Why in the News?

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.

What are the challenges in Monitoring AQI?

• Inconsistent Data Reporting: There is confusion regarding AQI readings, with some private agencies reporting values exceeding 1,000 while official figures cap at 500. This discrepancy arises from differences in how pollutant concentrations are converted to AQI values based on less stringent national guidelines compared to WHO standards.
• Dependence on External Data: India’s reliance on satellite data from NASA for monitoring fires and pollution limits its ability to independently assess air quality. There is a need for more localized monitoring using Indian satellites that can provide continuous coverage.
• Lack of Comprehensive Frameworks: Current monitoring systems do not adequately account for regional cooperation or comprehensive frameworks that address transboundary pollution issues effectively. This lack of coordination complicates efforts to manage air quality across state lines.

Why does India need a sustainable and health-centric framework? 

• Long-Term Strategies: Efforts must go beyond immediate fixes and focus on sustainable practices that consider the interconnectedness of air quality management and climate change adaptation. This includes integrating scientific research into policy-making and resource allocation.
• Public Health Prioritization: A health-centric approach should prioritize the well-being of citizens by implementing measures that reduce exposure to harmful pollutants, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
• Multidisciplinary Solutions: Addressing air quality issues necessitates collaboration across various sectors, including transportation, urban planning, and public health. This multidisciplinary approach can foster innovative solutions tailored to local contexts while addressing broader climatic challenges.

Conclusion: Northern India’s AQI crisis highlights the urgent need for sustainable, health-centric air quality management. The government should address the pollution through multidisciplinary solutions aligned with SDG 3 (Good Health) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), ensuring healthier lives and climate-resilient communities for future generations.

Mains PYQ:

Q Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Why in the News?

India has 83 of the world’s 100 most polluted cities. Air pollution caused 2.1 million deaths, with 99% breathing air below WHO standards.

Share of Road Transport in India’s CO2 Emissions as per the International Energy Associates

• Road transport is responsible for approximately 12% of India’s total CO2 emissions. Within this sector, heavy vehicles are a significant contributor to particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions, which are particularly harmful due to their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream. 
• Studies indicate that heavy vehicles contribute to about 60-70% of total vehicular PM emissions and 40-50% of total Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions in urban areas. This highlights the critical role that road transport plays in India’s overall air pollution problem.

Why has the vehicular scrapping policy not been effective in States like Karnataka and Maharashtra?

• Insufficient Scrapping Facilities: Both states have a limited number of registered vehicle scrapping facilities (RVSFs). For instance, Karnataka has only two authorized RVSFs located in Devanahalli and Koratagere, which are unable to handle the volume of vehicles eligible for scrapping.
• Voluntary Compliance: The policy’s reliance on voluntary participation has resulted in low engagement from vehicle owners. For example, the policy targets around 20 lakh vehicles for scrapping, but without mandatory compliance, many older, polluting vehicles continue to operate on the roads
• Lack of Awareness and Less Incentives: There is a lack of awareness regarding the benefits of scrapping old vehicles among the public. Although the policy offers incentives, such as tax relief for scrapping vehicles may not be sufficient to encourage widespread participation.
• Bureaucratic delays: The implementation of the scrapping policy has faced bureaucratic delays and inconsistencies. In Maharashtra, despite announcing incentives for scrapping old vehicles, the actual impact has been limited due to slow bureaucratic processes and a lack of effective enforcement.

Steps taken: 

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has taken several significant steps towards enhancing fuel efficiency and reducing carbon emissions in the transport sector through the implementation of the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) norms. 

• Introduction of CAFE Norms: The BEE has proposed the CAFE III and CAFE IV norms, which aim to set stringent targets for carbon emissions from passenger vehicles.
  • CAFE III, effective from 2027 to 2032, sets a target of 91.7 grams of CO2 per kilometer, while CAFE IV, from 2032 to 2037, aims for 70 grams of CO2 per kilometer. These targets are designed to drive innovation and encourage the adoption of cleaner technologies in the automotive sector.
• Transition to WLTP Testing: A significant step is the commitment to transition from the Modified Indian Driving Cycle (MIDC) to the World Light Duty Vehicle Testing Procedure (WLTP) by March 31, 2027.
  • The WLTP provides a more accurate and globally harmonized measure of a vehicle’s fuel consumption and emissions, ensuring that the targets reflect real-world driving conditions more effectively.
• Penalties for Non-Compliance: The BEE has outlined financial penalties for manufacturers that fail to meet the established fuel efficiency standards.
  • For instance, if a manufacturer’s average fuel efficiency exceeds the limit by up to 0.2 liters per 100 km, a penalty of ₹25,000 per vehicle applies. If it exceeds by more than 0.2 liters, the penalty increases to ₹50,000 per vehicle.

Way forward: 

• Enhance Infrastructure and Accessibility: Need to increase the number of registered vehicle scrapping facilities (RVSFs) across states like Karnataka and Maharashtra to make the process more accessible.
• Strengthen Policy Enforcement and Incentives: Transition from voluntary to mandatory compliance for the scrapping of old and polluting vehicles. This can be supported by enhancing public awareness campaigns that highlight the environmental and financial benefits of vehicle scrapping.

Mains PYQ:

Q Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three Megacities of the country but air pollution is a much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to the other two. Why is this so? (UPSC IAS/2015)

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Why in the news?

Denmark will impose a tax on its livestock farmers for the greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by their cows, sheep, and pigs from 2030.

What is it?

Denmark plans to impose a tax on livestock farmers for greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted by their cows, sheep, and pigs starting in 2030.

• Tax Rates: Farmers would initially pay about $43 per metric ton of carbon dioxide equivalent produced by their livestock, increasing to around $108 by 2035.
• Actual Cost: Due to a 60% income tax deduction, the actual cost per ton will start at 120 kroner ($17.3) and rise to 300 kroner ($43) by 2035.
• Use of Tax Collection: The funds collected from the tax between 2030 and 2031 will be returned to the industry to support its green transition. The handling of proceeds will be revisited in 2032. The proposal includes the development of over 600,000 acres of new forest areas.

How Do Cows and Sheep Produce Methane?

• Ruminants like cows, sheep, goats, and buffaloes have a specialized digestive system with four stomach compartments, including the rumen. In the rumen, partially digested food ferments, producing methane.
• Methane is released primarily through burping and farting as the animals regurgitate and chew cud to complete the digestive process. Ruminant digestive systems are responsible for 27% of all methane emissions from human activity.

Why Are Methane Emissions a Problem?

• Climate Impact: Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, responsible for 30% of warming since preindustrial times, second only to carbon dioxide. Over a 20-year period, methane is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide.
• Ground-Level Ozone: Methane is the primary contributor to ground-level ozone formation, a highly irritating gas just above the Earth’s surface, contributing to 1 million premature deaths annually.
• Rising Levels: Atmospheric methane levels have dramatically increased in recent years, with the NOAA reporting a record 17 parts per billion increase in 2021, surpassing the previous record set in 2020.

Way forward: 

• Dietary Adjustments: Introduce feed additives, such as seaweed or other natural supplements, that can reduce methane emissions during digestion in ruminants. This approach can significantly lower methane production without negatively impacting livestock health or productivity.
• Improved Manure Management: Utilize advanced manure management practices, such as anaerobic digestion, to capture and convert methane emissions from decomposing animal waste into biogas. This not only reduces methane emissions but also provides a renewable energy source.

Mains PYQ: 

Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Why in the News? 

The goal of carbon farming is to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Significance of Carbon Farming:

• Mitigation of Climate Change: Carbon farming practices such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management help sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon storage.
• Soil Health Improvement: Carbon farming enhances soil health by increasing soil organic carbon levels, improving soil structure, fertility, water retention, and resilience to drought and extreme weather events. Practices like zero tillage, cover cropping, and crop residue management minimize soil disturbance and enhance organic content.
• Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforestry, agroecology, and land restoration practices promote biodiversity conservation by diversifying plant and animal species, providing habitat for wildlife, and restoring degraded ecosystems.
• Sustainable Agriculture: Carbon farming promotes sustainable agricultural practices by minimizing environmental impacts, conserving natural resources, and enhancing the long-term productivity and resilience of agricultural systems.

Challenges in Carbon farming:

• Water Availability: Carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas. Limited water availability can hinder plant growth and restrict the potential for carbon sequestration through photosynthesis, affecting practices like cover cropping.
• Plant Selection: The selection of plant species is crucial, as not all species trap and store carbon in the same amounts or equally effectively. Fast-growing trees and deep-rooted perennial grasses are generally better at carbon sequestration, but may not be suitable for arid environments.
• Financial Resources: Small-scale farmers in developing countries may particularly lack the resources to invest in sustainable land management practices and environmental services.
• Policy Support: Sufficient policy support is essential for the widespread adoption of carbon farming practices. This includes incentives, subsidies, regulations, and technical assistance to encourage and facilitate the implementation of carbon farming at the local, national, and international levels.

What are some carbon farming schemes worldwide?

• Voluntary Carbon Markets: Carbon trading in the agriculture sector has gained importance globally, especially in countries like the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Voluntary carbon markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange, provide platforms for incentivizing carbon mitigation activities in agriculture.
• Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project: Supported by the World Bank, Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project exemplifies efforts to address climate mitigation, adaptation, and food security challenges in economically developing countries through carbon farming initiatives.
• ‘4 per 1000’ Initiative: Launched during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris, the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative emphasizes the role of carbon sinks, including those created through carbon farming practices, in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. It underscores the importance of managing the remaining global carbon budget wisely.

Way forward: 

• Research and Development: Invest in research and development to identify and promote plant species that are well-suited for carbon sequestration. Develop drought-resistant crops and agroforestry species to enhance carbon farming viability.
• Financial Support: Provide Financial assistance and incentives to small-scale farmers in developing countries to invest in sustainable land management practices and adopt carbon farming techniques.
• Policy Framework: Develop and implement supportive policy frameworks at local, national, and international levels to encourage the adoption of carbon farming practices. For example  setting carbon pricing mechanisms, establishing regulatory standards, and providing technical assistance to farmers.

Mains PYQ 

Q Should the pursuit of carbon credits and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(UPSC IAS/2014)

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Why in the news? 

When the Indian government launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, it’s target was to cut the concentration of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) by 20-30% by 2024, from 2017 levels. This was later revised to 40% by 2026.

What is the NCAP?

• The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched in India in January 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
• The NCAP aims to achieve reductions in PM10 levels through various measures.

What is PM10? 

• PM 10, also known as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometers.
• PM 10 particles can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and prolonged exposure to high levels of PM 10 can lead to serious health problems, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease, and even premature death.

Key features of NCAP (Note: asked in UPSC 2020 mains)

• Target: Achieving 20% to 30% reduction target in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations by 2024, where 2017 is kept as the base year for the comparison of concentration. But it has been revised to 40% by 2026.
• Cities based on air quality:Identification of 122 non-attainment cities across the country based on the 2014-2018 Air Quality data.
• City specific plans: Preparation of city-specific action plans, including measures to strengthen the monitoring network, reduce vehicular/industrial emissions, and increase public awareness.
• Coordination between centre, state and local: Facilitating collaborative, multi-scale, and cross-sectoral coordination between the relevant central ministries, state governments, and local bodies.
• Right mix with exixting policies: Establishing a right mix with the existing policies and programs, including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other government initiatives related to climate change.
• Changes as per additional scientific information: Constant change, activity, and progress to get evolved based on the additional scientific and technical information as they emerge.
• Monitoring station: Increasing the number of monitoring stations in the country, including rural monitoring stations, technology support, and data analysis.
• Awareness and capicity building: Emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives, including public awareness campaigns, training programs, and research and development activities.

 Challenges related to NCAP 

• Lack of fund Utilization: On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized so far, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent 0% and 1% of their NCAP funds, respectively.
• Implementation Delays: Delays in implementing CAAPs are attributed to various factors, including bureaucratic hurdles such as delays in approvals from competent authorities and the absence of standard operating procedures.
• Technical Challenges: Technical challenges, such as defining technical specifications for tendering processes and procuring necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, contribute to implementation delays.

How scientific tool can help?

• Emissions Inventory (EI): EIs provide crucial insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, aiding in forecasting future emissions and shaping targeted pollution control strategies. 
• Source Apportionment (SA) Studies: SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
• Role of Air Quality (AQ) Modelling: AQ modelling helps in understanding pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
• Role of EI, SA and AQ: Combining EI, SA studies, and AQ modelling allows for a comprehensive understanding of pollution sources, their contributions, and dispersion patterns.

Conclusion: 

Implement stricter monitoring mechanisms to ensure timely and efficient fund utilization. Regular audits and reviews can help identify underutilization and take corrective actions promptly.

Mains PYQ

Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)

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Why in the news?

Aviation accounts for 2.5% of global CO2 emissions. But it has contributed around 4% to global warming to date

Year-wise Global Aviation demand, Energy Efficiency, and CO2 emissions

Global Co2 emissions from aviation 

The reason behind Aviation accounts for 2.5% of global CO2 emissions:

• CO2 Emissions: When jet fuel burns, it releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, much like any other combustion process. CO2 as a greenhouse gas has contributed around 4% to global warming to date.
• Non-CO2 effects: In addition to CO2, aircraft emissions also include other substances like nitrogen oxides, soot, water vapor, and sulfate aerosols. These substances interact with the atmosphere in various ways and can have different climate impacts. For example:
  • Contrails: These are the visible trails of condensed water vapor and ice crystals that form behind aircraft in certain atmospheric conditions. Contrails can contribute to the formation of cirrus clouds, which can have a warming effect on the climate.
  • Induced cirrus cloud formation: Aircraft can also induce the formation of cirrus clouds through their emissions, further contributing to warming.

Way Forward:

• Transitioning to Alternative Fuels: Invest in Research and Development of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs), such as biofuels, hydrogen, or synthetic fuels, which emit fewer CO2 emissions compared to conventional jet fuel.
• Improving Aircraft Efficiency: Encourage the adoption of more fuel-efficient aircraft and technologies, including advanced aerodynamics, lightweight materials, and efficient engines.
• Implementing Operational Improvements: Enhance air traffic management systems to optimize flight routes, reduce delays, and minimize fuel consumption during taxiing, takeoff, and landing.

Mains PYQs:

1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (2021)
2. Discuss in detail the photochemical smog emphasizing its formation, effects and mitigation. Explain the 1999 Gothenburg protocol. (2022)

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Central Idea

• The annual recurrence of ‘severe’ air quality levels in the Delhi-National Capital region and surrounding areas during winter often leads to the misconception that air pollution is a seasonal issue primarily driven by farm residue burning.
• However, this perception falls short of the complex, year-round, multi-source, and multi-pollutant nature of the problem.

This article highlights the need to adopt a comprehensive, science-backed approach to address air pollution effectively.

Year-round, Multi-source Pollution

• Misconception: Labelling air pollution as a ‘winter’ problem caused solely by farm residue burning oversimplifies the issue.
• Complex Reality: Air pollution is a continuous problem arising from various sources, not confined to a particular season.
• Ineffectiveness of City-Centric Strategies: Current initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) focus on cities, ignoring the transboundary nature of pollution.

Transboundary Air Pollution

• Understanding Dispersion: Pollution emitted in one region can significantly impact air quality in another due to transboundary dispersion.
• Inter-state Implications: Weather, topography, and climatic conditions influence transboundary dispersion, creating challenges for downwind regions.
• Limited Jurisdictional Power: Downwind regions often lack the authority to regulate upwind pollution sources, rendering mitigation strategies ineffective.

Need for Airshed Air Pollution Management

• Defining Airsheds: An airshed is a geographic area governed by common meteorology, topography, and climate, impacting air mass dispersion.
• Global Precedents: Countries like the United States, China, and the European Union have implemented effective regional airshed-level frameworks.

Policy Levers in India

• Existing Legal Framework: The Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) Act, 2021 recognizes the transboundary nature of air pollution.
• Expanding Scope: The Air Act, 1981, can be expanded to cover multiple jurisdictions and pollution sources under a single air quality management framework.
• Global Experiences: Drawing lessons from frameworks like the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) in the US and the Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) in Europe can inform India’s approach.

Implementation Challenges

• Accountability: Holding upwind polluting regions accountable for transboundary pollution remains a challenge, necessitating legal mechanisms and cooperation.
• Conflict Resolution: Implementing a formal procedure for resolving conflicts arising from the interpretation or application of airshed-level frameworks is crucial.
• Political Will: Ensuring consistent implementation of air quality management measures despite bureaucratic cycles and political considerations is a persistent challenge.
• Cross-Boundary Cooperation: Encouraging cooperation between jurisdictions and regions to collectively address air pollution requires coordinated efforts.
• Data Integration: Integrating data from diverse sources and ensuring uniformity in air quality monitoring can be challenging.

Way Forward

• Legal Framework Expansion: Expanding the scope of the Air Act, 1981, to encompass multiple jurisdictions and pollution sources under a single air quality management framework.
• Global Lessons: Drawing lessons from international frameworks like the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR) and Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) to inform India’s approach.
• Accountability Measures: Legally binding upwind polluters to address transboundary pollution through mitigation plans.
• Scientific Independence: Separating scientific and technical activities from political negotiations to ensure data-driven decisions.
• Conflict Resolution Mechanism: Implementing a mechanism for resolving disputes arising from framework interpretation or application.
• Promoting Change: Integrating an airshed-level framework within existing legal structures or introducing a new framework to deliver cleaner air for citizens.

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Central Idea

• Mumbai, known for its coastal breeze and cleaner air, is grappling with an annual decline in air quality, resembling Delhi’s long-standing pollution woes.
• The city’s coastal location, once considered a safeguard against air pollution, is no longer a reliable defense.

Air Quality Deterioration in Mumbai

• Geographic Advantage Eroded: Mumbai’s coastal location was historically its shield against air pollution, with sea breezes dispersing particles.
• Comparable Pollution Levels: Last year, Mumbai experienced an extended period of poor air quality, overlapping with Delhi’s notorious smog issue.

Meteorological Influence

• Crucial Wind Patterns: Winds’ direction and strength play a pivotal role in shaping Mumbai’s air quality. Despite similar pollutant emissions to Delhi, the city’s coastal nature provides an advantage.
• Sea-Land Wind Cycle: Typically, winds alternate between sea-to-land and land-to-sea movements every few days, aiding natural cleansing. Disruptions in this cycle can impact air quality.

Reasons for such poor air quality

• La Nina’s Role: The recent dip in La Nina, characterized by ocean surface cooling and altered wind patterns, contributed to elevated particulate matter levels in Mumbai.
• Prolonged Pollution: La Nina’s influence delayed the expected strong wind reversal from the sea, trapping pollutants in the lower atmosphere for extended periods.
• Change in Weather Phenomenon: La Nina has given way to El Nino, albeit weaker. Its specific impact on Mumbai’s air quality remains uncertain.
• Prevalent Construction Projects: The city is currently witnessing construction activities at a staggering 6,000 sites, posing a significant challenge to air quality.
• Dust Displacement: Dust particles from roads and vehicles transporting construction debris add to Mumbai’s pollution burden.
• Domestic Sources: Restaurants, dhabas, and eateries using unclean oils for cooking release ultrafine particles, oil droplets, and condensed organic compounds, along with harmful gases such as nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide.

How local weather fuels it?

• Calm Winds and Temperature Gradient: As the monsoon retreated, Mumbai experienced calmer winds. A substantial temperature difference between the city and nearby Sahyadri ranges led to winds carrying dust from construction sites in Navi Mumbai.
• Local Weather Not Sole Culprit: Unfavorable local weather conditions are not solely responsible for Mumbai’s air quality decline.
• Baseline Pollution High: Mumbai’s consistent and escalating pollutant emissions are exceeding its environmental capacity.
• Economic Growth: Increased economic activity, higher vehicle numbers, extensive construction, and elevated consumption contribute to rising emissions.

Conclusion

• Mumbai’s air quality predicament signals the urgency of addressing escalating pollution sources and fortifying mitigation measures.
• While meteorological conditions play a role, the city’s growing economic activity and emissions are the driving forces behind its deteriorating air quality.
• Relevant authorities must take proactive steps to combat this issue and ensure a healthier environment for its residents.

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