Why in the News?

The urgent global issue of ecosystem degradation affects India significantly, with nearly 30% of its land degraded. India’s need for a comprehensive nature restoration law is critical, drawing inspiration from the EU’s NRL

Why does India need a Nature Restoration Law?

• High Land Degradation: Nearly 30% of India’s land is degraded, with areas like Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan severely affected.
• Rising Desertification: The extent of desertification in India has increased significantly, impacting ecosystems and agricultural productivity.
• Biodiversity Loss: The degradation of natural habitats threatens India’s rich biodiversity and contributes to the global biodiversity crisis.
• Climate Change Mitigation: Degraded ecosystems lose their ability to act as carbon sinks, worsening climate change impacts.
• Economic Implications: Land degradation affects agriculture, water security, and livelihoods, necessitating legal intervention for sustainable management.

What should the Nature Restoration Law in India include?

• Legally Binding Restoration Targets: Similar to the EU’s NRL, set mandates to restore a specific percentage of land and water bodies by 2030 and 2050.
• Multi-Ecosystem Approach: Include provisions for forests, agricultural lands, rivers, wetlands, and urban areas to ensure comprehensive ecosystem restoration.
• Monitoring and Reporting Mechanisms: Establish a framework for monitoring progress, conducting periodic reviews, and reporting on restoration outcomes.
• Funding and Incentive Mechanisms: Provide financial support and incentives for states, communities, and private entities engaging in restoration projects.
• Integration with Existing Programs: Align with ongoing initiatives like the Green India Mission and watershed programs for enhanced effectiveness.

What are the potential benefits of implementing such a law?

• Environmental: Restoring degraded lands can enhance biodiversity, improve soil health, and increase carbon sequestration, aiding climate resilience.
• Economic: Could generate economic returns through improved agricultural productivity, job creation, and enhanced water security.
• Social: Restoration projects can create rural employment opportunities and support sustainable livelihoods, especially in degraded areas.
• Alignment with International Commitments: Helps India achieve its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 15, and meet Paris Agreement targets.

Way forward: 

• Adopt a Comprehensive Restoration Framework: India should enact a Nature Restoration Law with legally binding targets, integrating multi-ecosystem restoration approaches and aligning with existing environmental programs.
• Strengthen Monitoring and Funding Mechanisms: Establish robust monitoring frameworks for progress evaluation and provide financial incentives for restoration efforts, ensuring effective implementation and long-term sustainability.

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Why in the News?

On October 16, 2024, the FAO said that poor households around the world lose 5% of their income each year due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods.

Key Objectives of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):

• Eradicate Hunger and Malnutrition: The FAO aims to eliminate hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition worldwide by promoting sustainable agricultural practices and increasing food availability.
• Promote Sustainable Agriculture: The organization encourages sustainable management of natural resources and resilient agricultural systems to combat climate change and preserve biodiversity.
• Reduce Rural Poverty: FAO works to improve the livelihoods of rural populations through economic development, social protection measures, and improved access to markets.
• Enhance Food Systems: It focuses on improving food production, distribution, and consumption to ensure the global population has access to nutritious, safe, and affordable food.
• Respond to Crises: The FAO assists countries in addressing food-related emergencies and building resilience against future shocks, such as natural disasters and conflicts.

Key Highlights of the Present Report by FAO:

• Economic Losses from Climate Stress: The report highlighted that poor households globally lose 5% of their income due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods annually, compared to better-off households.
• Impact on Rural Poor in India: It found that rural poor households in India are affected by climate stress differently, with reduced off-farm employment opportunities during droughts, forcing them to allocate more resources to agriculture.
• Structural Inequalities: The report noted that poor households’ vulnerability to climate stressors is rooted in structural inequalities, calling for policy measures such as expanding social security.
• Recommendations for Livelihood Support: Suggested scaling up anticipatory social protection programs and improving off-farm employment opportunities to reduce reliance on negative coping strategies.
• Gender and Employment Barriers: The report urged addressing gender disparities in non-farm employment through gender-transformative approaches to tackle discriminatory norms.

What is NITI Aayog’s Response?

• Efforts to Combat Climate Change: NITI Aayog highlighted India’s proactive measures, such as the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project, which supports farmers’ adaptation to severe climate conditions.
• Social Safety Nets: Emphasized India’s implementation of a nationwide employment guarantee scheme and extensive food distribution efforts during the pandemic as evidence of social protection measures.
• Women’s Workforce Participation: Cited data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys showing increased female participation in the workforce, indicating progress in addressing gender issues.
• Open to FAO Suggestions: Acknowledged the value of considering the FAO’s recommendations for further policy improvement while emphasizing India’s existing initiatives.

Way forward: 

• Strengthen Social Protection: Expand anticipatory social protection programs and climate-resilient agricultural practices to support vulnerable households, reducing income losses from climate stress.
• Address Structural Inequalities: Enhance off-farm employment opportunities, tackle gender disparities, and implement policies targeting the root causes of vulnerability to climate-related risks.

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Why in the News?

A new study reveals that plant cover on the Antarctic Peninsula, a mountainous region extending towards South America, has increased more than tenfold in recent decades due to rising temperatures.

What has the study found?

• Vegetation in the Antarctic Peninsula increased 14-fold between 1986 and 2021, expanding from less than 1 sq km to nearly 12 sq km.
• Mosses and lichens dominate this vegetation, with greening accelerating by 30% between 2016 and 2021.
• The changes are linked to anthropogenic climate change and observed through satellite data.

How quickly is Antarctica warming?

• Antarctica is warming twice as fast as the global average, at 0.22-0.32°C per decade (compared to 0.14-0.18°C globally).
• The Antarctic Peninsula is warming five times faster than the global average and is now almost 3°C warmer than in 1950.
• Record-breaking heatwaves have occurred, with temperatures rising up to 28°C above normal in July 2023 and 39°C above normal in March 2022.

Why should we worry about increased vegetation in Antarctica?

• Invasive Species: Warming temperatures and increased vegetation disrupt the ecological balance, allowing non-native species to outcompete native flora like mosses and lichens, leading to reduced biodiversity and altered habitats.
• Albedo Effect: Increased plant cover lowers the albedo effect, resulting in greater solar energy absorption and further warming, creating a feedback loop that promotes additional vegetation growth.
• Soil Formation: Plant life accelerates soil development by adding organic matter, enhancing nutrient cycling, and creating a more hospitable environment for non-native species, thereby increasing the risk of invasives.
• Ice Loss and Sea-Level Rise: Higher temperatures from warming and the albedo effect lead to increased ice melt, contributing to global sea-level rise, which threatens coastal ecosystems and human settlements with flooding and erosion.

Way forward: 

• Strengthen climate action: Accelerate global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, focusing on renewable energy and sustainable practices to mitigate further warming in Antarctica.
• Monitor ecosystems: Establish stricter biosecurity measures and enhanced monitoring to prevent invasive species from spreading and disrupting Antarctica’s fragile ecosystem.
• Promote global cooperation: Increase international collaboration on Antarctic research, focusing on climate change impacts, ecosystem protection, and adaptation strategies to minimize global sea-level rise and biodiversity loss.

Mains PYQ:

Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)

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Why in the News?

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)‘s October 2024 report revealed that 2023 was the driest year for global rivers in 33 years, intensifying stress on water supplies globally.

What factors contributed to 2023 being the driest year for global rivers?

• Record High Temperatures: 2023 was marked as the hottest year on record, which significantly contributed to prolonged drought conditions and reduced river flows across many regions globally.
• Climate Change Impact: Rising temperatures have led to a more erratic hydrological cycle, resulting in both extreme droughts and flooding. This unpredictability has exacerbated water shortages in many areas.
• Transition from La Niña to El Niño: The climatic shift from La Niña to El Niño conditions in mid-2023 played a crucial role in altering weather patterns, leading to widespread dry conditions in many regions while simultaneously causing flooding in others.
• Glacier Melting: The report indicated that glaciers experienced their largest mass loss in 50 years, which threatens long-term water security for millions who rely on glacial meltwater for their water supply.

How has climate change impacted global water resources and glacier conditions?

• Increased Water Scarcity: The report highlighted that approximately 3.6 billion people currently lack reliable access to water for at least one month each year, a number expected to rise to over 5 billion by 2050 due to worsening water scarcity.
• Glacier Dependency: Many regions depend on glacial meltwater for their river systems. As glaciers continue to shrink, future water availability is jeopardized, particularly in areas like Europe and North America.
• Erratic Water Supply: The hydrological cycle’s acceleration leads to unpredictable rainfall patterns, causing both droughts and floods that disrupt agricultural and industrial water supplies.

What are the implications for global water access and management?

• Increased Demand vs. Supply Shortages: With growing populations and rising demand for water resources, the current trends indicate a critical imbalance between supply and demand, leading to heightened competition for available water resources.
• Need for Improved Monitoring: The WMO emphasizes the necessity for better data collection and sharing regarding water resources. This is crucial for effective management strategies that can adapt to changing conditions.
• Urgent Action Required: There is an urgent need for global cooperation and action to address these challenges. Enhanced monitoring systems and international collaboration are essential to mitigate the impacts of climate change on water resources.

Way forward: 

• Strengthen Water Resource Management and Adaptation Strategies: Governments should implement integrated water resource management (IWRM) plans to address both water scarcity and flooding risks.
• Enhance Global Cooperation and Data-Driven Decision Making: Countries must prioritize data-sharing, improve monitoring of water resources, and foster cross-border collaborations to manage shared water systems effectively.

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Why in the News?

The delayed onset of La Niña and the late retreat of the monsoon have diminished hopes that Delhi’s residents might enjoy improved air quality this winter compared to previous years.

How has the triple-dip La Niña phenomenon influenced air quality in North India?

• No dispersion of pollutants: The delayed onset of La Niña has led to stagnant air and calm winds, preventing the dispersion of pollutants. In previous winters, La Niña helped improve air quality with stronger winds and atmospheric circulation.
• Trapped air pollutants: The slower monsoon retreat resulted in extended periods of high humidity, reduced atmospheric mixing, and trapped pollutants near the surface, contributing to deteriorated air quality.

What meteorological factors contributed to the observed anomalies in air quality?

• Monsoon Retreat and Humidity: The delayed retreat of the monsoon contributes to prolonged periods of high humidity and calm winds. These conditions reduce atmospheric mixing, trapping pollutants near the surface and leading to elevated levels of PM2.5 and PM10.
• Stagnant Winds: The absence of La Niña conditions results in stagnant surface winds, which hinder the dispersion of pollutants. This stagnation is particularly problematic given the regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
• Stubble Burning: With prevailing north-north-westerly winds, stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana could significantly worsen Delhi’s air quality if it occurs at even half the intensity seen in previous years.

What implications does this have for future climate and air quality management strategies?

• Need for Broader Focus: There is a growing recognition that air quality management must shift from a localized emission-centric approach to one that considers larger meteorological patterns and regional airsheds.
• Policy Recommendations: Policymakers should prioritize mitigating PM2.5 emissions over PM10, as PM2.5 poses greater health risks.
• Integration of Climate Factors: Future air quality strategies should integrate climate change considerations, recognizing that local emissions are only part of the equation.

Way forward:

• Adopt Regional Airshed Management: Shift from a localized approach to a broader airshed strategy, accounting for meteorological patterns and regional pollution sources to improve air quality management.
• Prioritize PM2.5 Mitigation and Climate Integration: Focus on reducing PM2.5 emissions, which pose higher health risks, and incorporate climate change factors into long-term air quality policies for comprehensive solutions.

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Why in the News?

Although voters voiced concerns about the climate crisis, it was overlooked during the Lok Sabha election campaign.

Why is addressing the climate crisis an urgent priority for policymakers and the global community?

• The Paris Agreement includes a commitment for developed countries to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries. This target was extended until 2025, with new financial goals.
  • The next five years are crucial for India’s climate action to meet its ambitious 2030 targets, as the Roadmap for 2025 Climate Change Funds are about to end.
• India’s heavy dependence on coal, with clean energy contributing only 22% of the electricity mix, underscores the need for an urgent transition.
• Immediate attention is required to manage heat stress, improve air quality, handle waste, and enhance energy efficiency.

What specific actions or policies can be implemented?

• Enhanced Carbon Markets: Launching the ‘India Carbon Market’ in 2026 aims to help achieve Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and could become the world’s largest emissions trading system by 2030.
• Mitigating Pollutants: Focus on reducing CO2 and short-lived superpollutants like methane, black carbon, and hydrofluorocarbons, which have significant short-term warming effects.
  • Integrating specific treaties into the Paris Agreement, similar to the Montreal Protocol, with a new treaty targeting methane reductions by 2030 would be helpful.
• Financial Incentives: Developing financial mechanisms and nuanced carbon trading approaches to encourage faster climate action and effective pollutant management.

What challenges or barriers exist in the implementation of a comprehensive climate crisis agenda?

• Governance and Coordination: Need for a Constitutional nodal authority to ensure coordinated climate action across various government levels and stakeholders.
• Economic and Social Factors: Rising temperatures and associated crises like unemployment and high living costs contribute to public disengagement from climate issues.
• Political and Voter Engagement: The 2024 Lok Sabha election’s lack of focus on climate issues highlights the challenge of integrating climate action into mainstream political agendas and addressing voter concerns.

Way forward: 

• Create a Constitutional Nodal Authority: Form a central body with the authority to oversee, coordinate, and enforce climate policies across various government levels, ensuring effective and unified action.
• Prioritize Climate Issues in Political Platforms: Make climate action a central theme in political campaigns and public discussions to boost awareness, engagement, and support for climate policies and initiatives.

Mains PYQ:

Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)

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Why in the News?

The retreat of glaciers is one of the most visible indicators of climate change, but it also creates new ecosystems that could play a role in mitigating its effects, according to a global study titled ‘The Development of Terrestrial Ecosystems Emerging After Glacier Retreat’ published in “Nature”.

How are Glaciers Formed?

• Glaciers form when snowfall accumulates over time in a particular area where temperatures are consistently cold enough for snow to remain year-round.
• Over the years, the weight of accumulating snow compresses the lower layers, turning them into firn (a dense snowpack). Further compression transforms firn into ice.
• Once thick enough, glaciers begin to move under the force of gravity, flowing slowly like rivers of ice. The glacier’s movement is driven by the internal deformation of the ice and sliding at its base, leading to the formation of crevasses and other glacial features.

Key Highlights of the Recent Study

The recent study titled “The Development of Terrestrial Ecosystems Emerging After Glacier Retreat,” published in Nature, presents several significant findings:

• Ecosystem Development: The study indicates that while glacier retreat is a clear sign of climate change, it also leads to the emergence of new ecosystems that can mitigate climate change effects because of it can enhance carbon capture and storage through biogeochemical processes.
• Microbial Colonization: Following glacier retreat, microorganisms such as bacteria and algae are the first to colonize the barren landscapes, which helps in soil formation.
  • Within a decade, hardy plants like lichens and grasses establish themselves, further enriching the soil and enabling more complex life forms to thrive.
• Management Importance:  The study emphasizes that with appropriate strategies to manage it because, these areas can quickly develop, providing habitats for species threatened by climate change and contributing to biodiversity conservation.
• Water Regulation: In regions like the Himalayas, post-glacial ecosystems are vital for regulating water availability, impacting rivers that support millions of people.
• Potential for Discoveries: The biodiversity in these areas may lead to new agricultural and medicinal discoveries, highlighting the ecological benefits of protecting and studying these ecosystems

Way forward: 

• Ecosystem Management: Implement strategies for managing emerging post-glacial ecosystems to enhance their carbon capture potential and biodiversity conservation, supporting climate change mitigation efforts.
• Research and Conservation: Prioritize research on these ecosystems, particularly in regions like the Himalayas, to safeguard water resources and explore potential agricultural and medicinal discoveries, benefiting both the environment and local economies.

Mains PYQ:

Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)

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Why in the News?

A new calculation suggests that climate models might be overestimating how long plants keep carbon before releasing it as per the recent study published in Science by an international research team.

Study from the Relics of the Cold War:

• The nuclear bomb tests conducted during the Cold War inadvertently provided scientists with valuable data for climate research.
  • The tests released significant amounts of radiocarbon into the atmosphere, allowing researchers to study its movement and absorption by vegetation.
• The presence of radiocarbon in the atmosphere serves as a marker for understanding carbon dynamics.
  • The study analyzed the radiocarbon levels before and after the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty, which halted atmospheric nuclear testing, providing insights into how carbon is cycled between the atmosphere and vegetation.
• The study highlights that many climate models have not incorporated radiocarbon data, which could lead to inaccuracies in predicting carbon cycling and its impact on climate change.
  • Only one model, the Community Earth System Model 2, has accounted for radiocarbon, but it predicted lower absorption levels than the study found.

How the Whole System is Cycling Faster?

• Accelerated Carbon Exchange: The researchers concluded that the entire carbon cycle is operating faster than previously understood.
  • This means that while plants absorb more CO2, they also release it back into the atmosphere more quickly, leading to a more dynamic and less stable carbon storage system.
• Implications for Climate Mitigation: The findings suggest that strategies relying on plant carbon sequestration to offset fossil fuel emissions may need to be reevaluated.
  • If plants are releasing carbon sooner than expected, the potential for mitigating climate change through natural carbon sinks could be less effective than previously thought.

Way forward: 

• Incorporate Radiocarbon Data: Integrate radiocarbon data into existing and future climate models to more accurately predict carbon cycling and the role of vegetation in carbon sequestration. This will lead to more reliable forecasts of climate change impacts and inform better policy decisions.
• Develop Dynamic Carbon Cycle Models: Improve models to account for the faster carbon cycling observed, ensuring they reflect the actual pace at which carbon is absorbed and released by plants. This will help in refining strategies for climate mitigation.

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Why in the News?

New research has documented previously unseen shapes at the base of a West Antarctic ice shelf.  

Base of a West Antarctic Ice Shelf

• Basal Melt Dynamics: The base of West Antarctic ice shelves, including the Dotson Ice Shelf, experiences basal melt driven by warm ocean water. This process leads to thinning and hollows out cavities beneath the ice, reducing structural support for the grounded ice above.
• Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Research: Recent research utilized an AUV equipped with multibeam sonar to explore the topography of the basal melt cavity beneath the Dotson Ice Shelf, revealing previously unquantified melt mechanisms and unique formations at the ice shelf’s base.
  • Warm salty water, which is transported through ocean currents, significantly contributes to the melting of ice shelves. This bottom-up melting is critical to understanding the dynamics of ice loss and its implications for global sea level rise.
  • The AUV discovered tear-shaped indents and other unique shapes at the base of the ice shelf, indicating diverse melting patterns influenced by the flow of warm water.

Reasons behind ocean warming

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities such as burning fossil fuels have significantly increased greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases trap heat, leading to global warming.
• Heat Absorption: The oceans have absorbed more than 93% of the excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions since the 1970s. This resulted in an average increase in ocean temperature of about 1°F (0.6°C) over the past century.
• Impact of El Niño: The El Niño weather pattern, characterized by the abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, contributes to both ocean warming and rising global surface temperatures.

International Efforts and Agreements

• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed by 166 countries in 1992, acknowledging humanity’s role in climate change.
• The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, sets the international community the goal of limiting global warming to “well below” 2°C in this century.
• The Green Climate Fund, established in 2010, aims to help developing countries adopt initiatives to combat climate change and deforestation

Way forward: 

• Enhanced Global Commitments: Nations need to reinforce their commitments under international agreements like the Paris Agreement. This includes setting more ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adhering to these goals through stringent policies and regulations.
• Funding and Technology Transfer: Developed countries should increase financial contributions to climate funds such as the Green Climate Fund to support mitigation and adaptation efforts in developing countries.

Mains Question for practice: 

Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (2014)

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Why in the news? 

The new government’s climate actions will impact all sectors, shaping India’s sustainable economic path, global leadership, and fight for climate finance and justice.

Initiatives Taken by the Indian Government in the Last Decade and Their Significant Results

• International Solar Alliance (ISA): Promotes the widespread adoption of solar energy, enhancing global cooperation in renewable energy.
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Focuses on building resilient infrastructure to withstand climate-induced disasters.
•  Net-Zero by 2070: India’s commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 marks a significant shift towards absolute emission reductions.
• Enhanced Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Setting ambitious targets for reducing emissions intensity and increasing renewable energy capacity.
• Indian Emissions Carbon Trading Scheme: Establishing a carbon trading system to incentivize emission reductions and support sustainable economic growth.
• Significant Growth in Renewable Energy Capacity: Rapid expansion in solar and wind energy installations, contributing to India’s international non-fossil fuel energy targets.
• Green Development Pact under G-20 Presidency: Integrating green development principles into global economic practices, showcasing India’s leadership in sustainable development.

How India can enhance it’s Global negotiations wrt Climate change? 

• Hosting International Climate Summits: India should aim to host a major international climate summit like the United Nations Conference of Parties (COP) in 2028. This would provide a platform to showcase its climate leadership and set ambitious global climate agendas. Successful hosting, akin to its G-20 Presidency, would strengthen India’s influence in global climate policy.
• Advocacy and Consensus Building: India should start early to build consensus on critical climate issues, such as ending new investments in oil and gas post-2030 and securing significant commitments for adaptation finance. Proactively engaging in dialogues, forming alliances, and addressing concerns of other nations will help India lead negotiations and drive meaningful outcomes.
• Promoting Equity and Climate Finance: India should continue to emphasize equity in climate action and finance in international forums. Advocating for fair treatment of developing countries and pushing for enhanced climate finance mechanisms will strengthen India’s position as a leader of the Global South.

Role of Federal Entities in Enhancing Climate Action

• Collaboration on Long-Term Climate Strategies: Federal entities can work with state governments to develop and implement long-term climate and energy models. Examples include supporting states like Tamil Nadu and Bihar in crafting their net-zero plans.
• Enhanced Coordination and Policy Alignment: Forming a Centre-State coordination group can ensure better synchronization of climate actions across states. This group can facilitate regular communication and policy alignment while respecting the autonomy of each state.
• Financial Incentives through the Sixteenth Finance Commission: Federal entities can use financial mechanisms like the Finance Commission to incentivize states for their climate initiatives. This can include grants or additional funding for states that demonstrate significant progress in climate action.
• Integration of Scientific Capabilities in Policymaking: Encouraging states to incorporate scientific modelling and data analysis into their climate policies. Federal support can enhance the technical capabilities of states, ensuring data-driven and effective climate strategies.
• Consistent and Accurate Climate Data Management: Developing a unified MRV architecture at the state level to standardize data collection and reporting. This system can help track progress, ensure accountability, and facilitate better policy adjustments based on reliable data.

Conclusion: India should expand its climate targets beyond the power sector to include other key areas such as transportation, industry, and agriculture. Clear and ambitious targets for zero-carbon two- and four-wheelers, as well as other sectors, will drive comprehensive decarbonization efforts.

Mains PYQ: 

Q Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Why in the news? 

In early June, approximately 300 families were relocated from the island of Gardi Sugdub in Panama’s Guna Yala province due to concerns about rising sea levels.

What is happening in Gardi Sugdub?

• Location and Community: Gardi Sugdub, home to about 1,300 members of the Guna community, is an island in Panama’s Guna Yala province.
• Sea Level Rise: The Caribbean region, where Panama is situated, is experiencing sea level rise at an average rate of 3 to 4 millimetres per year. This rate is expected to accelerate to 1 centimetre per year or more by 2100.
• Flooding: Annually, particularly in November and December, seawater floods houses and streets on Gardi Sugdub, despite efforts to fortify the island.
• Relocation: The Panamanian government constructed 300 new houses on the mainland in a development called Nuevo Cartí to relocate affected families.

How are other island nations affected by sea level rise?

• Small island developing states (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable due to their low elevation and reliance on marine resources. SIDS in the Caribbean, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and South China Sea face existential threats from rising sea levels.
• Examples of Impact: Islands such as Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati are experiencing significant land loss and threats to their culture and economies.
• Consequences: Coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater resources, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events due to rising sea levels, storm surges, and ‘king tides.’

How fast is the global sea level rising?

• Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 21–24 centimeters. The rate of increase has accelerated in recent decades.
• Causes: The primary drivers are global warming, thermal expansion of seawater, and the melting of land-based ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.
• Due to the Global Temperature Increase: The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880, contributing to rising sea levels.

Way forward: 

• Strengthen Coastal and Environmental Defenses: Construct seawalls, breakwaters, and other barriers to protect against storm surges and coastal erosion. Restore and preserve natural coastal barriers such as mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands to enhance natural protection.
• Develop and Implement Climate Adaptation Strategies: Create comprehensive climate adaptation plans that include relocation strategies for vulnerable communities.

Mains PYQ: 

Q Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? (UPSC IAS/2022)

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Why in the news?

The Bonn climate meeting failed to define a new climate finance goal, crucial for finalizing a sum exceeding $100 billion annually by the end of 2024.

Search for a New NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal)

• Importance of Climate Finance: Money is essential for climate action, including mitigation, adaptation, and other tasks like collecting and reporting climate data, which require substantial funds, especially in developing countries.
• Existing Commitment: Developed countries had promised to mobilize $100 billion annually from 2020 to help developing countries fight climate change. This target is now being re-evaluated to increase the amount post-2025.

Previous Assessment

• Current Needs: It is widely recognized that developing countries now require trillions of dollars annually. A UNFCCC assessment indicated that these countries need about $6 trillion by 2030 for climate actions, with adaptation needs alone requiring $215 billion to $387 billion annually.
• Energy Transition: The global shift to clean energy requires investments of about $4.3 trillion per year until 2030 and around $5 trillion annually thereafter until 2050 to achieve global net-zero emissions.
• Developing Countries’ Demands: India has proposed that developed countries should provide at least $1 trillion annually after 2025, while Arab and African countries have suggested figures of $1.1 trillion and $1.3 trillion, respectively.

Debate Over Contribution

• Original Responsibility: According to the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, only the 25 countries listed in Annexure 2, along with the European Economic Community, are responsible for providing climate finance to developing countries.
• Shifting Responsibility: These countries argue that other nations, such as China, Gulf countries, and South Korea, are now economically capable and should also contribute. However, countries like China have stated they do not intend to take on additional responsibilities beyond their current efforts.
• Developed Countries’ Stance: While acknowledging that the new target must be higher than the existing $100 billion per year, developed countries have not made any specific offers publicly.

Way forward:

• Clear Definition of Climate Finance: Establish a universally accepted definition of climate finance to prevent discrepancies in reporting and ensure transparency.
• Precise Targets and Timelines: Set clear, incremental targets leading up to the final goal, with defined timelines for achieving these targets. This will provide a roadmap for both developed and developing countries.

Mains PYQ:

Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?  (UPSC IAS/2021)

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Why in the news?

On May 21, severe turbulence over Myanmar caused one death and 70 injuries on a Singapore Airlines flight. Qatar Airways had 12 minor injuries on May 26.

What is Turbulence?

• Turbulence, unpredictable air motion caused by eddies and vertical currents, ranges from minor bumps to severe disruptions, often associated with fronts and thunderstorms.

Flight Turbulence

Types of Flight Turbulence

Note: Attitude is the angular difference measured between an aeroplane’s axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon.

• Light Turbulence: Slight erratic changes in the aircraft’s orientation.
• Moderate Turbulence: Notable changes in altitude and attitude, but the aircraft remains under control.
• Severe Turbulence: Significant and sudden changes of altitude and attitude, momentarily losing control.
• Extreme Turbulence: The aircraft is violently tossed about and is almost impossible to control.

Causes of Flight Turbulence

• Mechanical Turbulence: Caused by friction between the air and the ground, especially over irregular terrain and man-made obstacles. Includes ‘mountain waves’ over mountain ranges.
• Convective/Thermal Turbulence: Resulting from hot air rising rapidly and cooler air descending, creating convective air currents. Often occurs during the approach.
• Frontal Turbulence: Created by the lifting of warm air by a sloping frontal surface and friction between opposing air masses, commonly near thunderstorms.
• Wind Shear: Caused by changes in wind direction and/or speed over specific distances, found in temperature inversion areas, troughs, lows, and around jet streams.
• Clear Air Turbulence (CAT): Occurs at high altitudes outside of clouds, often near jet streams, and is difficult to predict or see.

Impact of Climate Change on Flight Turbulence

• Increased Incidence: Studies indicate a rise in severe turbulence, particularly CAT, with the growth in air traffic and climate change.
• Jet Stream Intensification: Climate change strengthens jet streams, increasing the frequency and severity of turbulence.
• Mountain Wave and Near-Cloud Turbulence: Predictions suggest these types of turbulence will also intensify with climate change, leading to more frequent and severe occurrences globally.

Way forward:

• Safety Measures: Continuous improvement in aircraft design, weather forecasting, and pilot training helps mitigate the risks associated with turbulence.
• Passenger Advice: Passengers are advised to keep their seat belts fastened as much as possible to avoid injuries during unexpected turbulence.
• Regulatory Recommendations: Aviation authorities recommend better communication, real-time information sharing, and enhanced training to prevent turbulence-related incidents.

Mains PYQ:

Q Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the El-Nino effect. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2014)

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Why in the News?

Venezuela has likely become the first country to lose all its glaciers, with its last Humboldt glacier melting faster than anticipated. While scientists projected it to last another decade, its rapid melting exceeded expectations.

Background:

• Venezuela was home to six glaciers about 5,000 meters above sea level in the Andes mountains.
• By 2011, five of them had vanished. Scientists expected the Humboldt glacier to last another decade.

What are glaciers?

• Glaciers are large masses of ice that form on land over long periods through the accumulation and compaction of snow. They flow like slow rivers and typically develop in regions with near-freezing temperatures, significant snowfall, and minimal summer melting.
• According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), they usually exist and form in areas where mean annual temperatures reach near the freezing point; winter precipitation leads to significant snow accumulations; and temperatures throughout the remaining year do not cause the complete loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.

Why are Glaciers disappearing?

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution have released large amounts of GHGs like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
• Heat Trapping: The greenhouse gases act as a blanket, trapping heat in the atmosphere. While they allow sunlight to pass through, they prevent the heat from escaping back into space, leading to a rise in global temperatures.
  • The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to the skyrocketing emissions of GHGs in recent decades.
• Consequences of Temperature Rise: The temperature rise has resulted in devastating consequences such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, floods, droughts, and a rise in sea levels.
• Accelerated Melting: Glaciers, like ice cubes exposed to heat, are melting at accelerated rates due to the warmer temperatures caused by global warming.
• Natural Climate Phenomena: Natural climate phenomena like El Nino can exacerbate glacier melting by causing abnormal warming of surface waters, as observed in the case of the Humboldt glacier in Venezuela.

What are the impacts of Glacier Loss?

• Freshwater Source: Glaciers are crucial sources of freshwater, especially during hot and dry periods, providing water for local communities, plants, and animals. Their disappearance would increase dependence on sporadic rainfall for freshwater supply.
• Temperature Regulation: Glacial runoff helps regulate downstream water temperatures, particularly keeping them cooler. This is essential for many aquatic species that require cold water temperatures to survive, impacting the entire ecosystem.
• Ecosystem Impact: Glacier loss directly affects aquatic species, disrupting the food web and potentially leading to declines in biodiversity.
• Contribution to Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers contribute to rising sea levels, although smaller glaciers like Venezuela’s Humboldt glacier may not substantially impact sea levels.
• Cultural Impact: The loss of glaciers has significant cultural implications, particularly for communities where glaciers are part of their cultural identity. Activities such as mountaineering and tourism, which rely on glaciers, would be affected.
• Tourism and Recreation: Glaciers are often major tourist attractions, drawing visitors for activities like mountaineering and sightseeing. The disappearance of glaciers would impact tourism and recreational activities in affected regions.

Way Forward: 

• International Cooperation: Foster collaboration among countries to tackle climate change on a global scale. Support international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Protect and Preserve Glacier Areas: Establish and enforce conservation measures to protect glacier regions from further degradation. This can involve creating protected areas, implementing zoning regulations, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.

Mains PYQ:

Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)

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Why in the News? 

According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), heatwave conditions are affecting either the smaller regions or the larger geographical areas in India at every 26 days of the month.

What are the Heat Waves?

• The “World Meteorological Organization” defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
• If the maximum temperature of any place continues to be more than 45 Degree Celsius consecutively for two days, it is called a heat wave condition.

Impact of Heatwaves:

• Impact on Resource Availability:
  • Water Resources: It exacerbates water scarcity by drying up of water bodies, reducing water availability for agriculture and domestic use, and increasing competition for resources. This can lead to conflicts over water, affect irrigation practices, and impact water-dependent industries.
  • Energy Resources: It increases electricity demand for cooling purposes, leading to strain on power grids and potential blackouts. This can disrupt economic activities, affect productivity, and impact vulnerable populations.
• Impact on Health:
  • Prolonged exposure to heat can lead to Dehydration and Cardiovascular and Respiratory diseases.
  • Rapid rises in heat gain can compromise the body’s ability to regulate temperature and can result in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia.
  • Health Ministry reported 264 heat-related deaths in the first six months of 2023. NCRB reported 730 heat-related deaths in the same year.

However, data collected and maintained by IMD and NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) showed a sharp decline in heat-related deaths ever since state governments and district administrations began implementing heat action plans.

Mitigation of Heatwaves:

• Need to establish an Early Warning System: The Inter-Agency Coordination needs to alert residents on predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear to individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.
• Increase Public Awareness and Community Outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how to protect against the extreme heat – wave through social media and advertisements. Additionally, the government needs to aware the general public through Television programs the Do’s and Dont’s for heat-related illnesses.

Conclusion: Need to improve collaboration with Non-governmental organizations and Civil society organizations to improve public spaces wherever necessary, improve water delivery systems in public areas, and other innovative measures to tackle heatwave conditions.

Mains PYQ: 

Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)

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Why in the news? 

Today, March 22, 2024, is the 31st World Water Day, with the theme, “Leveraging water for peace”

Context-

• In the context of climate change-related pressures, the world also needs to foster improved cooperation over water-sharing
• The global challenge for securing access to clean water persists for about two billion people and its demand keeps rising. Beyond threatening our basic human needs, this scarcity also risks our collective prosperity and peace.

Water diplomacy in a time of extremities-

• Climate Crisis Impact: Meteorological extremities like heat waves and floods exacerbate concerns about the climate crisis. In India, erratic monsoons affect agriculture, crucial for the $3 trillion economy.
• Need for Improved Cooperation: Amid climate change pressures, fostering cooperation over water-sharing and embracing universal principles of International Water Law is imperative.
• Water Diplomacy: Effective governance of shared waters and sustainable water use are essential for better water diplomacy, promoting peace and stability regionally and internationally.
• Collaborative Governance: Collaborative governance ensures equitable water allocation among nations, fostering regional stability and peace.
• Inclusive Approaches: Water diplomacy should include indigenous and local communities’ cross-border networks and involve civil society and academic networks to prevent, mitigate, and resolve water-related disputes.
• Water Quality Data Shortage: There’s a general shortage of water quality data globally, with a significant urban-rural divide, highlighting the need for better access to basic drinking water services, particularly in rural areas.

Addressing rural India’s needs-

70% of India’s rural population relies on water for household activities, with agriculture being the primary livelihood source. Globally, agriculture accounts for 70% of freshwater use.

• Water Accessibility: Improved water accessibility in rural areas can lead to positive outcomes in health, education, employment, and basic human needs and dignity.
• Water Investments: Increased water investments in rural areas can yield positive outcomes across various sectors, benefiting communities in multiple ways.
• AI Technology in Agriculture: The efficient use of emerging artificial intelligence (AI) technology in agriculture can aid in water conservation efforts. AI can help tackle crop and food loss, minimize chemical and fertilizer usage, and optimize water usage for sustainable and productive outputs.

The issue of transboundary waters

• Water Pollution: Transboundary rivers like the Meghna, Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Indus are experiencing worsening water pollution, posing significant environmental and health risks to communities relying on these water sources.
• Lack of Governance: There is a need for sophisticated cross-border water governance to address issues related to equitable water allocation, pollution control, and sustainable management of shared water resources among neighboring countries.
• Cooperation Challenges: Despite the importance of transboundary water cooperation, many countries face challenges in reaching agreements and implementing effective mechanisms for managing shared water resources. Disputes over water usage, infrastructure development, and environmental impacts hinder cooperation efforts.
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Transboundary water management is crucial for achieving the SDGs, particularly Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). However, inadequate cooperation and governance frameworks pose obstacles to fulfilling SDG targets related to water security, environmental sustainability, and poverty alleviation.
• Peace and Security: Scarcity of freshwater in transboundary river basins can exacerbate tensions and conflicts among riparian states. Effective management and cooperation on shared water resources are essential for promoting regional stability and preventing water-related conflicts.
• Ecosystem Services: Transboundary rivers support diverse ecosystems and provide essential ecosystem services such as water purification, habitat for biodiversity, and regulation of water flow. Pollution and overexploitation of these waters threaten the integrity of ecosystems and the services they provide.
• Climate Change Impacts: Climate change exacerbates challenges related to transboundary water management by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and affecting water availability and quality. Adaptation and resilience-building measures are needed to address climate-related risks in transboundary river basins.

Suggestive Measures to Resolve Transboundary Water Issues:

• Strengthen Governance Structures: Establish comprehensive cross-border water governance frameworks, including bilateral or multilateral agreements, to facilitate equitable water allocation, pollution control, and sustainable management of shared water resources.
• Enhance Cooperation Mechanisms: Foster dialogue and collaboration among riparian states through platforms such as joint commissions, river basin organizations, and diplomatic negotiations to address disputes and promote mutual understanding of water management challenges.
• Implement Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): Adopt IWRM approaches that consider social, economic, and environmental factors to promote sustainable development and ensure the efficient use of transboundary water resources while minimizing negative impacts on ecosystems and communities.
• Enhance Monitoring and Data Sharing: Improve monitoring systems and data-sharing mechanisms to assess water quality, quantity, and usage trends in transboundary river basins. Enhanced transparency and information exchange can facilitate informed decision-making and cooperation among riparian states.
• Promote Community Engagement: Involve local communities, indigenous groups, and civil society organizations in decision-making processes related to transboundary water management. Empowering stakeholders at the grassroots level can enhance accountability, foster cooperation, and promote sustainable practices.
• Strengthen Legal Frameworks: Develop and enforce robust legal frameworks at national and international levels to regulate transboundary water resources effectively. Clear and enforceable laws can provide a basis for resolving disputes and ensuring compliance with agreed-upon water management principles.
• Build Climate Resilience: Implement adaptation measures to address climate change impacts on transboundary water resources, such as enhancing water storage infrastructure, promoting water-efficient technologies, and integrating climate resilience into water management strategies.

Conclusion-

Navigating the global waterscape’s challenges requires robust governance, enhanced cooperation, and sustainable practices. By addressing transboundary water issues collectively, we can promote peace, ensure water security, and achieve sustainable development goals.

Mains PYQ-

Q- The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. (UPSC IAS/2020)

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