Why in the News?

Indian Railways expects to launch Kavach CAS on Mumbai-Delhi-Kolkata routes by March 2025.

About Kavach Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)

	Details
Development	Development started in 2011 by *Indian Railways and Research Designs & Standards Organisation (RDSO).* Key developer: B. Rajaram, known for the Skybus Metro system. Field trials began in 2014, and final approval was granted in 2019.
Safety Parameters	Certified for Safety Integrity Level 4 (SIL-4) operations
Working Mechanism	Components: Trackside RFID tags, onboard locomotive equipment, radio infrastructure. Functionality: Real-time monitoring, driver alerts, and automatic braking to prevent collisions. Data Inputs: Location, direction, time. Event Recorders: Retain records for post-incident analysis.
Collision Prevention	Alert Mechanism: Alerts the locomotive pilot if a *‘red signal’ is missed.* Automatic Braking: If *speed exceeds 15 kmph after a red signal, Kavach applies brakes to halt the train.*
Issues	High Cost: ₹50 lakh per kilometer for deployment. Low Coverage: Covers only 1,500 kilometers out of the total 68,000-kilometer rail network (as of November 2023).

	Key Systems	Functions
Ships	AIS (Automatic Identification System)	Sends and receives data on location, speed, and direction between ships and land-based stations.
Ships	LRIT (Long Range Identification and Tracking)	Requires ships to report location, time, and equipment every 6 hours to authorities. Data shared with contracting governments and rescue operators via International LRIT Data Exchange.
Aircraft	Transponders	Respond to radio-frequency pings to *build a 3D view of surrounding air traffic.*
	Alerts and Resolution	Issues alert if another aircraft is within 48 seconds (traffic advisory) or 30 seconds (resolution) of a collision.
	Radar Altimeters and Obstacle Detection	Monitors distance to the ground and alerts pilots about tall obstacles like towers.

[2015] With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Railways, consider the following statements:

The decomposition of human waste in the biotoilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum.
Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the atmosphere.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2