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space startups from Japan and India announced a joint agreement to explore the use of laser-equipped satellites for removing debris from orbit, addressing the growing issue of orbital congestion.

What are the concerns related to space debris?

• Collision Risks: The increasing amount of space debris raises the likelihood of collisions with active satellites and spacecraft, which can lead to further debris generation in a cascading effect known as the Kessler Syndrome.
• Operational Challenges: Space debris complicates satellite operations and can disrupt services such as telecommunications, weather forecasting, and global positioning systems.
• Environmental Impact: The accumulation of debris in low Earth orbit (LEO) threatens the sustainability of space activities and could hinder future space exploration efforts.

What are the initiatives to tackle space debris globally?

• International Collaboration: Organizations like the United Nations have called for urgent action to track and manage space debris, emphasizing the need for global cooperation.
• Technological Innovations: Companies like Orbital Lasers are exploring innovative solutions such as using laser-equipped satellites to de-orbit defunct satellites and mitigate debris by vaporizing parts of their surfaces.
• Regulatory Frameworks: Various countries are developing regulations to ensure responsible satellite launches and operations, including guidelines for end-of-life satellite disposal to minimize future debris creation.

What are the measures should be taken by Satellite? (Way forward)

• Tracking and Monitoring: Satellites use onboard systems and ground-based tracking data to monitor the position of space debris and predict potential collision risks.
• Avoidance Maneuvers: Satellites perform preemptive orbital adjustments or “collision avoidance manoeuvres” to shift their trajectory away from debris.
• Shielding and Resilience: Some satellites are equipped with protective shielding to withstand minor debris impacts, minimizing potential damage in low-risk scenarios.

Mains PYQ:

Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC IAS/2019)

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The European Union has signed a contract for IRIS², a network of 290 satellites aimed at improving resilience, connectivity, and security.

About IRIS²:

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The 14th Asia-Oceania Meteorological Satellite Users’ Conference (AOMSUC-14) will take place from December 4-6, 2024, in New Delhi.

About AOMSUC:

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The world’s first wood-panelled satellite, LignoSat, was recently launched to test the use of timber as a renewable material for future space missions.

About LignoSat Satellite:

LignoSat as a Renewable Solution for Space Construction

• Reduced Environmental Impact: Unlike conventional aluminium-based satellites, LignoSat reduces pollutants like aluminium oxides that damage the ozone layer upon re-entry.
• Sustainable Material: Wood is a renewable, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant material in space, as there is no water or oxygen to accelerate degradation.
• Long-Term Vision: The satellite could pave the way for sustainable space construction, with future plans to use wood in building structures on the Moon and Mars.
• Mitigating Orbital Congestion: As satellite constellations grow, sustainable materials like wood could help reduce space debris and pollution in Earth’s orbit.

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Recent research has revealed a surprising finding about Betelgeuse (which was believed to explode): the star’s unusual brightening and dimming patterns may be influenced by an unseen companion star.

Indicators and Scientific Evidence

• Betelgeuse’s cyclic dimming and brightening patterns indicate it is nearing the end of its life.
• Its massive size and expansion as a red supergiant suggest it is in a late stellar stage.
• Cooling surface temperature and mass loss through stellar winds signal increasing instability.
• Spectral analysis shows heavy elements in Betelgeuse’s layers, typical of late-stage fusion.
• An unseen companion star, or “Betelbuddy,” may be influencing its brightness and internal structure.

Potential Effects of Betelgeuse’s Supernova on Earth and Our Solar System

• Betelgeuse’s supernova will likely be visible in daylight for weeks and brighter than the Moon at night.
• At 650 light-years away, dangerous radiation would dissipate before reaching Earth, posing no harm.
• Space missions and satellites may experience minor interference from increased cosmic rays.
• The explosion will enrich the interstellar medium with heavy elements, contributing to new star formation.
• The supernova will provide valuable scientific insights into stellar life cycles and cosmic element formation.

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• Scientists long believed that volcanic activity on the moon ceased about a billion years ago.
  • However, a study based on China’s Chang’e-5 mission samples has questioned this belief with evidence suggesting the moon had active volcanoes as recently as 120 million years ago.

What are the Beads on the Moon?

• Lunar glass beads are small, spherical or egg-shaped glass particles found on the moon’s surface.
• These beads are formed in two main ways:

• • Volcanic Activity: During volcanic eruptions, molten lava fragments are thrown into the air, where they cool rapidly and form glass beads.
  • Impact Events: When asteroids or meteorites hit the moon’s surface, the intense pressure and heat melt the surface material. The molten material cools quickly, forming glass beads as it lands back on the surface.

• These beads are important because they:

• • Provide clues about the moon’s geological history.
  • Help scientists determine the age of volcanic eruptions.
  • Offer insights into the formation of the moon’s surface and its volcanic and impact events.

Key characteristics of Lunar Glass Beads

• Composition: These beads are primarily made of silicon, magnesium, and iron, with trace amounts of other elements such as potassium, titanium, and uranium.
• Volcanic vs. Impact Beads: Volcanic glass beads tend to be more uniform, while impact beads may show fractures or deformations caused by high-energy impacts. Volcanic beads often contain more volatile elements like sulphur, which are released during eruptions.

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Starlink satellites, operated by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, are causing issues for astronomers by disrupting both optical and radio astronomy due to unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR).

What is a Starlink Satellite?

• Starlink satellites are part of a network created by Elon Musk’s SpaceX to provide high-speed internet to remote areas around the world.
• The network, known as a satellite constellation, currently includes more than 6,300 satellites orbiting Earth at around 550 km altitude.
• These satellites aim to offer internet connectivity to places that would otherwise lack access, especially in rural or underserved regions.

What Starlink does to Space Communications?

• Starlink satellites are designed to improve global internet access, especially in hard-to-reach places, by transmitting signals from space.
• However, these satellites also emit unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR), which causes radio noise that disrupts radio astronomy observations.
• The situation may worsen as more satellites are launched — some estimates suggest 100,000 satellites could be orbiting Earth by 2030.
• There are currently no regulations controlling how much radio pollution these satellites can emit, making it harder for astronomers to mitigate the impact on their work.

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The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), the world’s largest radio telescope, has carried out its first observations, marking a major milestone.

About Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project:

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Two NASA astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner will remain on the International Space Station (ISS) for an extended period due to issues with a faulty propulsion system, including helium leaks.

About Helium

• Helium is inert, meaning it does not react or combust when exposed to other substances.
• This makes it ideal for pressurization and cooling systems in rockets and spacecraft.
• With an atomic number of 2, Helium is second lightest element after hydrogen, helping to keep the rocket’s weight low, which is crucial for achieving the necessary speeds and altitudes to reach orbit.
• It has an extremely low boiling point (-268.9°C), allowing it to stay in a gaseous state in super-cold environments, where many rocket fuels are stored.
• Though non-toxic, helium cannot be inhaled on its own as it displaces oxygen, which is vital for human respiration.

How is Helium used for space applications?

• Fuel Tank Pressurization: Helium pressurizes fuel tanks, ensuring a consistent flow of fuel to the rocket’s engines, even as the fuel is burned.
• Cooling Systems: It also plays a key role in cooling systems, particularly in environments where rocket fuel and oxidizer need to be stored at extremely low temperatures.
• Maintaining Tank Pressure: As fuel and oxidizer are consumed, helium fills the empty space left behind, ensuring the overall pressure inside the tanks remains stable.

Is Helium prone to leaks?

• Helium’s small atomic size and low molecular weight make it prone to leaking through tiny gaps or seals in storage tanks and fuel systems.
• Since helium is rare in Earth’s atmosphere, even minor leaks are easily detectable, making it a valuable tool for spotting potential faults in spacecraft fuel systems.

• Examples of Leaks:

• • In May, hours before Boeing’s Starliner spacecraft attempted its first astronaut launch, sensors detected a small helium leak in one of its thrusters.
  • After Starliner launched in June, additional leaks were found in space, prompting NASA to return the spacecraft to Earth without its crew.

Alternatives to Helium

• Argon and Nitrogen: Some rocket launches have experimented with other inert gases like argon and nitrogen, which are sometimes cheaper, but helium remains the industry standard.
• Ariane 6’s Novel System: Europe’s new Ariane 6 rocket abandoned helium in favor of a pressurization system that converts small amounts of its liquid oxygen and hydrogen into gas for pressurizing the fuel.
  • However, during Ariane 6’s debut launch, this system failed in space, adding to the global rocket industry’s pressurization challenges.

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• Planetary protection is a crucial principle in space missions that travel from Earth to other planetary bodies, such as the Moon or Mars.
  • The goal is to preserve both Earth’s biosphere and the planetary body’s environment from contamination by alien microbial life.

About Planetary Protection:

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Polaris Dawn is set to be the first privately-funded mission to conduct a spacewalk, aiming to reach an altitude of about 700 kilometers above Earth, the highest altitude for a human space mission to date.

What is Polaris Dawn Mission?

• Polaris Dawn is a privately-funded space mission led by billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman, in collaboration with SpaceX.
• It is set to be the first non-government mission to conduct a spacewalk.
• This 700km altitude will surpass the current record held by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966.
• The mission will test new spacesuits designed by SpaceX to protect astronauts from high radiation levels encountered in the Van Allen Belts.

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European scientists are preparing to execute a first-of-its-kind ‘Double Slingshot’ orbital maneuver to guide the JUICE probe towards Jupiter using a double slingshot technique.

About JUICE Mission:

What is the Double Slingshot Maneuver?

• The JUICE probe will first use the moon’s gravity to set itself on the correct trajectory towards Earth.
• Immediately after, it will use Earth’s gravity to slow down and redirect towards Venus and, eventually, Jupiter.

Significance of the Gravity Assist

• This technique, used for decades in space exploration, involves using a planet or moon’s gravity to alter the speed or direction of a spacecraft.
• It is unique as it involves back-to-back gravity assists using both the moon and Earth’s gravity, which has never been attempted before.

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• US space agency NASA’s Cassini-Huygens spacecraft launched in October 1997.
  • Using Cassini’s radar data, scientists from Cornell University have discovered new information about the liquid ocean on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.

About Cassini-Huygens Mission

• The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn and its moons.
• The spacecraft was named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christian Huygens.
• The mission consisted of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe.
• It was launched on October 15, 1997.
• It ended its mission on September 15, 2017 by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.

Key Achievements:

• Saturn Exploration:
  • Detailed study of Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, and magnetosphere.
  • Discovered new rings and observed the complex structure of the existing ones.
• Moons of Saturn:
  • Titan Exploration: Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, on January 14, 2005, providing the first direct exploration of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.
  • Enceladus Discoveries: Found water-ice plumes erupting from Enceladus, indicating a subsurface ocean that could potentially harbor life.

• Other Moons: Provided detailed images and data on other moons like Lapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys.

• Technological Milestones:
  • Demonstrated the success of long-duration missions in deep space.
  • Advanced the understanding of spacecraft navigation and operation in complex planetary environments.

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Recently, astronomers have made progress in finding possible candidates as Dyson Sphere, sparking new excitement and debate about extraterrestrial life.

What is a Dyson Sphere? 

• Imagine you are an astronomer looking for extraterrestrial life and you find a star covered by solar panels. This structure, collecting massive amounts of solar energy, is known as a Dyson sphere.
• The concept is named after Freeman Dyson, a theoretical physicist who lived from 1923 to 2020.
• Dyson proposed that advanced civilizations would need to harness a star’s energy, constructing a spherical array of solar collectors around it.
• He suggested that the heat emitted as infrared radiation could indicate the presence of these massive structures and thus intelligent life.

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• Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon, near the site of the first lunar landing 55 years ago.
• This discovery could provide astronauts with a potential habitat on the Moon in the future.

About the Cave on Mare Tranquillitatis

• A study titled “Radar evidence of an accessible cave conduit on the Moon below the Mare Tranquillitatis pit” was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
• The study established the presence of a moon cave at the Sea of Tranquillity, a large, dark, basaltic plain on the Moon’s surface.
• The cave is located 400 kilometers from where astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed in 1969.
• It is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 meters long, with an area equivalent to 14 tennis courts.

Research Method

• Researchers analyzed photos taken in 2010 by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft.
• They concluded that the pit was the entry point to a cave created by the collapse of a lava tube, a tunnel formed when molten lava flows beneath a field of cooled lava.

Characteristics of Lunar Caves

• Craters are bowl-shaped and result from asteroid or comet strikes.
• Pits, in contrast, appear as massive steep-walled depressions.
• At least 200 such pits have been discovered, with 16 believed to have formed from collapsed lava tubes due to volcanic activity over a billion years ago.

Benefits for Human Exploration

• The Moon is exposed to solar radiation 150 times stronger than Earth.
• The lunar surface heats to about 127 degrees Celsius during the day and cools to around -173 degrees Celsius at night.
• Caves, however, maintain stable average temperatures of around 17 degrees Celsius.
• They could shield human explorers from radiation and micrometeorites, making them viable for future lunar bases or emergency shelters.

Challenges and Further Research

• The depth of such caves could present challenges for accessibility.
• There are risks of potential avalanches and cave-ins.

Need for Further Research

• Further research is needed to understand and map the structural stability of the caves.
• This could be done using ground-penetrating radar, robots, or cameras.
• To become viable habitats, caves would need systems to monitor movement or seismic activity and safety zones for astronauts in case of a cave collapse.

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A new study has revealed more spiral galaxies in the universe’s youth than astronomers had previously expected.

Universe’s Age and Galaxy Types

• The universe is about 13.8 billion years old and hosts various kinds of galaxies, from spiral to elliptical.
• Astronomers believed spiral galaxies formed about 6 billion years ago, but the new study calls this into question.
• Younger galaxies tend to spiral, while older ones have a variety of shapes, making the study of older galaxies more challenging due to fainter light.

Formation of Galaxies

• As the universe cooled from a dense plasma state, hot gas formed clumps that became galaxies.
• These early galaxies had irregular shapes and lacked disks.
• Spiral Formation Theory:
  • The traditional theory suggested that it took billions of years for hot, thick disks to become thinner and form spiral arms.
  • The new study suggests that cooling and spiral formation occur around the same cosmic time.

How is this verified?

• Astronomers observe star formation in real time but study galaxy evolution through “astronomical archaeology.”

• • Understanding the fraction of spiral galaxies helps astronomers trace the biography of galaxies.
  • Infrared and optical wavelengths are used to detect early galaxies, requiring powerful telescopes due to the faint light of older galaxies.

• James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) launched in 2021 has enabled astronomers to study deeper into the universe’s past.

• Study Methodology:

• • The University of Missouri team used the JWST to study 873 galaxies and identified at least 216 spiral galaxies, some dating to 1.5 billion years after the universe’s birth.
  • Each of the six authors classified the images as spiral or non-spiral, ensuring the result is free of human bias.

Findings and Implications

• The fraction of spiral galaxies increased from about 8% to 48% between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, higher than previously observed.
• The study challenges existing models and suggests that galaxy formation theories need to be more complex.

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• On June 25, Chang’e-6 became the world’s first spacecraft to bring back samples from the far side of the Moon.
  • Chang’e-6 successfully returned with samples from the lunar far side, making China the first country to achieve this feat.

Components of Chang’e-6 

1. Lander: Equipped with drills and scoops for sample collection.
2. Ascender: Transported samples from the lunar surface to lunar orbit.
3. Orbiter: Carried the samples from lunar orbit back to Earth.
4. Returner: Brought the samples safely back to Earth.

Collaboration and Payloads

The mission carried instruments from international partners, including:

• French DORN: Studied lunar dust and volatiles.
• Italian INRRI: Measured distances using a retroreflector.
• Swedish NILS: Detected negative ions on the lunar surface.
• Pakistani ICUBE-Q CubeSat: Imaged the lunar surface and obtained magnetic field data.

Scientific Goals  

• Sample Analysis: Scientists aim to learn more about the Moon’s internal structure and the differences between its near and far sides.

China’s Lunar Exploration Program

• Chang’e-6 follows previous missions under China’s Lunar Exploration Program, marking the next step in incremental technological advancements.
• Phases of Exploration: The program has four phases:

1. First Phase: Reaching lunar orbit, completed by Chang’e 1 (2007) and Chang’e 2 (2010).
2. Second Phase: Landing and roving, achieved by Chang’e 3 (2013) and Chang’e 4 (2019).
3. Third Phase: Sample collection and return, accomplished by Chang’e 5 (2020) and Chang’e 6 (2024).
4. Fourth Phase: Developing a robotic research station near the Moon’s South Pole, aiming for crewed lunar landings in the 2030s.

Previous Lunar Sample Missions

• Apollo 11 Mission (1969): The US mission brought 22 kg of lunar material, including 50 rocks.
• Luna 16 Mission (1970): Soviet robotic mission brought lunar samples to Earth.
• Chang’e-5 Mission (2020): Predecessor to Chang’e-6, returned 2 kg of lunar soil from the near side.

Significance of Sample Return Missions

• Laboratory Analysis: Allows the use of sophisticated instruments to study the chemical, isotopic, mineralogical, structural, and physical properties of samples.
• Long-term Preservation: Samples can be preserved and re-examined by future generations with advanced technology.
• Technological Feat: Recovering samples from the far side is a significant technological achievement.
• Step Towards Human Exploration: Success of Chang’e-6 is seen as a step towards China’s goal of landing astronauts on the Moon by 2030.
• Launch Pad for Deep Space: The Moon could serve as a base for future deep space missions and extraterrestrial exploration.

Outcome: New Lunar Race

• Global Participation: India, China, Japan, the US, and Russia launched lunar missions in 2023.
• Future Missions: Over 100 Moon missions by governments and private companies are expected by 2030.
• Long-term Goals: Unlike the 20th-century space race, today’s missions aim to establish a long-term presence and use lunar resources.

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The Space Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) satellite jointly developed by China and France was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center.

Importance of Studying Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs)

• GRBs are highly energetic bursts of gamma rays, lasting from less than a second to several minutes, occurring in distant parts of the universe.GRBs can erupt with a luminosity a quintillion times that of the Sun.
• Types of GRBs:

1. Short GRBs: Result from collisions of neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole, lasting less than two seconds, often followed by kilonovas.
2. Long GRBs: Result from the explosive deaths of massive stars, lasting two seconds or longer.

Mission and Objectives of SVOM

• Primary Objective: To search for and study GRBs across the universe.
• Data Collection: Measure and analyze electromagnetic radiation properties of GRBs.
• Scientific Goals: Unlock mysteries about the universe’s evolution and gravitational waves, which are often associated with neutron star collisions.
• Real-time Detection: Transmit GRB data to ground control within about one minute, enabling coordinated observations with ground-based stations globally.

Features and Capabilities of SVOM

• Satellite Specifications: Weighs 930 kg and is equipped with four payloads, two developed by France and two by China.
• French Contributions: ECLAIRs and MXT telescopes to detect and capture GRBs.
• Chinese Contributions:

1. Gamma Ray Burst Monitor (GRM): Measures the spectrum of GRBs.
2. Visible Telescope (VT): Detects and observes visible emissions immediately after a GRB.

• Orbit Details: Placed in a low Earth orbit at an altitude of 625 km, with an orbital period of 96 minutes.

Significance of SVOM’s Findings

• Early Universe Insights: Aim to detect the earliest GRBs, providing information on the universe’s early stages and evolution.
• Kilonova Detection: Capability to search for kilonovas, enhancing understanding of stellar evolution and the origin of heavy elements like gold and silver in the universe.

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On June 16, 1963, Valentina Tereshkova made history as the first woman to venture into space. Her achievement marked a significant milestone in the Space Race between the USA and the USSR during the Cold War.

The Mission – Vostok 6

• On June 16, 1963, Tereshkova piloted Vostok 6, becoming the first woman to orbit the Earth.
• She spent 71 hours in space, completing 48 orbits around the Earth during her mission.

Impact and Legacy

• Tereshkova’s mission boosted Soviet prestige in the Space Race, following earlier successes like launching Sputnik-1 in 1957 and Yuri Gagarin’s historic flight in 1961.
• Despite her pioneering role, the USA would later achieve milestones like the Apollo moon landings, surpassing Soviet achievements in manned space missions.
• Tereshkova continued to advocate for women’s participation in space exploration and held prominent positions in Soviet politics and the Air Force.

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• SpaceX’s Starship rocket completed its first fully successful test flight. This test flight brings SpaceX closer to its goal of creating a fully reusable rocket system, a development that could revolutionize space exploration and travel.

Cost Reduction and Efficiency with Starship

• Starship can carry up to 150 tonnes of payload to low-Earth orbit.
• It can be refuelled in space, thereby promising a significant reduction in the cost of space travel.
• In-orbit refuelling allows Starship to operate like an aeroplane, reducing downtime between missions and maximizing efficiency.
• Starship’s fully reusable design minimizes the need for costly hardware replacement, unlike traditional rocket systems.

Scientific Benefits of Starship

• Enhanced Payload Capability: Starship’s capacity for heavy payloads enables the launch of larger space telescopes and equipment for lunar and Martian missions.
• Exploration Potential: Scientists can deploy larger and more sophisticated instruments, such as drilling rigs, to explore the Moon and Mars in unprecedented detail.
• Sample Return Missions: Starship’s capability to return to Earth facilitates the retrieval of valuable samples from other planets, aiding in scientific research and understanding.

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• NASA predicts the dim star T Coronae Borealis will become visible to the naked eye by September 2024, reaching brightness comparable to Polaris.
  • A dim star known as the “Blaze Star,” officially designated as T Coronae Borealis (T CrB), located 3,000 light-years from our solar system, is set to become visible to the naked eye for the first time since 1946.

Understanding the Blaze Star Phenomenon

• The Blaze Star is a rare recurrent nova, a binary star system comprising a cool, red giant star and a smaller, hotter white dwarf star in orbit around each other.
• Every 80 years, the red giant transfers matter onto the white dwarf, triggering explosive phenomena.
• Historical observations suggest the Blaze Star is on the brink of another explosion, following similar brightness patterns observed before previous eruptions in 1866 and 1946.
  • Precursor Signs: The star has been steadily brightening since 2015, followed by a visible dimming in March 2023, mirroring past eruption precursors.

Implications for Observation

• Peak Visibility: During its brightness peak, the Blaze Star is expected to be visible to the naked eye for several days, extending to just over a week with stargazing binoculars or a small telescope.
• Astronomical Insights: The impending eruption offers a unique opportunity for astronomers to observe and study this celestial event, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution and dynamics.

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The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched by NASA, has unveiled a groundbreaking find It has captured imagery of the universe’s earliest-known galaxy, revealing unexpected brightness and size given its formation during the universe’s infancy.

About JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy 

• Named JADES-GS-z14-0, this galaxy was formed approximately 290 million years after the Big Bang.
• Spanning about 1,700 light-years across, it consists of a mass equivalent to 500 million stars akin to our Sun.
• Despite its ancient age, the galaxy is actively generating stars at a rapid pace, producing around 20 new stars annually.

Scientific Insights:

• Historical Context: Previously, the earliest-known galaxy was dated to approximately 320 million years post-Big Bang, indicating the significance of this new discovery.
• Luminosity Theories: While hypotheses suggest various explanations for the galaxy’s luminosity, including supermassive black holes or unusually bright stars, further research is required to validate these theories.

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NASA launched the ” PREFIRE mission”, deploying twin CubeSats to study heat emissions in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, aiming to enhance climate research.

About PREFIRE Mission

• Jointly developed by NASA and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 
• It aims to investigate and comprehend the intricate dynamics of heat emissions from Earth’s Polar Regions, specifically focusing on the Arctic and Antarctica.

Components:

• CubeSats: PREFIRE employs shoebox-sized CubeSats, each measuring around 6U (6 units), equipped with advanced instrumentation to facilitate data collection.
  • They measure around 90 cm in height and nearly 120 cm in width when the solar panels, which will power the satellite, are deployed.
  • The two satellites will be placed in a near-polar orbit (a type of low Earth orbit) at an altitude of about 525 kilometres.
• Thermal Infrared Spectrometers (TIRS): Each CubeSat is outfitted with a Thermal Infrared Spectrometer, meticulously engineered to measure far-infrared radiation emitted by the Polar Regions.

Mission Objectives:

1. Investigate heat radiated from Earth’s Polar Regions into space and its impact on climate.
2. Employ thermal infrared spectrometers to measure far-infrared energy emitted by Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
3. Improve understanding of the greenhouse effect at the poles and its implications for climate change.
4. Enhance climate and ice models to predict changes in sea level, weather, snow, and ice cover in a warming world.

Significance of PREFIRE

• PREFIRE’s observations will enhance predictions of climate and environmental changes, aiding in mitigating the effects of global warming.
• Data collected will contribute to updating climate models and improving understanding of Earth’s atmospheric dynamics.

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• The Zero Debris Charter was signed by twelve nations and the European Space Agency (ESA) at the ESA/EU Space Council.

Zero Debris Charter

• • The Zero Debris Charter was unveiled at the ESA Space Summit in Seville, Spain, in November 2023.
  • The Charter was facilitated by ESA’s “Protection of Space Assets” Accelerator and developed through extensive collaboration among various space actors.

• Objectives:

• To achieve debris neutrality in space by 2030.
• Long-term sustainability of human activities in Earth orbit.

• Members:

• • The signatory countries are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
  • The ESA signed as an International Organization.

Community Support and Leadership

• Over 100 organizations are expected to sign the Charter in the coming months.
• This includes national space agencies, satellite manufacturers, space startups, and astronomical societies.

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NASA has launched its Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) spacecraft that uses sunlight for propulsion from New Zealand into space.

About Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) Project

• The spacecraft is slated to orbit 1,000 kilometers above Earth, deploying an 80-square-meter solar sail approximately 25 minutes after liftoff.
• It harnesses sunlight as a renewable propulsion source, marking a novel advancement in space exploration.
• It uses a compact CubeSat, similar in size to an oven, which facilitates propulsion by capturing solar particle energy.
• Operational Phases:
• The initial flight phase spans two months and involves subsystems checkout and solar sail deployment.
• A series of pointing maneuvers will showcase orbit raising and lowering, validating the effectiveness of sunlight pressure on the sail.

The Technology Behind: Solar Sailing

• Solar sails typically consist of lightweight, reflective materials such as Mylar or aluminized Kapton, which are deployed in space to capture sunlight.
• The sail is often configured as a large, thin membrane with a large surface area to maximize the amount of sunlight it can intercept.
• When sunlight reflects off a shiny solar sail, some of its momentum is transferred, giving the sail a small push.

Solar sailing offers several advantages over traditional propulsion methods, including:

1. Efficiency: Solar sailing does not require onboard fuel, making it a highly efficient and sustainable propulsion method for long-duration missions.
2. Continuous thrust: Unlike chemical rockets, which provide brief bursts of acceleration, solar sails can provide continuous thrust as long as they are exposed to sunlight.
3. Maneuverability: Solar sails can change their trajectory by adjusting the orientation of the sail relative to the direction of incoming sunlight. This allows for precise navigation and maneuvering in space.
4. Interstellar travel: Solar sailing has the potential to enable interstellar missions by gradually accelerating spacecraft to very high velocities over time, allowing them to explore distant star systems.

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Why in the news?

• The White House directed NASA to establish a time standard for the Moon, named Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC) by the end of 2026.
• This move aims to facilitate coordination among international bodies and private companies operating on the lunar surface.

Timekeeping on the Moon

• The Moon has its own day and night cycle, which lasts about 29.5 Earth days.
• Currently, the time on the Moon is measured using Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is the same timekeeping system used on the Earth.
• However, because the Moon’s day is much longer than Earth’s day, it would be difficult to use UTC for day-to-day activities on the Moon.

Need for a Lunar Time Standard

1. Earth’s Time Standard:

• Earth’s time standard is primarily based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), set by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France.
• UTC is determined by a weighted average of over 400 atomic clocks worldwide, providing a universally agreed-upon standard for time measurement.

2. Challenges with Earth’s Time Standard on the Moon:

• Time on the Moon differs from Earth due to factors like gravity and the Moon’s rotation.
• Time on the Moon ticks slightly faster due to lower gravity (about 56 microseconds every day) as per Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.

Establishing a Lunar Time Standard:

1. Technical Considerations:

• LTC cannot be based on UTC due to the time differences between Earth and the Moon.
• Current lunar missions operate on independent timescales linked to UTC, but this approach becomes challenging with multiple space crafts on the Moon.

2. Deployment of Atomic Clocks:

• Like on Earth, atomic clocks can be deployed on the lunar surface to establish a time standard.
• A 2023 report suggests placing at least three atomic clocks on the Moon’s surface, accounting for variations in lunar rotation and local gravity.

3. Synthesizing Time Measurements:

• Atomic clocks placed at different lunar locations will tick at the Moon’s natural pace.
• Output from these clocks will be combined using algorithms to generate a unified time standard for the Moon, tied back to UTC for Earth operations.

Benefits offered by Lunar Time

• Having a lunar time zone would also make it easier for scientists and researchers to conduct experiments and collect data on the Moon.
• It would also help to prevent confusion and errors that could arise from using different timekeeping systems on Earth and the Moon.

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Why in the news?

A Czech citizen has spotted a comet in an image from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft, which has now been confirmed to be the 5,000th comet discovered using SOHO data.

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)

• The SOHO is a spacecraft jointly operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA.
• Launched in December 1995, its primary mission is to study the Sun, particularly its outer atmosphere, known as the corona, and the solar wind.
• SOHO observes the Sun in various wavelengths of light, enabling scientists to study phenomena such as sunspots, solar flares, and coronal mass ejections.
• SOHO orbits the Sun at Lagrange Point L1, about 1.5 million kilometers (nearly 1 million miles) from Earth, providing an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
• Its observations have led to discoveries such as-

1. Identifying the source regions of solar wind,
2. Tracking solar eruptions, and
3. Monitoring changes in the Sun’s activity over its 11-year solar cycle.

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In the news

• Recently, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) shared mesmerizing images of Cavum clouds, also known as “hole-punch clouds” or “fallstreak holes,” as observed from space.

What are Cavum Clouds?

• Formation Process: Cavum clouds are formed when airplanes traverse through layers of altocumulus clouds, which are mid-level clouds containing supercooled water droplets (water below freezing temperature but still in liquid form).
• Adiabatic Expansion: As the aircraft moves through, a phenomenon called adiabatic expansion can occur, causing the water droplets to freeze into ice crystals.
• Creation of Holes: These ice crystals eventually become too heavy and fall out of the cloud layer, resulting in the formation of a hole in the clouds.
• Steep Angle Formation: Cavum clouds are typically formed when planes pass through at a relatively steep angle.

About Altocumulus Clouds

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Introduction

• The formation of planets within protostellar discs, swirling reservoirs of gas and dust, remains a captivating field in astrophysics.
• Recent advancements in computer simulations have unveiled the unexpected flattened shapes of nascent gas planets within these discs, providing critical understanding of planetary genesis.

What are Circumstellar Discs?

• Protoplanetary Discs: These discs, comprised of dust, gas, and other celestial objects, orbit newly formed stars and serve as the birthplace of planets.
• Composition and Evolution: Initially predominantly gas, protoplanetary discs evolve, hosting various materials including asteroids, comets, and planets.
• Findings: Hubble Space Telescope offers detailed views of these regions, aiding astronomers in studying planet formation dynamics.

Distinctive Shape of Protoplanets

• Unique Structure: Protoplanets exhibit oblate spheroid shapes, highly flattened, resembling discs with up to 90% flattening.
• Growth Dynamics: Gas accumulation primarily occurs through poles rather than equators, impacting observed properties and interpretation of observations.

Formation Mechanisms

• Core Accretion vs. Disc Instability: These two prominent theories offer models for planet formation, emphasizing diverse mechanisms contributing to planetary systems’ complexity.
• Role of Disc Instability: This mechanism, explaining rapid gas giant formation, aligns with observations of certain exoplanetary systems, highlighting the interplay of formation processes.

Challenges in Observation

• Limited Detection: Observing nascent protoplanets within these discs poses challenges, with only a few detected to date, such as within the PDS 70 system.
• Temporal Constraints: The short duration of planetary formation phases necessitates precise timing for observational opportunities.

Insights from Simulations

• Computational Studies: High-resolution simulations elucidate thermal conditions influencing gas protoplanet properties within the discs, offering invaluable insights into their formation.
• Resolution and Analysis: These simulations, computationally demanding, trace protoplanet evolution from condensation to provide a deeper understanding.

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Introduction

• Astronomers have triumphantly uncovered a rare class of stars, known as helium stars, after a decade-long quest.
• Led by Dr. Maria Drout from the University of Toronto, astronomers embarked on a collaborative mission to decipher the mysteries of these elusive cosmic entities

Helium Stars: An Overview

• Helium stars, also known as helium-burning stars, are a stage in the evolution of certain types of stars.
• These stars are typically more massive than the Sun and have exhausted the hydrogen fuel in their cores, leading to a contraction and subsequent heating of the core.
• As a result, helium fusion begins in the core, where helium nuclei fuse to form heavier elements such as carbon and oxygen.
• This fusion process releases energy, causing the star to expand and become more luminous.
• Helium stars represent an intermediate stage in stellar evolution between main-sequence stars and later stages such as red giants or supernovae.

Key Findings and Insights

• Spectral Analysis: Rigorous spectral analysis conducted from 2017 to 2024 unveiled distinct classes of helium stars based on hydrogen content, providing profound insights into their evolutionary trajectories.
• Computational Modeling: Advanced computational modelling techniques yielded crucial data on surface temperatures and gravitational forces, enriching our understanding of helium stars’ properties.
• Surface Conditions of Class 1 Stars: Further investigations into Class 1 helium stars revealed intriguing surface conditions. The team utilized computer modelling to determine surface temperature and gravity, finding them to be approximately 20 times hotter than the Sun and possessing surface gravity about 1,000 times stronger than Earth’s.

Significance of the Findings

• Hydrogen-Deficient Supernovae: A pivotal breakthrough in the discovery of helium stars was the elucidation of hydrogen-deficient supernovae, perplexing phenomena that puzzled scientists for decades.
• Binary-Star Interactions: Gravitational interactions within binary star systems played a crucial role in unmasking the helium-rich surfaces of these stellar anomalies.

Implications for Astrophysics

• Cosmic Laboratories: Helium stars serve as invaluable cosmic laboratories, offering unprecedented opportunities to explore the intricacies of stellar evolution and binary star dynamics.
• Frontiers of Research: Their discovery opens new frontiers in astrophysical research, unraveling mysteries surrounding heavy element formation and gravitational wave generation.

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Introduction

• Recent findings published in the journal Nature suggest that beneath the icy shell of Mimas, there lies a potential liquid ocean, challenging previous assumptions about the moon’s composition and internal dynamics.

About Mimas

Astronomical Insights

• Potential Liquid Ocean: Scientists analyzed Mimas’s orbital motion using data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, concluding that the moon’s oscillations indicate the presence of either an elongated silicate core or a global ocean.
• Librational Model: Calculations based on Mimas’s librations and orbital changes reached a deadlock, prompting consideration of a subsurface ocean. Theoretical models incorporating viscoelastic outer layers and hydrostatic interior interfaces suggested an ice shell thickness of 20-30 km.
• Surface Heat and Eccentricity: Estimates indicate surface heat release of approximately 25 milliwatts per sq. m, expected to reduce Mimas’s eccentricity by half in 4-5 million years. Simulations suggest the ocean may have formed 2-25 million years ago, with potential hydrothermal activity.

Implications and Findings

• Comparative Analysis: Similarities between Mimas and Enceladus, another Saturn moon with a global ocean, hint at potential hydrothermal activity despite surface differences.
• Ice Shell Composition: The viscoelastic nature of Mimas’s outer icy layer and hydrostatic interior interfaces align with observations, supporting the theoretical ice shell thickness determined through calculations.

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Introduction

• Juno, a spacecraft launched by NASA in 2011, embarked on a mission to unravel the secrets of Jupiter and its moons.
• En route to Jupiter, Juno encountered fast-moving dust particles, resulting in significant damage to its solar panels.

About NASA’s Juno Mission

Dusts in Interplanetary Space

• Calculating Dust Flux: Scientists harnessed Juno’s data to estimate the flux of dust particles encountered between 1 and 5 Astronomical Units (AU), shedding light on the density and distribution of interplanetary dust.
• Exploring Dust Sources: Analysis suggested Mars’s moons, Deimos and Phobos, as potential sources of interplanetary dust, offering tantalizing clues to unraveling the enigmatic origins of these celestial particles.

How Martian Moons, Deimos and Phobos produce this Dust?

• Micrometeorite Impacts: Micrometeorites, tiny yet potent dust particles, bombard Mars’s moons, creating ephemeral clouds of dust upon impact due to the absence of atmospheres.
• Escape into Space: Deimos and Phobos, characterized by low gravity, facilitate the escape of dust particles into space, contributing to the formation of a dusty ring around Mars.

Insights from Observations

• Gravitational Dynamics: This models incorporated gravitational effects, lunar shapes, and dust particle velocities, offering a comprehensive understanding of the dust dynamics within the Martian system.
• Validation through Future Missions: Prospective missions to Deimos and Phobos hold the promise of validating the recent findings, shedding further light on the dusty realms of these enigmatic moons.

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Introduction

• In 1967 a group of astronomers at the University of Cambridge stumbled upon a celestial mystery that would unravel the secrets of neutron stars.
• Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish observed periodic signals emanating from the depths of space, eventually discovering the first pulsar, PSR B1919+21.

Pulsars and Neutron Stars

• The Birth of a Pulsar: PSR B1919+21 initially puzzled scientists, who considered various explanations, even the possibility of signals from extraterrestrial life.
• Neutron Stars: Neutron stars are born from the remnants of massive stars that didn’t become black holes. They are incredibly dense and primarily made up of neutrons.

Behind the Radiation: Lighthouse Effect

• Radiation Beams: Pulsars emit focused beams of radio waves, similar to a lighthouse’s rotating light.
• Rotation Slowdown: Neutron stars gradually slow down their rotation, and this process generates the pulsar’s radio signals.

The Mystery of Glitches

• Sudden Speed-Ups: In 1969, scientists noticed unexpected and brief increases in the rotation speed of pulsars, known as “glitches.”
• Unsolved Riddle: Even after more than four decades of study, the cause of these glitches remains a mystery, although scientists have developed some ideas.
• Common Occurrence: Around 700 glitches have been observed in more than 3,000 pulsars.

Clues in the Rotation

• Post-Glitch Behavior: During a glitch, the pulsar’s rotation rate temporarily increases before gradually returning to its previous speed.
• Sign of Internal Changes: The slow post-glitch recovery suggests that the neutrons inside the star behave like a special kind of fluid, called a superfluid, with very low friction.
• Superfluids and Vortices: Superfluids, like the one inside a neutron star, exhibit vortex behavior, which is like tiny whirlpools.

The Glitch Mechanism

• Neutron Star Structure: Neutron stars have a solid outer layer with superfluid patches and a core primarily made of superfluid.
• Vortex Pinning: Vortices within the superfluid like to stick to the crust or solid parts of the star, which keeps the superfluid rotating.
• How Glitches Happen: As the star loses energy over time, the crust slows down, but the pinned vortices stay at their original speed. When the difference becomes too great, the vortices are released, transferring energy from the superfluid to the crust, causing a glitch in the pulsar’s rotation.

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Introduction

• NASA’s Mars helicopter, Ingenuity, recently regained contact with Earth after a brief communication lapse during its 72nd flight on the Red Planet.
• This remarkable solar-powered robotic chopper has accomplished groundbreaking feats in extraterrestrial aviation, making history with its powered, controlled flight on Mars.

About Ingenuity 

• Inaugural Flight: Ingenuity landed on Mars on February 18, 2021, alongside the Perseverance Rover. On April 19 of the same year, it achieved the first powered extraterrestrial flight in human history.
• Launch and Deployment: NASA launched a spacecraft on July 30, 2020, carrying the Perseverance rover with Ingenuity attached. The helicopter was deployed on the Martian surface on April 4, 2021, after reaching a suitable “airfield” location.
• Experimental Purpose: Ingenuity’s primary mission was experimental, aiming to test powered, controlled flight on another celestial body.
• Historic Flight: During its maiden flight, Ingenuity hovered, covered the same spot, and remained airborne for an impressive 39.1 seconds, establishing a historic milestone.

Challenges and Impressive Records

• Vast Distances: Despite the relatively short flight duration, Mars’ distance of over 225 million kilometres from Earth results in signal delays of 5 to 20 minutes.
• Harsh Martian Conditions: Ingenuity must endure Mars’ challenging conditions, including low atmospheric density, “continent-sized” dust storms, and various hazards.

Significance of Mars Flight

• Historical Milestone: On April 19, 2021, Ingenuity’s inaugural flight marked two significant achievements. Firstly, it was the first aircraft to fly on another planet. Secondly, it operated in Mars’ thin atmosphere, unsuitable for conventional flight.
• Challenges of Martian Flight: Ingenuity’s flight on Mars was challenging due to the planet’s lower gravity, one-third that of Earth’s, and its extremely thin atmosphere with just 1% of Earth’s surface pressure.
• Autonomous Operation: Ingenuity is an autonomous aircraft, piloted by onboard guidance, navigation, and control systems, running algorithms developed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Perseverance serves as a crucial link between the chopper and Earth.

Evolving Mission Role

• Scouting and Exploration: Initially designed for a limited number of flights, Ingenuity’s role evolved as scientists began to use it for scouting. It aided Perseverance in exploring Martian terrain efficiently, avoiding unexceptional rocks and enhancing mission productivity.
• Impressive Flight Record: Before the recent communication lapse, Ingenuity completed 72 flights, accumulating more than 128 minutes of flight time and covering a total distance of 17.7 kilometers, as recorded in the mission’s flight log.

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Introduction

• India’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) has shown a renewed interest in the global scientific endeavor, the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project, as evidenced by their recent visit to Mauna Kea in Hawai’i.
• This visit marks a significant step in addressing the challenges faced by this ambitious astronomical project.

Overview of the TMT Project

• Project Description: The TMT is envisioned as a 30-metre diameter primary-mirror optical and infrared telescope, designed for deep space observations.
• International Collaboration: It is a joint venture involving the U.S., Japan, China, Canada, and India, with India’s participation approved by the Union Cabinet in 2014.

Key facts related to TMT

• Its 30m diameter prime-mirror will allow it to observe wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared with up to 80 times more sensitivity of today’s largest telescopes.
• It can deliver images at infrared wavelengths more than 12 times sharper than the famed Hubble Space Telescope and 4 times sharper than James Webb Space Telescope (JSWT).

Challenges and Controversies

• Location Issues: Mauna Kea, the proposed site for the TMT, is an inactive volcano considered sacred by local communities. The site has faced opposition due to its cultural and religious significance.
• Legal Hurdles: The Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the construction permits in 2015, although they were later restored in 2018. Despite this, local opposition has continued to impede construction.

Alternate Site Consideration

• Plan B: The Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (ORM) on La Palma in Spain’s Canary Islands is being considered as an alternative site for the TMT.
• India’s Stance: As per statements made in 2020, India prefers moving the project to an alternate site, subject to the availability of necessary permits and procedures.

India’s Role and Contribution

• Major Contributor: India is expected to play a significant role in the TMT project, contributing hardware, instrumentation, and software worth $200 million.
• Mirror Production: Of the 492 required mirrors, India will contribute 83, showcasing its capabilities in precision engineering and technology.

Current Status and Future Prospects

• Ongoing Discussions: Efforts are being made to reach a consensus that respects the concerns of the local people in Hawai’i.
• Progress in Component Development: Despite the delay in construction, significant advancements have been made in developing essential components for the TMT.
• Decision Timeline: A firm decision on the project’s site is anticipated within the next two years, as per Annapurni Subramaniam, director of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIAP).

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Introduction

• In a significant scientific breakthrough, Japanese scientists discovered an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray in May 2021, which he named ‘Amaterasu’ after the Japanese sun goddess.

Discovery of Amaterasu

• Event Identification: Dr. Toshihiro Fujii, an astronomer at Osaka Metropolitan University, discovered the cosmic ray named Amaterasu.
• Measurement: Amaterasu had an energy of 240 exa-electron-volt (EeV), an extremely high level.
• Comparison with Man-Made Accelerators: This energy is about 40 million times higher than that of protons accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

Mystery of Amaterasu’s Origin

• Unusual Origin: Amaterasu appears to have originated from an empty part of the universe.
• Dr. Fujii’s Theories: Possible explanations include an unidentified source, interaction with a strong magnetic field, or the need for new physics models.
• Previous Records: The “Oh My God” particle, detected in 1991 with an energy of 320 EeV, remains the most energetic cosmic ray recorded.

Nature and Impact of Cosmic Rays

• Composition: Cosmic rays are streams of energetic particles, including protons and alpha particles, originating from outer space and the sun.
• Interaction with Earth: Most cosmic rays lose their energy in Earth’s atmosphere, preventing harmful high-intensity rays from reaching the surface.
• Historical Significance: Studies of cosmic rays since the 1930s have led to the discovery of many subatomic particles, although their sources and high energy remain a mystery.

Types and Origins of Cosmic Rays

• Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR): Originating from beyond our solar system, possibly from supernovae.
• Solar Cosmic Rays: Emitted by the sun, primarily in solar flares, consisting mainly of protons.
• Composition Analysis: Studies show a helium-to-hydrogen nuclei mass ratio in cosmic rays similar to the early universe’s composition.

Implications of High-Energy Cosmic Rays

• Ultra-high-energy cosmic Rays (UHECRs): These are extragalactic particles with energies exceeding 1 EeV.
• Limitations in Space Travel: UHECRs with more than 60 EeV energy face suppression due to interaction with cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, limiting their travel distance to 50-100 megaparsecs.

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Introduction

• A private US company launched a spacecraft carrying NASA instruments, aiming to be the first US spacecraft to land on the Moon in over 50 years.
• This mission is a key component of NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services, integrating private sector capabilities into the Artemis Program.

About Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Initiative

• NASA’s collaboration with the private sector under the CLPS initiative involves at least 14 companies contracted to deliver payloads to the Moon.
• This partnership aims to develop a market and technology ecosystem in the private space industry for lunar exploration.
• The mission features the Peregrine lander and the Vulcan rocket, both developed by private US space companies.

Objectives and Payloads

• NASA’s Five Payloads: The Peregrine lander carries five NASA payloads designed for various exploratory tasks, including water detection.
• Laser Retroreflector Array: One payload, designed for precision distance measurements, will be permanently deployed on the Moon’s surface.
• Duration of Activity: Other payloads are expected to remain active for ten days post-landing.

Historical Context: Return to the Moon

• Last US Moon Landing: The last US spacecraft landed on the Moon during the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972.
• Renewed Lunar Interest: The US reignited its lunar exploration efforts in the 1990s and formally committed to return in 2018.
• Artemis Program Goals: NASA’s Artemis Program aims to establish a permanent base on the Moon, facilitating longer human and robotic stays for extensive exploration and scientific research.

Back2Basics: NASA’s Artemis Mission

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Introduction

• India will contribute Rs 1,250 crore to the multinational Square Kilometer Array (SKA) project, a significant international astronomical collaboration.

Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project: An Overview

• Construction Phases: The SKA project is being built in two phases, with the first phase (SKA1) having commenced in December 2022.
• Project’s Headquarters: The SKA project is headquartered at the Jodrell Bank Observatory in the UK.
• Site Location: It involves constructing telescope arrays in Australia and South Africa, aiming to map galaxies and explore the universe with unprecedented detail.
• Operational Timeline: SKA1 is expected to begin operations by 2029.

Design and Features of the SKA Telescopes

• Array Composition: The SKA will consist of 197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa and 131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia.
• Antennae Design: The design includes parabolic dishes and dipole antennae capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.
• Spatial Arrangement: The dishes and antennae will be strategically placed over large areas to calibrate the origin of observed signals effectively.

Global Collaboration in the SKA Project

• Consortium Members: The SKA Observatory (SKAO) includes 16 member countries, such as Australia, South Africa, Canada, China, India, Japan, and several European nations.
• Frequency Range: The South African array will focus on mid-frequency signals, while the Australian telescope will cover low-frequency ranges.
• Expansion Plans: Additional dishes are planned in neighbouring African countries to enhance the project’s data triangulation and resolution capabilities.

Scientific Objectives of the SKA

• Exploring the Universe: The SKA will observe and map galaxies at the edge of the observable universe, providing insights into galaxy formation and evolution.
• Studying the ‘Dark Ages’: The telescope will delve into the early universe’s ‘Dark Ages’ and investigate phenomena like dark matter and dark energy.
• Search for Extraterrestrial Life: The SKA will also contribute to the search for life beyond Earth by examining habitable zones around stars.

India’s Role  

• Pathfinder Research Partner: India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), is a key partner in the project.
• Consortium Involvement: The SKA India consortium comprises over 20 colleges and universities across India, contributing to various aspects of the project.

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Introduction

• 2023 Milestones: NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission returned a sample from an asteroid, and India’s Chandrayaan-3 explored the lunar South Pole.
• 2024 Prospects: The year is set to be thrilling for space exploration, with several missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services targeting the moon.

Key Missions to Follow in 2024

[1] Europa Clipper: Unveiling Jupiter’s Moon

• Mission Overview: NASA’s Europa Clipper aims to explore Europa, one of Jupiter’s largest moons, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
• Scientific Goals: The mission will conduct close flybys to study Europa’s ice shell, geology, and subsurface ocean, seeking signs of habitability.
• Launch Window: Scheduled for October 10, 2024, with 21 days, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket.

[2] Artemis II: Human Return to the Moon

• Program Background: Artemis II is part of NASA’s Artemis program, aiming to send humans back to the moon and establish a sustained presence for future Mars missions.
• Mission Details: Artemis II will carry four astronauts on a 10-day mission orbiting the Moon, building upon the uncrewed Artemis I mission.
• Launch Timeline: Planned for as early as November 2024, with potential delays to 2025.

[3] VIPER: Searching for Lunar Water

• Mission Purpose: VIPER, a golf cart-sized rover, will explore the moon’s south pole to search for water and other volatiles.
• Technical Challenges: The mission will navigate extreme lunar temperatures and shadowed regions during its 100-day mission.
• Launch Schedule: Set for November 2024, following a delay for additional lander system tests.

[4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1: Water Mapping and Drilling

• SIMPLEx Missions: As part of NASA’s low-cost planetary missions, Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology.
• Launch Dependencies: Both missions are secondary payloads, with their launch timing contingent on the readiness of primary payloads.

[5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

• Mission Focus: MMX aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin and collect a sample from Phobos.
• Scientific Objectives: The mission will spend three years conducting science operations around Mars and its moons.
• Launch Plan: Scheduled for around September 2024.

[6] ESA’s Hera Mission: Asteroid Defense Study

• Mission Context: Hera will follow up on NASA’s DART mission to the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, where DART tested the kinetic impact technique for planetary defense.
• Research Goals: Hera will study the physical properties of the asteroids and assess the impact of the DART collision.
• Launch and Arrival: Set for October 2024, with arrival at the asteroid system expected in late 2026.

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Central Idea

• The year 2024 is set to be a landmark year in space exploration, following significant achievements in 2023, including NASA’s OSIRIS-REx and India’s Chandrayaan-3 missions.

Upcoming Missions

• The year will feature several key missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, along with other international endeavors.

[1] Europa Clipper Mission

• Objective: NASA’s Europa Clipper will explore Jupiter’s moon, Europa, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
• Significance: The mission aims to assess Europa’s habitability for extraterrestrial life by studying its icy shell, geology, and ocean.
• Launch Details: Scheduled for launch on October 10, 2024, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, with arrival at Jupiter set for 2030.

[2] Artemis II Mission

• Program Goals: Part of NASA’s Artemis program to return humans to the Moon, including plans for a sustained presence and future Mars missions.
• Mission Specifics: Artemis II, following the uncrewed Artemis I, will be the first crewed mission orbiting the Moon since 1972, planned for November 2024.

[3] VIPER Lunar Mission

• Mission Overview: VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) aims to explore the Moon’s south pole for volatiles like water and carbon dioxide.
• Technology and Schedule: Equipped to handle extreme lunar temperatures, VIPER’s launch is scheduled for November 2024, focusing on resources for future human exploration.

[4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1 Missions

• SIMPLEx Program: These missions are part of NASA’s Small, Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx), offering cost-effective, rideshare opportunities.
• Objectives: Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the Moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology, both scheduled for mid-2024.

[5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

• Mission Focus: JAXA’s MMX mission aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin.
• Science Operations: The spacecraft will conduct a three-year mission, including landing on Phobos and returning a sample to Earth, with a launch planned around September 2024.

[6] ESA’s Hera Mission

• Mission Purpose: Hera, by the European Space Agency, will study the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, following NASA’s DART mission’s kinetic impact in 2022.
• Planetary Defense: Hera will assess the impact of DART’s collision and study the asteroids’ physical properties, with a launch set for October 2024.

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Central Idea

• A re-analysis of data from the Cassini mission has revealed a complex mix of molecules in the gaseous plumes of Saturn’s moon Enceladus.

About Cassini Mission

Discovery of Plumes and Initial Analysis

• Cassini’s Initial Discovery: In 2005, the Cassini spacecraft discovered large plumes escaping from Enceladus’s southern hemisphere.
• Source of Plumes: These plumes are believed to originate from a subsurface ocean through fissures in the moon’s icy surface.
• Initial Molecular Findings: Earlier analyses identified water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and molecular hydrogen in the plume samples.

Re-examination of Cassini Data

• Research Team: Led by Jonah Peter from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.
• Methodology: The team re-examined data using a statistical analysis technique, comparing it against a vast library of known mass spectra.
• Newly Identified Molecules: The analysis revealed the presence of hydrocarbons like hydrogen cyanide (HCN), acetylene (C2H2), propylene (C3H6), ethane (C2H6), along with methanol and molecular oxygen.

Significant Discovery of Nitrogen

• Definite Presence of Nitrogen: The study confirmed the presence of nitrogen in the form of HCN, resolving previous uncertainties due to overlapping signals in mass spectrometry data.
• Potential for Habitability: The diverse chemical reservoir under Enceladus’s surface suggests conditions that might be consistent with a habitable environment.
• Support for Microbial Life: The presence of these compounds, along with mineralogical catalysts and redox gradients, could potentially support microbial communities or complex organic synthesis.
• Caveat on Life Support: The ability of these compounds to support life depends on their concentration in Enceladus’s subsurface ocean.

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• NASA is gearing up for the launch of PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem) mission in 2024. The mission’s objective is to enhance the understanding of Earth’s atmosphere.

PACE Mission

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• ESA astronauts recorded a red sprite over a thundercloud as part of the Thor-Davis experiment at Danish Technical University.

What are Red Sprites?

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• Six exoplanets have been discovered orbiting HD 110067, a bright star in the Coma Berenices constellation, approximately 100 light-years away.
• The planets’ radii range between that of Earth and Neptune, classifying them as ‘sub-Neptunes’.

About Sub-Neptune Exoplanets

• Prevalence: Sub-Neptunes are commonly found in close-in orbits around more than half of all Sun-like stars.
• Mystery: Despite their prevalence, the composition, formation, and evolution of these planets remain largely unknown.

Observational Details

• TESS Observations: NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) observed dips in HD 110067’s brightness in 2020 and 2022.
• CHEOPS Contribution: Additional observations from the CHaracterising ExOPlanets Satellite (CHEOPS) helped confirm the presence of six planets transiting the star.
• Orbital Calculations: The study calculated the orbits of all six planets, ranging from about nine days for the innermost planet to approximately 54 days for the outermost planet.

Characteristics of the Planets

• Mass and Density Estimates: The planets have relatively low densities, suggesting the presence of large, hydrogen-rich atmospheres.
• Resonant Orbits: All six planets are in resonant orbits, indicating regular gravitational interactions among them.
• System’s Age: The resonant orbits suggest that the system has remained largely unchanged since its formation, estimated to be at least four billion years ago.

HD 110067’s Uniqueness

• Brightness and Host Status: HD 110067 is the brightest star known to host more than four transiting exoplanets.
• Potential for More Discoveries: There is a possibility of additional planets within or beyond the star’s temperate zone, though such observations have not yet been made.
• Learning Opportunity: The HD 110067 system presents a unique opportunity to study sub-Neptunes and understand how such planetary systems form and evolve.

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• Recently, the James Webb Space Telescope has provided detailed insights into slightly older galaxies, known as ‘teenagers’ in galactic terms, shedding light on their evolution and unique characteristics.
• This research is part of the CECILIA Survey, utilizing Webb to analyze the chemistry of distant galaxies, named after astronomer Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin.

Study of Teenage Galaxies

• Formation Period: The study focuses on galaxies that formed around 2-3 billion years after the Big Bang, which occurred about 13.8 billion years ago.
• Research Methodology: Researchers analyzed light across various wavelengths from 23 such galaxies using Webb, akin to studying their ‘chemical DNA.’
• Key Discoveries: These teenage galaxies exhibit distinct chemical compositions, indicative of intense star formation and rapid developmental phases.

Characteristics of Teenage Galaxies

• Contrast with Modern Galaxies: These galaxies show significant differences in appearance and behavior compared to contemporary galaxies.
• Developmental Mysteries: They undergo crucial, yet not fully understood, processes during this phase, shaping their final structure and nature.
• High Temperatures in Star-Forming Regions: Star-forming areas in these galaxies show temperatures around 24,000 degrees Fahrenheit, much higher than in present-day galaxies.
• Young Stars and Gas Properties: This temperature variation suggests differences in the stars and gas properties of teenage galaxies.
• Detected Elements: Observations identified these galaxies glowing with elements like hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, argon, nickel, and silicon.

Significance of Oxygen and Nickel

• Oxygen’s Crucial Role: As a key component of galactic DNA and the third-most abundant element in the universe, oxygen is vital for tracking galaxies’ growth history.
• Nickel – An Unexpected Find: The presence of nickel, usually not bright enough to be observed in nearby galaxies, suggests unique aspects of massive stars in these galaxies.
• Undetected Elements: Astronomers believe that additional elements likely exist in these galaxies but remain undetected due to current technological limits.

Implications of the Findings

• Chemical Immaturity and Rapid Growth: The study indicates that these galaxies are in a phase of rapid formation and are still chemically immature.
• Insights into Star Formation: Understanding the chemical makeup of these galaxies provides valuable information about their star formation history and rate.

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• NASA’s DSOC experiment onboarded to Psyche spacecraft, recently demonstrated successful transmission of data over near-infrared laser signals to Earth.
• This technology addresses the challenge of transmitting vast amounts of data over long distances from spacecraft, moving at high speeds in deep space.

Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC)

• NASA’s DSOC experiment introduces near-infrared laser signals for spacecraft communication.
• DSOC promises data rates at least 10 times faster than conventional radio communication systems, leading to enhanced data transfer rates, higher-resolution images, increased scientific data volume, and even real-time video streaming.
• DSOC’s laser communication technology is comparable to how fiber optics revolutionized Earth-based telecommunications.

Psyche Spacecraft and DSOC

• The Psyche spacecraft is the first to carry a DSOC transceiver, which will test high-bandwidth optical communication with Earth during its initial two years of travel to the asteroid belt.
• DSOC’s successful “first light” milestone was reached when the transceiver locked onto a powerful laser beacon transmitted from NASA’s Table Mountain Facility in California.
• Achieving high data rates relies on extremely precise pointing, which is akin to hitting a small target from a great distance while both are in motion.
• This precision is necessary for the laser transceiver to track its target despite vibrations on the spacecraft.

Key Components for Success

• The spacecraft must isolate the transceiver from vibrations to maintain precision.
• As Earth and the spacecraft change positions during data transmission, DSOC systems adjust to ensure accurate pointing.
• New signal-processing techniques are essential to extract information from weak laser signals transmitted across vast distances in space.

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• This 20^th November marked the 25th anniversary of the launch of the International Space Station (ISS), the largest man-made object in the solar system.
• Since its launch on November 20, 1998, the ISS has stood as a testament to the power of international cooperation and has space research.

About the International Space Station (ISS)

• Orbital Marvel: The International Space Station (ISS), orbiting 430 kilometers above Earth, completes 16 orbits daily, witnessing 16 sunrises and sunsets.
• Speed: The ISS orbits Earth every 90 minutes at 8 kilometers per second.
• Size: Spanning 109 meters, it’s almost as long as an American football field.
• Living Quarters: The ISS includes 6 sleeping areas, two bathrooms, a gym, and a panoramic view bay window.
• Solar Array and Wiring: Its solar array wingspan is 109 meters, and the station houses about 13 kilometers of electrical wiring.

Inception and Key Milestones

• Launch of Zarya: The ISS’s journey began on November 20, 1998, with Russia’s Zarya Control Module.
• Unity Node 1: The U.S. added the Unity Node 1 module on December 4, 1998, marking the start of a functional space lab.
• 42 Assembly Flights: The station evolved into its current form after 42 assembly flights.
• Continuous Habitation: Since its inception, the ISS has been continuously inhabited, hosting astronauts from various countries for groundbreaking research.

Key Activities

• Scientific Research: Astronauts conduct unique experiments, leading to significant discoveries.
• Spacewalks and Maintenance: Regular spacewalks are essential for station upgrades and repairs.
• Health Regimen: Astronauts follow strict routines to combat muscle and bone loss in microgravity, providing valuable data for future space missions.

Scientific Contributions

• Medical Advances: Research on the ISS has enhanced our understanding of diseases like Alzheimer’s and cancer.
• Drug Development: Space research has expedited drug development processes.
• Technological Innovations: Innovations in water purification and food production have emerged from ISS experiments.

Future of the ISS

• Current Uncertainties: The Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022 casts doubt on the ISS’s future.
• Global Space Ambitions: Countries like Japan, China, and India are aiming for independent space capabilities.
• Continued Commitment: The US and Europe plan to support the ISS through 2030, with NASA focusing on lunar exploration and ESA developing the Starlab space station.

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• NASA is set to launch the Atmospheric Waves Experiment (AWE) to investigate how Earth’s weather influences Space weather.

What is AWE Mission?

• As part of NASA’s Heliophysics Explorers Program, the AWE mission aims to shed light on the interactions between Earth’s weather and Space weather.
• Mounted on the International Space Station (ISS), AWE will observe Earth’s airglow bands from an exceptional viewpoint.
• AWE will analyze airglow in the mesopause region (about 85-87 km above Earth) to understand AGW behavior and its influence on Space weather.
• The mission includes the Advanced Mesospheric Temperature Mapper (ATMT) to precisely map temperature variations in the mesopause, revealing airglow dynamics.

Space Weather Explained

• Space weather, much like Earth’s weather, is influenced by solar activities like flares and emissions, and it impacts the surrounding cosmic environment.
• Variations in Space weather can disrupt essential services on Earth, including satellite communications, GPS systems, and power grids.
• Interestingly, Earth’s own weather conditions also significantly affect Space weather, creating a complex interplay between our planet and the cosmos.

How do Atmospheric Gravity Waves (AGWs) impact space weather?

• Nature’s Oscillations: AGWs are similar to ripples caused by a stone thrown into a pond. They are vertical waves generated by sudden atmospheric changes or extreme weather, causing air to move up and down.
• Various Sources: AGWs originate from events like thunderstorms and hurricanes, and they travel from the lower atmosphere to Space, influencing Space weather.
• Thriving in Stability: AGWs are most prominent in stable atmospheric conditions, where they create wave-like patterns due to temperature differences in rising air.
• Vital Atmospheric Profiling: To fully understand AGWs and their impact on terrestrial and Space weather, detailed data on the atmosphere’s vertical profile is essential.

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• A Star’s Explosive End: About two billion years ago, far beyond our Milky Way galaxy, a huge star exploded into a supernova. This explosion sent out a massive burst of gamma rays, the most powerful type of energy wave in the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Gamma-Ray Bursts: These bursts are short-lived but incredibly intense, often associated with the most dramatic events in the universe, like the death of massive stars.

Why discuss this?

• These gamma rays travelled across space for billions of years, finally reaching Earth in 2022.
• When they arrived, they caused a significant disturbance in Earth’s ionosphere, a layer of electrically charged gases high in our atmosphere.

What are Gamma-Ray Bursts?

• What Are They? Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are incredibly intense flashes of gamma rays, which are the most energetic form of light in the electromagnetic spectrum. These bursts are the most powerful explosions observed in the universe.
• How They Occur: They usually happen when massive stars collapse into neutron stars or black holes, or during the merger of neutron stars. These cosmic catastrophes release a tremendous amount of energy.
• Duration and Energy: GRBs can last from a few milliseconds to several hours, but they typically last a few seconds. The amount of energy released in this short time can be more than the Sun will emit in its entire 10-billion-year lifetime.
• Afterglow: Following the initial burst, GRBs are often followed by an ‘afterglow’ emitted at longer wavelengths (X-ray, ultraviolet, optical, infrared, and radio).

Earthly Consequences and Research

• Lasting Effects: The gamma rays disturbed the ionosphere for several hours and even set off lightning detectors in India.
• Scientific Importance: Although this burst didn’t harm life on Earth, it showed how sensitive our ionosphere is to space events.
• A Rare Event: Such a powerful gamma-ray burst is expected to hit Earth only once every 10,000 years.

Looking Ahead: Protecting Earth from Cosmic Threats

• Preparing for Future Events: Scientists are studying the potential risks of a similar event happening closer to Earth, within our own Milky Way.
• Low Risk: However, the chance of such a dangerous event happening is very low.

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• European astronomers have unveiled the first images captured by the newly launched Euclid space telescope.
• These groundbreaking images offer a glimpse into Euclid’s extraordinary capabilities, demonstrating its capacity to observe billions of galaxies situated up to 10 billion light years away.

What is Euclid Mission?

• Euclid’s mission, led by the European Space Agency (ESA) in partnership with NASA, aims to unravel the enigmatic forces of dark matter and dark energy, which together constitute 95% of the universe.
• The Euclid Space Telescope is equipped with a 1.2-meter primary mirror, allowing it to capture detailed observations of galaxies.
• It carries two main scientific instruments: the visible-wavelength camera (VIS) and the near-infrared camera and spectrometer (NISP).
• By mapping the distribution and evolution of galaxies, Euclid aims to shed light on the fundamental forces shaping the cosmos.

(1) Mission Scope and Duration

• Euclid is a space-based mission, equipped with a sophisticated telescope and state-of-the-art scientific instruments.
• The mission is expected to have a nominal operational lifetime of 6 years, during which it will conduct an extensive survey of the sky.

(2) Launch and Spacecraft

• Euclid was launched on July 1, 2023, from Cape Canaveral in Florida using a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.
• The spacecraft carries the Euclid Space Telescope, which is designed to observe galaxies across a wide range of wavelengths.

(3) Investigating Dark Energy and Dark Matter  

• Dark energy, discovered in 1998, explains the unexpected acceleration of the universe’s expansion.
• Euclid’s mission aims to provide a more precise measurement of this acceleration, potentially uncovering variations throughout cosmic history.
• Dark matter, inferred through the gravitational effects it exerts on galaxies and clusters, plays a vital role in preserving their integrity.

Remarkable Images taken by Euclid

• Sharper and Clearer: These images are touted as the sharpest of their kind, showcasing Euclid’s precision and ability to capture intricate cosmic details.
• Perseus cluster: Euclid’s observations span four regions within our relatively nearby universe, including the massive Perseus cluster, which is located just 240 million light-years away and contains over 1,000 galaxies.
• Horseshoe Nebula: Euclid provided a unique perspective on celestial wonders like the Horsehead Nebula, a region where new stars are born.
• Dark Matter’s Clues: Scientists believe that organized structures like the Perseus cluster could only have formed if dark matter exists. Dark matter is inferred from its gravitational influence on galaxies, including their rotation and the formation of massive cosmic structures.

Unraveling the Dark Universe

• 5% Visible, 95% Dark: The mission emphasizes that our understanding of the universe is limited to merely 5%—the matter we can see. The rest of the universe remains “dark” because it does not emit electromagnetic radiation, but its effects on visible matter are evident.
• Dark Matter’s Role: Dark matter is suspected to influence galaxies’ rotation, galaxy clusters’ cohesion, and the formation of cosmic structures, further validating its existence.
• Dark Energy’s Mystery: Dark energy, an even more enigmatic force, was proposed in the 1990s when the universe’s accelerated expansion was discovered. This mysterious energy was awarded a Nobel Prize in 2011.

Mission Ahead

• Creating a 3D Map: Following its initial commissioning and overcoming technical challenges, Euclid will construct a 3D map covering approximately one-third of the sky. This map will reveal subtle variations attributable to the dark universe.
• Cosmic Web Exploration: By gaining insights into dark energy and dark matter, scientists aim to understand the formation and distribution of galaxies within the cosmic web, a network of cosmic structures that make up the universe.

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• The Siena Galaxy Atlas (SGA) is an impressive digital collection showcasing approximately 400,000 galaxies located in the vicinity of our Milky Way.

Siena Galaxy Atlas

• The SGA was created by amalgamating data from 3 distinct astronomical surveys conducted between 2014 and 2017.
• These surveys took place at two observatories, namely the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (CTIO) and the Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO).
• These surveys are collectively known as the DESI Legacy Surveys, laid the foundation for the SGA.

Purpose of this Cosmic Atlas

• Cosmic atlases like the SGA play a crucial role in enabling astronomers to discern intricate patterns within the universe.
• They assist in categorizing various celestial phenomena, including transient stars, and identifying objects that merit further in-depth studies.
• The SGA excels in terms of precision and accuracy, ensuring that it remains aligned with the latest astronomical revelations.
• It facilitates investigations into the birth and evolution of galaxies, the distribution of mysterious dark matter, and the transmission of gravitational waves throughout space.

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• NASA is set to launch on a groundbreaking mission known as Atmospheric Perturbations around the Eclipse Path (APEP).
• The project is spearheaded by an Indian-origin engineering physics professor.

Exploring the APEP Mission

• Triple Rocket Launch: The APEP mission involves the deployment of three meticulously equipped rockets, each armed with an array of cutting-edge scientific instruments.
• Objective: The primary mission objective is to unravel the enigma of how the upper atmosphere reacts during a solar eclipse, particularly during the pivotal moments of sudden light reduction.
• Ionospheric Dynamics: Solar eclipses trigger profound transformations in the ionosphere, generating cascading waves throughout this atmospheric layer.
• Comprehensive Measurements: The mission’s scientific instruments will meticulously measure variations in electric and magnetic fields, density, and temperature.
• Launch Location: APEP will be launched from the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, with a specific focus on exploring the ionosphere.
• Impact on Satellite Communications: NASA postulates that the ionosphere’s temperature and density will diminish during the eclipse, leading to disruptive wave-like disturbances that could affect GPS and satellite communications.

Mission Process

• Strategic Rocket Positioning: The three rockets will be strategically positioned just beyond the path of annularity, where the Moon directly aligns with the Sun.
• Simultaneous Measurements: NASA’s paramount goal is to attain the first-ever simultaneous measurements from multiple locations within the ionosphere during a solar eclipse.
• Precision of Rockets: Rockets offer precision in launching at precisely the right moment and probing lower altitudes inaccessible to orbiting satellites.
• Sounding Rockets’ Selection: The APEP mission team opted for sounding rockets due to their unparalleled ability to pinpoint and measure specific spatial regions with exceptional accuracy.
• Multi-Altitude Data: These rockets are adept at capturing data at varying altitudes as they ascend and descend during their suborbital flights.
• Altitude Range: Data collection will span altitudes ranging from 45 to 200 miles (70 to 325 kilometres) above the Earth’s surface along the rockets’ flight trajectories.

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• Boundaries serve a crucial purpose in scientific understanding by providing clarity and distinction to elements that might otherwise merge.
• One such significant boundary is the Karman Line, which plays a pivotal role in delineating Earth’s atmosphere from outer space.

What is Karman Line?

• The Karman Line is an abstract boundary positioned at an altitude of 100 kilometers above sea level.
• Its primary function is to establish the separation between Earth’s atmosphere and the vast expanse of space.
• Although not universally accepted by all scientists and space explorers, the majority of countries and space organizations acknowledge this demarcation.
• It was formally established in 1960s by the Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI), a body responsible for record-keeping.
• Crossing the Karman Line designates an individual as an astronaut.

Challenges to the Karman Line’s Significance

• Nature rarely conforms to human-made boundaries.
• Physically crossing the Karman Line does not result in substantial changes.
• In the immediate vicinity, there is minimal difference in air pressure or composition.
• Earth’s gravitational force remains influential, and the atmosphere persists beyond this line.

Why is the Karman Line relevant?

• Airspace Regulation: The Karman Line primarily serves as a regulator of airspace. It represents an approximate altitude beyond which conventional aircraft cannot operate effectively. Aircraft venturing beyond this threshold require propulsion systems to counteract Earth’s gravitational pull.
• Legal Reference: Additionally, the Karman Line acts as a legal benchmark that distinguishes airspace, which nations can claim ownership of, from the realm of outer space. Outer space is governed similarly to international waters, emphasizing the importance of this boundary in legal and governance contexts.

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• The NASA OSIRIS-REx mission has achieved a significant milestone by successfully returning to Earth with an estimated 250 grams (8.8 ounces) of material gathered from the surface of an asteroid.
• These precious samples hold the potential to provide critical insights into differentiating authentic asteroid-origin materials from potential terrestrial contaminants or alterations across various meteorite types.

OSIRIS-REx Mission

(a) Mission Launch and Journey:

• OSIRIS-REx embarked on its journey when it was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, in 2016.
• Over a span of two years, it traversed space to reach Bennu, a carbon-rich asteroid nestled between Earth and Mars.

(b) Orbiting Bennu:

• The spacecraft reached its destination, Bennu, in December 2018.
• It spent two years in orbit around the asteroid, conducting a comprehensive suite of measurements.
• These measurements encompassed critical aspects such as Bennu’s mass, density, albedo, surface composition, and particle environment.
• The landing site chosen on Bennu was named “Nightingale.”

(c) Notable Discoveries:

• During the reconnaissance phase, the OSIRIS-REx mission uncovered several intriguing findings:
• Bennu is classified as an active asteroid, periodically ejecting material from its surface.
• The surface of Bennu exhibited a considerably rougher terrain than initially expected, featuring numerous boulders exceeding ten meters in diameter.
• Bennu’s bulk density was found to be lower than anticipated, suggesting the presence of substantial empty space within the asteroid’s structure.
• Surface features on Bennu indicated signs of past aqueous activity, and the asteroid’s rotation was observed to be accelerating due to the YORP effect.

Previous such missions

• Previous space missions like Japan’s Hayabusa and Hayabusa2, as well as China’s Chang’e 5, have made substantial contributions to our understanding of celestial bodies and their compositions.
• The return of asteroid samples by OSIRIS-REx marks NASA’s first sample return mission since Stardust in 2006 and Genesis in 2004.

Significance of Sample Return

• The return of material directly from celestial sources, such as asteroids, comets, the solar wind, and the Moon, holds immense scientific significance.
• It provides the means to answer questions that lie beyond the scope of remote observations, landers, rovers, or even meteorites.
• Collecting samples directly from the source ensures the preservation of intricate details that may otherwise be lost during a meteorite’s passage through Earth’s atmosphere and subsequent impact.

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• A research utilized seismic data collected between 1976 and 1977, showcasing how the lunar lander left by the Apollo 17 astronauts might be causing seismic activity on the moon.
• The study emphasizes that these moonquakes are not the result of natural processes but stem from vibrations generated by the lunar module descent vehicle, which was placed on the moon’s surface in 1972.

About Apollo 17 Mission

• Apollo 17 was the final Apollo mission to the Moon, marking the sixth lunar landing.
• It was launched by December 6, 1972, with a night launch, which was unique in the Apollo program.
• This mission had specific scientific objectives, differentiating it from previous missions, and aimed to collect ancient highlands crustal material and investigate the possibility of recent lunar volcanic activity.
• Neil Armstrong, the first person to set foot on the lunar surface, went under the Apollo 11 mission in July 20, 1969.

Understanding Moonquakes

• Similarities to Earthquakes: Moonquakes share similarities with earthquakes as both involve seismological vibrations.
• Researchers have identified four types of moonquakes, three of which are relatively benign. Shallow moonquakes, the closest to the surface, are the most destructive.

1. Deep Moonquakes: Occur approximately 700 kilometers below the lunar surface.
2. Shallow Moonquakes: Take place at depths of only 20 to 30 kilometers, lasting up to 10 minutes.
3. Vibrational Moonquakes: Typically result from meteorite impacts.
4. Thermal Quakes: Caused by the moon’s crust expanding as it warms following subzero temperatures during the night.

• Moonquakes occur as often as every 27 days, primarily due to temperature fluctuations between lunar day and night, totalling approximately 7,000 moonquakes in a decade.

Moonquakes vs. Earthquakes

• Moonquakes are generally smaller in magnitude than earthquakes but are known for their extended duration.
• Shallow moonquakes recorded by Apollo astronauts have reached up to a magnitude of 5.5.

Human Lunar Landings

• Multiple countries have embarked on lunar missions, with India being the most recent in 2023, following the United States, Russia, and China.
• India’s Chandrayaan-3 mission included a seismometer, which detected a moonquake, providing valuable data for future analysis.

Significance of Monitoring Moonquakes

• Understanding moonquakes holds potential significance for future lunar missions, particularly if NASA establishes a permanent lunar outpost.
• Seismometers, like those used on the moon, are vital for comprehending lunar geology and ensuring the safety of future lunar explorers.
• Monitoring lunar seismic activity is crucial for designing experiments and missions aimed at unravelling the mysteries of Earth’s closest celestial neighbor.
• The moon presents a unique opportunity for in-depth planetary study beyond Earth.

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• A recent revelation from the Solar Orbiter Aircraft, a collaborative endeavour between the European Space Agency and NASA, has illuminated the Picoflare jets erupting from the sun’s outer atmosphere.
• These jets, marked by their supersonic emergence and brief durations of 20 to 100 seconds, have captured the attention of scientists and space enthusiasts alike.

What are Picoflare Jets?

• Picoflare jets, observed amidst emissions from the observed coronal hole, are diminutive in scale but pack a potent punch.
• Their ephemeral existence belies their significance, as scientists have calculated that they contribute a substantial portion of the solar winds’ energy.
• These solar emanations earned their name, “picoflare jets,” owing to their energy levels, which hover around one-trillionth of the solar flares’ immense energy potential.
• Solar winds, driven by strong gusts, can not only craft auroras in Polar Regions but also disrupt Earth’s magnetic field and jeopardize electronic systems on satellites and terrestrial circuits.

About Solar Orbiter Aircraft

• A Stellar Journey: Launched in 2020, the Solar Orbiter Aircraft embarks on a mission to capture unprecedented images of the Sun, propelling closer than any previous spacecraft.
• Instrumentation Excellence: Equipped with six remote-sensing instruments and four sets of in situ instruments, the spacecraft is primed for comprehensive solar exploration.
• Mission Objectives: The Solar Orbiter Aircraft carries two primary objectives: to scrutinize the Sun’s 11-year cycle of magnetic activity ebbs and flows and to delve into the mysteries of the solar corona, the upper echelon of the Sun’s atmosphere.

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• Two Japanese astronomers have uncovered potential evidence of an “Earth-like planet” within our solar system.
• This mysterious planet is believed to have resided in the Kuiper Belt, a circumstellar disk beyond Neptune’s orbit that consists of outer solar system objects.
• The Kuiper Belt, like the planets, orbits the Sun.

What is the Kuiper Belt?

• The Kuiper Belt, also known as the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt, is a flat ring of small icy bodies orbiting the Sun beyond Neptune’s orbit.
• Gerard Kuiper, a Dutch-American astronomer, first hypothesized its existence in the 1950s.
• This belt contains millions of icy objects, collectively referred to as Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) or trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs).
• It is considered a remnant from the early history of our solar system.
• The Kuiper Belt is thought to be the source of many short-period comets that orbit the Sun in less than 20 years.
• It primarily consists of small icy bodies, including dwarf planets, asteroids, and comets.
• Pluto, once classified as the ninth planet, is one of the most well-known objects in the Kuiper Belt but was reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006, partly due to its location within this belt.

The Astronomers’ Findings

• The Japanese researchers suggest that if this new planet exists, it would be 1.5 to 3 times the size of Earth.
• The discovery challenges previous theories of a distant “Planet Nine” and posits the possibility of a planet closer to us, within the Kuiper Belt.
• The astronomers predict the existence of an Earth-like planet and several trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) on unique orbits that could serve as observational signatures of this potential planet’s perturbations.
• They estimate that this planet could be situated between 200 and 500 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, tilted about 30 degrees. For reference, Pluto is 39 AU from Earth.

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• Researchers from India and the US have come up with a new way to answer a big question about the universe.
• This question is about how fast the universe is getting bigger.

Story of Our Universe

• The universe began around 13.8 billion years ago with a massive explosion called the Big Bang.
• As time passed, the universe kept getting bigger, with moments of speeding up and slowing down.
• Scientists want to understand this expansion to figure out what’s happening in the universe.

Hubble Constant: A Big Question

• The Hubble constant is a special number that tells us how quickly the universe is expanding.
• This number was first talked about by a scientist named Edwin Hubble in 1929.
• But scientists today are still not sure about its value.

Two Important Things to Measure

To know the Hubble constant, we need to measure two things carefully:

1. How far away things in space are from us.
2. How fast these things are moving away from us because of the universe’s expansion.

Old Ways vs. New Idea

Until now, scientists used a few methods to measure the Hubble constant:

• Looking at bright explosions in space called supernovae.
• Using special light from the early universe.
• Studying waves created by big crashes in space.

But now, a fresh idea has been propounded by Indian researchers:

• To measure using a thing called “gravitational lensing.”

Gravitational Lensing: A New Approach

• Gravitational lensing is like bending light using gravity. Imagine it like a magnifying glass in space.
• This idea came from a long time ago but got better recently.
• Scientists think they can use this lensing trick to measure the Hubble constant.
• They want to look at waves from space collisions that get bent by gravity.
• These bent waves could tell us about how fast the universe is expanding.

The Big Idea: A Bridge between Time

• This new idea is cool because it connects different times in the universe’s history.
• It could give us a good answer about the Hubble constant.

Challenges

• While this idea is exciting, there are some challenges to solve:

• 1. Making sure the signals are clear enough to measure.
  2. Using the new method to answer other questions too.
• If this new way works, it could help us learn about things like dark matter and other universe stuff.

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Central Idea

• The remarkable discovery of the star Earendel by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2022 has been further illuminated by the James Webb Space Telescope.

About Earendel

• Earendel is the farthest star ever detected, observed within the first billion years after the big bang.
• It’s a massive B-type star, more than twice as hot as the Sun, and a million times more luminous.
• The star is part of the Sunrise Arc galaxy, detectable due to the gravitational lensing
• Gravitational lensing is a natural phenomenon where the mass of a massive object bends and magnifies light from a background object.
• The massive galaxy cluster WHL0137-08 acts as a “magnifying glass,” allowing telescopes to observe Earendel even though it’s distant.

How was it discovered?

• JSWT discovery: The James Webb Space Telescope employed its Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam) to build upon Hubble’s observations of Earendel.
• Star’s Characteristics: The revelations from NIRCam showcase Earendel as a massive B-type star, surpassing our Sun’s heat by over twofold and radiating luminosity a million times greater.
• 9 Billion Light-Years Away: Situated approximately 12.9 billion light-years from Earth, Earendel holds insights into the early universe’s cosmic evolution.
• Gravitational Lensing: Both Webb and Hubble harnessed gravitational lensing—a phenomenon where foreground galaxies magnify distant objects—to detect Earendel, with galaxy cluster WHL0137-08 acting as a cosmic magnifying lens.

Glimpse into it’s Past

• Single Point of Light: Due to its immense distance, Earendel appears as a solitary point of light even on Webb’s high-resolution infrared imagery.
• Snapshot from 1 Billion Years Post-Big Bang: Although Earendel remains a faint pinpoint, the telescope’s data indicates that we are witnessing the star as it appeared 1 billion years after the Big Bang.
• Historic Perspective: This revelation pushes the boundaries of our knowledge, as the previous farthest observed star had been documented around 4 billion years post-Big Bang.

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Central Idea

• NASA, in collaboration with DARPA, has selected Lockheed Martin to design and build a nuclear-powered propulsion system for DRACO program.
• It is a breakthrough technology that could propel astronauts on a faster journey to Mars.

What is DRACO Program?

• DRACO stands for Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations.
• It aims to leverage nuclear reactions to significantly reduce travel time, making interplanetary missions more efficient and safer.
• The spacecraft will orbit at an altitude of approximately 700 to 1,994 kilometers, staying in orbit for over 300 years to ensure safe decay of radioactive elements.

How it is different from conventional spacecraft?

• DRACO, a nuclear thermal rocket (NTR) utilizes a nuclear reactor to heat propellant to extreme temperatures before exhausting the hot propellant through a nozzle to produce thrust.
• Compared to conventional space propulsion technologies, NTRs offer a high thrust-to-weight ratio.
• This thrust is around 10,000 times greater than electric propulsion, and a specific impulse (i.e., propellant efficiency) two-to-five times greater than in-space chemical propulsion.

Benefits of DRACO

• Shorter Journey to Mars: With nuclear-powered propulsion, astronauts could reach Mars in just three to four months, cutting the current travel time in half. The spacecraft could continue accelerating through the first half of the journey and then start slowing down again, reducing the need for extensive propellant storage.
• Enhanced Fuel Efficiency: Nuclear reactions, using the splitting of uranium atoms, are far more efficient than conventional rocket engines that rely on fuel combustion. The DRACO engine features a nuclear reactor that heats hydrogen gas to generate thrust, offering greater fuel efficiency for interplanetary travel.
• Reduced Exposure to Deep Space: Faster journeys to Mars would minimize astronauts’ exposure to the harsh environment of deep space, reducing potential risks and health hazards.

Nuclear Propulsion: Historical Context

• Legacy: The concept of nuclear propulsion for space is not new. In the 1950s and 1960s, Project Orion explored using atomic bomb explosions to accelerate spacecraft. NASA’s Project Rover and Project NERVA in the same era aimed to develop nuclear-thermal engines for space missions.
• Advancements in Safety Protocols: Unlike earlier nuclear propulsion projects, DRACO uses a less-enriched form of uranium and incorporates advanced safety protocols. The reactor will only be activated in space to minimize the risk of a radioactive accident on Earth.

Potential Applications and Future Testing:

• Military Satellite Maneuvers: DARPA’s investment in the DRACO program indicates potential military applications, such as enabling rapid maneuvers of military satellites in Earth’s orbit.
• Nuclear-Thermal Engine Test: Lockheed Martin plans to launch the demonstration spacecraft in late 2025 or early 2026.

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Central Idea

• After more than four decades in space, Voyager 2, Earth’s longest-running space probe, experienced a communication loss with NASA.

Voyager Mission

• Originally planned to explore the five outer planets (Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) with four complex spacecraft, NASA changed its approach due to budget constraints.
• The agency decided to send two identical probes, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, initially slated to explore only Jupiter and Saturn. In 1974, they were redirected to explore Uranus and Neptune as well.
• The Voyager spacecraft took advantage of a rare alignment of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune that occurs once every 175 years.
• This alignment allowed the spacecraft to harness the gravity of each planet, enabling them to swing from one to the next using minimal fuel.

Features of the Voyager

• Identical Design: Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are equipped with 10 different instruments to carry out various experiments. These instruments include cameras for celestial imaging, infrared and ultraviolet sensors, magnetometers, plasma detectors, and cosmic-ray sensors.
• Nuclear Power Source: As their missions involved traveling far from the Sun, the spacecraft relied on a small nuclear power plant fueled by the radioactive decay of plutonium pellets, providing hundreds of watts of power.
• Golden Phonograph Records: Each spacecraft carries a golden phonograph record, intended as a time capsule for any extraterrestrial life that might encounter the probes in the distant future. The record contains images, natural sounds, music, greetings in multiple languages, and instructions for playing it.

Notable Achievements of Voyager Spacecraft

• Jupiter Encounter: Voyager 1 reached Jupiter on March 5, 1979, followed by Voyager 2 on July 9. Among the exciting discoveries were active volcanoes on Jupiter’s moon, Io, and three new moons: Thebe, Metis, and Adrastea.
• Saturn Revelations: Voyager 1 passed by Saturn’s moon, Titan, revealing it was not the largest moon in the solar system, as previously thought. Titan’s atmosphere was found to be composed mainly of nitrogen, and it likely had clouds and methane rain.
• Uranus Exploration: Voyager 2 arrived at Uranus in 1986, providing stunning photographs and confirming that its main constituents are hydrogen and helium. The spacecraft discovered 10 new moons, two new rings, and made significant observations about Uranus’s atmosphere.
• Neptune Flyby: Voyager 2 became the first human-made object to fly past Neptune in 1989. It discovered new moons and rings, observed the Great Dark Spot—a massive spinning storm on Neptune—and measured winds blowing at 1,100 kph.

Continuing Journey Among the Stars

• Entering Interstellar Space: Both Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 officially entered interstellar space in 2012 and 2018, respectively. These milestones helped astronomers define the edge of interstellar space, around 18 billion kilometers from the Sun.
• Communication Loss and Hope: Voyager 2 recently experienced a glitch after a faulty command, affecting its ability to receive commands and transmit data. However, the “heartbeat” signal detected by NASA assures that the spacecraft is still operational, and scientists hope to regain full communication soon.
• Silent Journey: While most instruments on the spacecraft are no longer operational, both Voyagers will continue their silent journey among the stars, powered by their small nuclear power sources. Eventually, their missions will end.

Conclusion

• Voyager 2, a symbol of human ingenuity and exploration, continues its journey through the cosmos, exploring distant planets and paving the way for future space missions.
• Despite communication loss, the spacecraft’s “heartbeat” signal signifies its resilience and ongoing operation, reminding us of the indomitable spirit of human curiosity.

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Central Idea

• NASA recently released an image obtained by the James Webb Space Telescope, showcasing the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex, which is the closest star-forming region to Earth.
• This image marked one year since NASA unveiled the telescope’s first scientific results.

What is Rho Ophiuchi Cloud Complex?

• The Rho Ophiuchi Cloud Complex is a molecular cloud located in the constellation Ophiuchus.
• It is centered 1° south of the star ρ Ophiuchi and extends to other parts of the constellation.
• At an estimated distance of about 140 parsecs, or 460 light years, it is one of the closest star-forming regions to the Solar System.
• It consists of several dark nebulae, which are dense regions of interstellar dust and gas that block background starlight.
• The cloud complex contains numerous young stellar objects, including protostars, young stars, and brown dwarfs.
• These stellar objects form as the dense material in the cloud collapses under gravity, leading to the birth of new stars.

Observations from the Image

• Material Jets and Surrounding Gas/Dust: The image illustrates how the material jets emanating from young stars influence the surrounding gas and dust while illuminating molecular hydrogen.
• Glowing Cave Carved by Stellar Winds: One part of the image shows a star inside a glowing cave carved out in space by its stellar winds.
• Impressive Nebula with Bright Young Stars: The image showcases an impressive nebula with three bright young stars at the top, revealing the size and detail of the jets and outflows.

Insights from the new findings

• Formation of New Suns: Rho Ophiuchi image demonstrates the formation of new suns and planet-forming disks, resembling what scientists believe the early solar system looked like over 4.5 billion years ago.
• Violent Outbursts and Dusty Cocoons: The image unveils the process of stars and planetary systems assembling, as well as the dusty cocoons being disrupted by violent outbursts, portrayed as red jets cutting through the cloud.
• Visibility through Dust: The Rho Ophiuchi core is usually obscured by extensive amounts of dust, making it invisible to telescopes working in visible light, like the Hubble telescope. However, JSWT penetrates the dust, revealing the young stars within and providing insights into the early stages of star formation.

Back2Basics: James Webb Space Telescope

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Central Idea

• Astronomers have made a remarkable discovery of meteor-like streaks on the surface of the Sun, differentiating them from the shooting stars witnessed on Earth.
• These solar shooting stars, observed during a phenomenon known as coronal rain, offer valuable insights into the Sun’s complex dynamics.

Observing Coronal Rain and Solar Shooting Stars

• Distinction from Earthly Shooting Stars: While shooting stars on Earth are space rocks or dust fragments burning up in our atmosphere, solar shooting stars occur within coronal rain phenomena.
• Coronal Rain: Coronal rain is a condensation process involving extremely hot material from the Sun’s corona. It forms dense clumps of plasma, which plummet back to the Sun’s surface due to its immense gravity.
• European Space Agency’s Solar Orbiter (SolO): The SolO spacecraft provided valuable observations of solar shooting stars, capturing high-resolution images and monitoring the heating and compression of gas beneath them.

Characteristics of such Stars

• Findings: The Solar Orbiter observed the impacts of solar shooting stars for the first time, revealing intense bursts of brightness, upward movement of stellar material, and shock waves that heat up the Sun’s corona.
• Unique Features: Unlike Earthly shooting stars, solar shooting stars lack bright tails due to powerful magnetic fields in the Sun’s corona stripping gas from the falling clumps.
• Challenging Observations: The magnetic fields’ influence makes the observation of solar meteors challenging, and their true nature remained unknown until these recent observations.

Insights and Implications

• Solving the Corona Mystery: Scientists believe that the discovery of solar shooting stars could help explain why the corona, the Sun’s outermost atmosphere, is hotter than the layers beneath it. This puzzles astronomers, as conventional solar models predict increasing temperatures closer to the Sun’s core.
• Coronal Rain Formation: Coronal rains are formed by localized temperature drops, causing solar plasma to condense into dense lumps that fall to the Sun’s cooler surface, known as the photosphere, at speeds up to 220,000 miles per hour.
• Proximity of Observation: The Solar Orbiter’s close distance of 30 million miles from the Sun allowed for detailed observations of these phenomena, closer than the orbit of Mercury.

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Central Idea

• The recent discovery of the CH3+ molecule, also known as methyl cation, by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has provided significant insights into the building blocks of life.
• This simple organic molecule, consisting of one carbon atom and three hydrogen atoms, has been found in the Orion Nebula.
• This reveals the potential for the formation of complex organic molecules necessary for life.

What is CH3+?

• The methyl cation, also known as the carbocation CH3^+, is an organic molecular ion consisting of a positively charged carbon atom (C+) with three hydrogen atoms (H) attached to it.
• It is the simplest carbocation and belongs to the alkyl cation family.
• The methyl cation is highly reactive due to its positive charge and the electron-deficient nature of the carbon atom.
• Due to its reactivity, the methyl cation tends to undergo reactions to achieve greater stability by accepting a pair of electrons.
• It can react with nucleophiles, which are electron-rich species, to form new chemical bonds.

How does it support life?

• Carbon-Based Organic Molecules: In biological processes, carbon atoms typically exist in stable organic molecules, such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are essential for life.
• Importance of CH3+: The detection of the CH3+ molecule in space indicates the presence of basic building blocks for life beyond Earth.

Significance of discovering CH3+ in Space

• Molecular Fingerprints: Scientists analyze light emitted or absorbed by atoms and molecules to identify their unique spectroscopic signatures.
• Spectroscopy with JWST: The JWST observed the Orion Nebula, a swirling disk of dust and gas surrounding a young star, and detected the distinctive fingerprints of CH3+ in its light.

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Central Idea

• The IceCube Neutrino Observatory, a gigaton detector located at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, has achieved a significant scientific breakthrough by producing an image of the Milky Way using neutrinos.
• Neutrinos are minuscule particles and serve as ghostlike astronomical messengers.

IceCube Neutrino Observatory  

• The IceCube Neutrino Observatory is a unique detector encompassing a cubic kilometer of Antarctic ice with over 5,000 light sensors.
• It detects high-energy neutrinos, which possess energies millions to billions of times higher than those produced by stellar fusion reactions.

What are Neutrinos?

• Neutrinos are fundamental particles in the Standard Model of particle physics.
• They belong to the family of elementary particles called leptons, which also includes electrons and muons.
• Neutrinos have extremely low mass, and they interact very weakly with matter, making them challenging to detect.

Neutrino Emission from the Milky Way

• The IceCube Collaboration’s research reveals evidence of high-energy neutrino emission from the Milky Way.
• This emission, unlike light, allows researchers to observe the universe beyond nearby sources within our galaxy.
• The detection of neutrinos from the galactic plane of the Milky Way confirms its status as a source of cosmic rays and high-energy particles.

Challenges and Breakthroughs

• Detecting neutrinos from the Milky Way’s southern sky presented challenges due to background interference from cosmic-ray interactions with Earth’s atmosphere.
• IceCube researchers developed advanced data analysis techniques, including machine learning algorithms, to identify and analyze neutrino events.
• These methods improved the identification of neutrino cascades and enhanced the accuracy of energy and direction reconstruction.

Implications and Future Prospects

• The study utilized 60,000 neutrinos from ten years of IceCube data, providing a more comprehensive analysis than previous studies.
• The research confirms the Milky Way as a source of high-energy neutrinos, leading to further investigations to identify specific sources within the galaxy.
• Neutrino astronomy offers a unique perspective to explore the universe, complementing traditional observations using light.

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Central Idea

• The European Space Agency (ESA) is embarking on an extraordinary mission with the launch of the Euclid Space Telescope.
• This ambitious project aims to survey billions of galaxies, providing valuable insights into the evolution of the Universe, as well as the mysterious phenomena of dark energy and dark matter.

What is Euclid Mission?

• The primary goal of the Euclid mission is to study the nature and properties of dark energy and dark matter, which together constitute a significant portion of the Universe.
• By mapping the distribution and evolution of galaxies, Euclid aims to shed light on the fundamental forces shaping the cosmos.

(1) Mission Scope and Duration

• Euclid is a space-based mission, equipped with a sophisticated telescope and state-of-the-art scientific instruments.
• The mission is expected to have a nominal operational lifetime of 6 years, during which it will conduct an extensive survey of the sky.

(2) Launch and Spacecraft

• Euclid was launched on July 1, 2023, from Cape Canaveral in Florida using a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.
• The spacecraft carries the Euclid Space Telescope, which is designed to observe galaxies across a wide range of wavelengths.

(3) Investigating Dark Energy and Dark Matter  

• Dark energy, discovered in 1998, explains the unexpected acceleration of the universe’s expansion.
• Euclid’s mission aims to provide a more precise measurement of this acceleration, potentially uncovering variations throughout cosmic history.
• Dark matter, inferred through the gravitational effects it exerts on galaxies and clusters, plays a vital role in preserving their integrity.

Scientific Instruments and Observations

(a) Euclid Space Telescope

• The Euclid Space Telescope is equipped with a 1.2-meter primary mirror, allowing it to capture detailed observations of galaxies.
• It carries two main scientific instruments: the visible-wavelength camera (VIS) and the near-infrared camera and spectrometer (NISP).

(b) Visible-Wavelength Camera (VIS)

• The VIS instrument will capture images in visible light, enabling the study of the shapes, sizes, and morphological properties of galaxies.

(c) Near-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer (NISP)

• NISP will observe galaxies in the near-infrared range, providing essential data on their distance, redshift, and clustering properties.
• By measuring the distribution of galaxies at different cosmic epochs, NISP will aid in the study of large-scale cosmic structures.

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Central Idea: Recent research has shed light on the Betelgeuse’s current stage and its potential fate as it approaches the end of its lifecycle.

Betelgeuse: The Bright Red Star in Orion

• Easily visible in the constellation Orion, Betelgeuse is a bright red star known as “Thiruvathirai” or “Ardra” in Indian astronomy.
• It is a massive star that undergoes the carbon-burning stage, leading to its eventual collapse into a supernova.

How is it dying?

• Massive stars like Betelgeuse exhaust their hydrogen fuel and transition to using helium to create carbon.
• The energy released during helium fusion is lower than that of hydrogen, requiring the star to burn more helium to maintain stability.
• Eventually, the helium is depleted, leading to the star’s progression through various burning stages, including carbon and silicon burning.

Pulsation and Betelgeuse’s Death Throes

• Researchers studying Betelgeuse have observed its pulsation, indicating its stage of evolution.
• The observed pulsation aligns with theoretical estimates of the late carbon-burning stage, suggesting that Betelgeuse is in its death throes.
• Astronomers detect the expansion and contraction of Betelgeuse by analyzing its pulsation and corresponding brightness variations.
• Previous studies disagreed on which pulsation period is fundamental, with one team considering 417 days and another team proposing 2,190 days.
• Researchers conclude that it is in the final stage of burning carbon, considering the 2,190-day pulse as fundamental.

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Central Idea

• China has achieved a successful launch of the Shenzhou-16 spacecraft carrying three astronauts to the Tiangong space station.

What is Shenzhou-16?

• Shenzhou-16 spacecraft is part of Chinese manned spaceflight missions and was designed to transport astronauts to the Tiangong space station.
• This mission marks an important step in China’s space exploration efforts, with the crew set to conduct a range of tests and experiments during their five-month stay.
• The Tiangong space station, operated by the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA), is an integral part of China’s ambitious space program and aims to be a hub for scientific research.

Astronauts on Shenzhou-16

• The crew of the Shenzhou-16 mission consists of three astronauts: Jing Haipeng as the leading commander, Zhu Yangzhu, and Gui Haichao.
• Jing Haipeng is an experienced senior spacecraft pilot and one of China’s first batch of astronaut trainees.
• Zhu Yangzhu, a postdoctoral fellow in aerodynamics and former university teacher, will serve as a spaceflight engineer.
• Gui Haichao is the first Chinese civilian to travel to space and will be responsible for overseeing science experiments at the space station.

Objectives of the Mission

• The Shenzhou-16 crew will replace the previous crew from the Shenzhou-15 mission that has been aboard the Tiangong space station since November.
• The new crew will carry out large-scale tests and experiments in various fields, including the study of quantum phenomena, high-precision space time-frequency systems, verification of general relativity, and the origin of life.
• These scientific endeavors are expected to lead to significant achievements during the crew’s five-month stay.

About the Tiangong Space Station

• The Tiangong space station, operated by the CMSA, was developed by China after being barred from collaborating with NASA due to concerns of espionage.
• The station’s first module entered orbit in 2021, with two more modules added subsequently.
• China’s long-term plan is to expand the station, with the next module set to dock and create a cross-shaped structure.
• The Tiangong space station aims to become a leading outpost for scientific research once the International Space Station’s operations conclude in 2030.

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NASA is developing a snake-like robot- Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS), which it says can boost space exploration through its diverse adaptability to various terrains.

Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS)

Features of EELS Robot

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The European Space Agency (ESA) is all set to launch the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, or Juice, mission from its spaceport in French Guiana on an Ariane 5 launcher.

What is the Juice Mission?

• Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (Juice) mission is a project by the European Space Agency (ESA) to explore the Solar System’s largest planet Jupiter and its three largest moons, Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa.
• Juice is constructed by an industrial consortium led by Airbus Defence and Space and is planned to reach Jupiter in 2031 using remote sensing, geophysical, and in situ instruments.

Goals of the Juice mission

• Juice aims to create a detailed map of the surfaces of Jupiter’s moons and to look beneath them to probe their potential habitability by creating a comprehensive picture of Jupiter.
• One of the primary goals of the Juice mission is to gain insight into how planetary systems form and evolve over time and how possibly habitable environments can arise in Jupiter-like systems around other stars.
• Juice will also analyze the chemistry, structure, dynamics, weather, and climate of Jupiter and its ever-changing atmosphere.

Ganymede: Focus of the Juice mission

• Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System and the only one to generate its magnetic field.
• Juice will move into Ganymede’s orbit after approximately four of arriving at Jupiter.
• Juice will use its suite of ten sophisticated instruments to measure how Ganymede rotates, its gravity, its shape and interior structure, its magnetic field, its composition, and to penetrate its icy crust using radar down to a depth of about nine km.

Can Juice detect life?

• Juice is not equipped to detect life on Jupiter or its moons.
• It is, however, capable of finding out whether there could be places around Jupiter, inside the icy moons, where the necessary conditions, such as water, biological essential elements, energy, and stability, to sustain life are present.
• Scientists believe that there is a possibility that life is present on Jupiter’s moons, in the form of microbes or more advanced species, such as those found in deep-sea trenches and at hydrothermal vents on Earth.

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Central idea: The newscard is about the US government-sponsored System for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP) program, also known as SNAPSHOT for Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power Shot, and its SNAP-10A space nuclear reactor.

What is SNAP-10A?

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NASA has announced that its Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) spacecraft is fully operational after the mission team successfully reset it.

Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)

• IBEX is a small NASA spacecraft designed to map the boundary where winds from the Sun interact with winds from other stars.
• The spacecraft is about the size of a bus tire and its instruments look towards the interstellar boundary while it is on its nine-day orbit around our planet.
• It was launched in 2008 and has spent nearly 15 years in space already.

Purpose

• The purpose of IBEX is to study the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium and to map the boundary of the solar system.

Technology

• IBEX uses two neutral atom imaging cameras to detect energetic neutral atoms that are created at the boundary of the heliosphere.
• The cameras are mounted on a spinning spacecraft, allowing them to scan the sky and build up a map of the boundary.

Discoveries

Since its launch, IBEX has made several important discoveries, including:

• The first direct measurements of the interstellar wind, which flows into the solar system from the direction of the constellation Scorpius.
• The discovery of a “ribbon” of energetic neutral atoms that stretches across the sky, which may be caused by the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium.

Current Status

• IBEX is still in operation and continues to gather data about the interstellar boundary.
• Its mission has been extended several times, with the most recent extension running until 2023.

Significance

• IBEX’s findings have increased our understanding of the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium.
• It has helped to refine models of the heliosphere and the solar system’s place in the galaxy.

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