phase funding: ₹194 crore, fully financed by the Government of India.
- Overall Phase 1 budget: ₹5,000 crore for nationwide expansion.
Aims and Objectives of Project NAKSHA:
- Standardizing urban property ownership details to eliminate land disputes.
- Ensuring fraud-proof, legally valid land documentation.
- Drone surveys and satellite imagery for precision mapping.
- Detecting encroachments, illegal constructions, and land use changes.
- Providing spatial data for urban expansion and infrastructure projects.
- Digital land records enable seamless property transactions and ownership transfers.
Features and Provisions:
- 150+ cities covered in the first year, with full urban coverage in five years.
- AI-enabled classification to identify disputed, encroached, or illegal land parcels.
- Web-GIS Platform for Land Record Management to be developed by MPSEDC, ensuring real-time data access and updates.
- States and UTs to conduct field surveys and ground verification.
PYQ:
[2019] With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.
(b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.
(c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.
(d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits. |
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Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Similipal Tiger Reserve
Why in the News?
The Similipal Tiger Reserve in Odisha has witnessed a significant reduction in poaching incidents following the installation of TrailGuard AI, an AI-powered early alert system that detects intruders in the forest.
About Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR)
- Located in Mayurbhanj District, Northern Odisha, characterized by hilly and undulating terrain with open grasslands and dense forests.
- Twin peaks: Khairiburu and Meghashini, reaching 1,515 meters above sea level.
- Inhabited by tribal communities such as Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
- Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956 and brought under Project Tiger in 1973.
- Recognized as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves in 2009.
- Flora:
- 1,078 species of plants, including 94 species of orchids.
- Sal (Shorea robusta) is the dominant tree species.
- Fauna:
- Rich in wildlife, including Leopards, Elephants, Gaurs, Langurs, Barking Deer, Sloth Bears, Sambar, Pythons, Pangolins, and Flying Squirrels.
- Diverse birdlife, including migratory species like Bar-Headed Geese and Brahmini Ducks.
- Home to freshwater snails (Radix genus) in its water bodies.
Melanistic Tigers of Similipal:
- Similipal is the only place in the world where pseudo-melanistic tigers are found in the wild.
- 27 of Odisha’s 30 tigers (AOTE-2023-24) live in Similipal, including 13 pseudo-melanistic tigers.
- The unique black-striped pattern in these tigers is due to a mutation in the Taqpep gene.
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PYQ:
[2011] Two important rivers – one with its source in Jharkhand (and known by a different name in Odisha), and another, with its source in Odisha – merge at a place only a short distance from the coast of Bay of Bengal before flowing into the sea. This is an important site of wildlife and biodiversity and a protected area.
Which one of the following could be this?
(a) Bhitarkanika
(b) Chandipur-on-sea
(c) Gopalpur-on-sea
(d) Simlipal |
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