Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Vaikom- two States, two leaders and a tale of reform
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Cause and significance of Vaikom Satyagraha;
Why in the News?
Over a century ago, the Vaikom Struggle broke caste barriers in Travancore, sparking mass movements for religious reform, inspiring Periyar’s Dravidian Movement, and advancing egalitarian principles within Hindu society.
What were the key motivations and outcomes of the Vaikom Satyagraha?
Motivations:
- Social Inequality: The primary motivation was to challenge the caste-based discrimination that prohibited backward caste Hindus from accessing streets near the Vaikom Mahadeva temple.
- Demand for Equal Rights: A call for equality and dignity for all castes within the Hindu religion.
- Religious Reform: The movement sought to highlight the need for social justice through religious reform and temple entry rights.
- Political Awareness: It aimed to bring political attention to caste discrimination and mobilize support for broader social changes.
Outcomes:
- Immediate Impact: The restrictions on backward castes from walking near the temple were lifted in 1925, marking a significant social reform milestone.
- Mass Mobilization: It became one of the first large-scale movements in South India that united people across caste and class lines.
- Precedent for Temple Entry Movements: The success of Vaikom inspired subsequent movements across India, including protests led by B.R. Ambedkar.
- Legislative Reforms: It influenced the introduction of laws like the Madras Temple Entry Authorization Act (1947), allowing all Hindus to enter temples.
- Foundation for Social Justice Policies: The movement set the stage for government interventions in temple management and appointments of priests from backward castes.
How did the leadership of the movement influence its success?
- The success of the Vaikom Satyagraha can be attributed largely to its leadership. Key figures included Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, who played a crucial role in mobilising support across various social strata and employing nonviolent methods of protest. His involvement transformed the movement into a mass agitation that attracted participants from all classes.
- The support from Mahatma Gandhi, who visited Vaikom in March 1925 and engaged with various caste groups, further amplified its impact. The collaboration among leaders from different backgrounds, including local leaders like T.K. Madhavan and K.P. Kesava Menon, was instrumental in broadening the movement’s appeal and sustaining momentum against state repression.
What lessons can contemporary society learn from the Vaikom Satyagraha regarding caste and social justice?
The Vaikom Satyagraha offers several important lessons for contemporary society regarding caste and social justice:
- Collective Action: The movement exemplifies how collective action can effectively challenge systemic injustices. It highlights the importance of unity among diverse groups in advocating for social change.
- Nonviolent Protest: The use of nonviolent methods remains a powerful tool for social movements today. The Gandhian approach adopted during the Vaikom Satyagraha serves as a model for contemporary struggles against discrimination and inequality.
- State Intervention: The eventual recognition of rights for marginalised communities underscores that government intervention can be necessary to dismantle entrenched social hierarchies. This raises discussions about how modern states can balance secularism with equitable access to public resources.
- Continuous Struggle: The resistance faced by reformers during and after the Vaikom Satyagraha illustrates that societal change is often met with opposition. This calls for sustained efforts in advocating for equality and justice in today’s context.
Conclusion: The Vaikom Satyagraha was a landmark movement for caste and social justice, showcasing the power of collective action, nonviolence, and reformist leadership. Its legacy inspires continued efforts toward equality, challenging entrenched discrimination, and fostering inclusive societies.
Mains PYQ:
Q Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
On this day over 500 years ago, the Portuguese conquered Goa
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Portuguese rule and liberation of Goa
Why in the News?
- On November 25, the Portuguese conquered Goa, establishing first territorial possession in India by any colonists.
- This marked the beginning of Portugal’s 400-year colonial rule in the region, which ended only in 1961, making them the last colonial power to leave India.
Why the Portuguese came to Goa?
- Vasco da Gama’s voyage in 1498 revealed the thriving trade networks in the Indian Ocean.
- The Portuguese aimed to capitalize on the wealth from the Indian Ocean trade routes.
- Rivalry with Muslim-controlled trade routes prompted the Portuguese to establish a military presence in the region.
- In 1505, the Portuguese State of India was formally established, six years after Vasco da Gama’s arrival.
- Francisco de Almeida, the first Viceroy, set up the first base in Fort Manuel (now part of Kochi).
- The Portuguese controlled the Island of Bom Bahia (later Bombay) until it was ceded to England in 1661.
How Alfonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa?
- Albuquerque (Viceroy, 1509-1515) understood that Goa was essential for controlling the maritime trade routes in the East.
- The decision to attack Goa was influenced by Timmayya, a debated figure, either a Malabari pirate or an aristocrat with links to the Vijayanagara Empire.
- Albuquerque’s first attack on Goa (February-March 1510) was largely successful due to the unpopularity of Sultan Yusuf Adil Shah’s rule among Goa’s Hindu population.
- Many locals supported the Portuguese against the Sultan’s rule.
- After being stranded on the Mandovi River during the monsoon season, Albuquerque received reinforcements from Portugal.
- In November 1510, with reinforcements, Albuquerque launched a successful attack and retook Goa.
Who Was Timmayya?
Why did Timmayya want Goa conquered?
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PYQ:[2021] Consider the following statements: 1. It was during the reign of Iltutmish that Chengiz Khan reached the Indus in pursuit of the fugitive Khwarezm prince. 2. It was during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughluq that Taimur occupied Multan and crossed the Indus. 3. It was during the reign of Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara Empire that Vasco da Gama reached the coast of Kerala. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who were Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal
Why in the News?
Superstar Thalapathy Vijay launched his new party with speech highlighting his inspirations from Rani Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal.
Contributions of Velu Nachiyar (1730-1796)
- Born in 1730 to King Chellamuthu Sethupathy and Queen Sakandhimuthal of the Ramnad kingdom (now Tamil Nadu).
- Trained in horse riding, archery, kalaripayattu, and silambam (South Indian martial arts).
- Educated as a polyglot, fluent in Tamil, Urdu, English, and French, with a strong grasp of military strategy.
- Married Muthu Vaduganatha Periyavudaya Thevar in 1746, supporting him as Queen of Sivagangai.
- In 1772, Sivagangai was invaded by the British East India Company in alliance with the Nawab of Arcot; her husband was killed in battle.
- Fled with her daughter Vellachi to Dindigul under the protection of Hyder Ali of Mysore.
- Formed alliances with Hyder Ali and Gopala Naicker of the Marudu brothers to reclaim her kingdom.
- Successfully fought against the British and reclaimed Sivagangai in 1780.
- Ruled for a decade before passing the throne to her daughter in 1790.
- Known as Tamil Nadu’s ‘Veeramangai’ (Brave Lady) and celebrated as an early Indian queen who resisted British colonialism.
Significant role played by Anjalai Ammal (1890-1961)
- Born in 1890 in Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, to a weaver family.
- Married Murugappan in 1908, and both joined the freedom struggle inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s principles.
- Became active in the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921, marking the beginning of her political involvement.
- Played a significant role in:
- Neil Statue Satyagraha, protesting a statue of Colonel James Neil.
- Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942.
- Served as President of the All India Women’s Congress in Madras in 1931.
- Arrested multiple times for her activism; gave birth to her youngest son while serving a six-month prison term.
- Prevented by the British from meeting Gandhi in 1934; met him in disguise, and he called her “South India’s Rani of Jhansi”.
- First woman elected to the Madras legislature as a Congress representative.
- Remained politically active until her death in 1961, remembered as a pioneer for women’s rights and freedom.
PYQ:[2016] Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase. [2015] Consider the following statements: 1. The first woman President of the Indian National Congress was Sarojini Naidu. 2. The first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress was Badruddin Tyabji. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] 200 Years of Kittur Vijayotsava
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kittur Rani Chennamma
Why in the News?
A commemorative postage stamp was released at the historic Kittur Rani Channamma Stage within the Kittur Fort premises to mark the 200th anniversary of Kittur Vijayotsava.
About Kittur Rani Chennamma
- Rani Chennamma was born in 1778 in Kakati, Belgaum (now Karnataka).
- She was trained in horse riding, sword fighting, and archery from an early age.
- She married Mallasarja Desai, the ruler of Kittur, a small principality in Karnataka.
- The Kittur Uprising (1824):
- The British East India Company refused to recognize her adopted son, Shivalingappa, as the rightful successor under the Doctrine of Lapse.
- She declared war on the British in response to their annexation attempt.
- In October 1824, she led the Kittur army against 20,000 British soldiers stationed near the Kittur Fort.
- During the battle, British official John Thackery was killed, and the Company forces faced significant losses.
- After initial resistance, British forces returned in December 1824 with a larger army.
- Despite her courageous efforts, Rani Chennamma was captured along with her forces and imprisoned.
- She was held captive in Bailhongal Fort, where she spent her remaining years. She died in captivity in 1829.
Legacy and Significance
- Rani Chennamma is celebrated as one of the first women in Indian history to lead an anti-colonial uprising.
- She is revered as a symbol of courage, patriotism, and resistance against colonial oppression.
- She is honored in Kannada folklore, particularly through lavani (folk songs) that celebrate her bravery and sacrifice.
- Statues have been erected across Karnataka, including a prominent one in Bengaluru’s Parliament House.
Doctrine of Lapse
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PYQ:[2013] Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss. [2014] What was/were the object/objects of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858)?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Kolkata Tram
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kolkata Tram
Why in the News?
West Bengal has announced the discontinuation of the iconic 150 year old Kolkata trams, India’s last functioning tram system.
About Kolkata Tram
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Revival and Modernization of Kolkata’s Trams
- Lord Ripon revived trams in Calcutta in 1880 by experimenting with steam locomotives.
- While the steam-powered trams improved speed, they introduced issues like pollution, which discouraged other states from adopting this technology.
- In 1895, Madras (now Chennai) launched the country’s first electric tramcars, reducing noise and pollution.
- Following this, Calcutta also transitioned to electric-powered trams by 1902, with routes between Esplanade and Kidderpore, and Esplanade and Kalighat.
Significance of Trams
- Kolkata’s trams hold historical significance as India’s oldest running tram system, symbolizing the city’s colonial past and cultural identity.
- They provide an environmentally friendly and affordable mode of transport, making them relevant even today.
- As a symbol of resilience, Kolkata’s trams have survived while other cities phased them out.
- They also serve as a unique tourist attraction, offering a nostalgic glimpse of the city.
PYQ:[2020] Which of the following statements correctly explains the impact of Industrial Revolution on India during the first half of the nineteenth century? (a) Indian handicrafts were ruined. (b) Machines were introduced in the Indian textile industry in large numbers. (c) Railway line were laid in many parts of the country. (d) Heavy duties were imposed on the import of British manufactures. |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Bhagat Singh (1907-1931)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bhagat Singh
Why in the News?
September 28th marks 117th birth anniversary of the legendary freedom fighter “Bhagat Singh”.
Who was Bhagat Singh?
| Details | |
| Birth | September 28, 1907; Banga, Punjab (now in Pakistan) |
| Family | Came from a family involved in anticolonial activities; his father Kishan Singh and uncle Ajit Singh were active freedom fighters. |
| Affiliations | • Hindustan Republican Association (1924) • Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (1928) • Naujawan Bharat Sabha (1926) |
| Revolutionary Actions | • Played a key role in the Lahore Conspiracy Case (1928) by avenging Lala Lajpat Rai’s death and mistakenly killing J.P. Saunders • Threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929, with B.K. Dutt, to protest oppressive British laws. |
| Ideologies and Principles | • Advocated Marxist and socialist ideologies • Rejected religion in his essay Why I Am an Atheist • Emphasized rationalism, equality, and justice. |
| Arrest and Trial |
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| Execution |
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| Literary Works |
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PYQ:[2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss. |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Deendayal Upadhyaya’s Birth Anniversary
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Deendayal Upadhyaya
Why in the News?
September 25 marks the 108th birth anniversary of Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, one of the most influential thinkers of India’s right-wing movement.
About Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968)
| Details | |
| Born | • September 25, 1916 in Mathura, Uttar Pradesh
• Antyodaya Diwas is observed on this day since 2014. |
| Affiliations | Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) |
| Political Role | • One of the key leaders of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS) • Served as President of BJS |
| Key Contributions | • Founder of the Integral Humanism philosophy • Introduced the concept of Antyodaya for the upliftment of the poorest • Promoted self-reliance (Swadeshi) and decentralization of power |
| Doctrine of ‘Antyodaya’ | • Antyodaya means “upliftment of the last person in society.” • It focuses on improving the living conditions of the poorest and most marginalized sections of society. • Upadhyaya believed that true development can only be measured by the welfare of the weakest sections, promoting policies aimed at economic, social, and educational inclusion of these groups. |
| Legacy | • Antyodaya Anna Yojana and Deendayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana inspired by his ideas
• In 2015, NRLM was renamed Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-NRLM. |
| Death | February 11, 1968, under mysterious circumstances in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Why Ambedkar and Gandhi disagreed on question of separate electorates for SC’s?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Poona Pact;
Mains level: Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste;
Why in the News?
On September 20, 1932, Mahatma Gandhi began a fast unto death in Yerawada Jail, Pune, to protest against the provision of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes.
Gandhi vs Ambedkar on Caste
- Gandhi’s Views on Caste: Initially orthodox, Gandhi supported social prohibitions like restrictions on inter-dining and inter-marriage but later rejected untouchability, referring to untouchables as “Harijans.” However, he did not reject the institution of caste itself, as it was tied to Hindu religious practices.
- Ambedkar’s Radical Approach: Ambedkar believed that to truly abolish caste, one needed to attack the divine authority of the Hindu scriptures (shastras) that justified it. He argued that reforms short of rejecting the religious basis of caste were insufficient.
- Ambedkar’s strategy was to focus on lower castes achieving political power to challenge their subjugation within the Hindu social order.
Ambedkar’s Argument for Separate Electorates
- Distinct Identity of Depressed Classes: Ambedkar argued that the Depressed Classes (Scheduled Castes) formed a distinct group, separate from the Hindus. Despite being part of Hindu society, they did not enjoy equal treatment and were subject to systemic oppression.
- Political Machinery for Representation: Ambedkar advocated for separate electorates with a double vote system, where Scheduled Castes would vote for their own candidates as well as in the general electorate.
- Protection from Majority Rule: Ambedkar warned that joint electorates would allow the Hindu majority to control the election of Dalit representatives, making it impossible for lower castes to effectively protect their interests against the tyranny of the majority.
Why Gandhi Opposed Separate Electorates
- Integration of Lower Castes: Gandhi opposed separate electorates because he believed they would marginalize lower castes further.
- Instead of being restricted to a limited share of seats, Gandhi thought lower castes should aim for broader participation in political leadership.
- Fear of Dividing Hindu Society: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society, further weakening it.
- He believed this division would help the British continue their “divide and rule” policy, undermining India’s struggle for independence.
- Strategic Concerns: The introduction of separate electorates for Scheduled Castes, in addition to those for Muslims, would fragment the Hindu political base, reducing the power and influence of upper-caste Hindu leadership.
Culmination of the Debate: The Poona Pact
- Gandhi’s Fast: In 1932, Gandhi went on a fast unto death to oppose separate electorates, pressuring Ambedkar to concede. Ambedkar, despite his misgivings, agreed to the Poona Pact, which provided for reserved seats for Scheduled Castes but within a joint electorate.
- Ambedkar’s Dissatisfaction: Ambedkar was never fully satisfied with the outcome, believing the joint electorate allowed upper-caste Hindus to nominate Dalit representatives, effectively controlling their political voice.
Conclusion: The Gandhi-Ambedkar debate on caste culminated in the Poona Pact, with Gandhi opposing separate electorates to maintain Hindu unity, while Ambedkar sought political power for lower castes. Though Ambedkar agreed, he remained dissatisfied with the compromise.
Mains PYQ:
Q Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B R Ambedkar, despite having divergent approaches and strategies, had a common goal of amelioration of the downtrodden. Elucidate. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Mary Poonen Lukose?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mary Poonen Lukose and her contributions
Why in the News?
100 years ago, on September 23, 1924, Mary Poonen Lukose became the first woman to join a legislative council in an Indian princely state, entering the Travancore Legislative Council.
Who Was Mary Poonen Lukose?
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Records set by Mary Poonen Lukose
- First woman legislator in an Indian princely state: In 1924, she became the first woman member of the Travancore Legislative Council (a predecessor to Kerala’s Legislative Assembly).
- First woman graduate from Madras University in 1909, despite facing barriers to studying science as a woman.
- First woman Surgeon General of Travancore, and possibly the first woman Surgeon General in the world, in 1938.
- First woman to head the health department in Travancore, in 1924.
- Awarded the Padma Shri in 1975 for her contributions.
PYQ:[2013] Defying the barriers of age, gender and religion, the Indian women became the torch bearer during the struggle for freedom in India. Discuss. (10 marks-200 words). [2011] With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for (a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Why September 12 is observed as Saragarhi Day?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Saragarhi
Why in the News?
127th Anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi was observed on September 12.
About the Battle of Saragarhi
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Implication of the Battle
- The Sikh soldiers showed extraordinary courage, fighting against overwhelming odds.
- The 21 soldiers killed around 200 militants and injured 600, holding the enemy for seven hours.
- The British Government posthumously awarded all 21 soldiers the Indian Order of Merit.
- The battle highlighted the importance of discipline, leadership, and sacrifice, and underscored the role of Sikh regiments in the British Indian Army.
PYQ:[2020] Wellesley established the Fort William College at Calcutta because: (a) He was asked by the Board of Directors at London to do so (b) He wanted to revive interest in oriental learning in India (c) He wanted to provide William Carey and his associates with employment (d) He wanted to train British civilians for administrative purpose in India |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Sakthan Thampuran (1751-1805)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sakthan Thampuran
Why in the News?
Ministry of Tourism has pledged to replace the Sakthan Thampuran statue that was knocked over by a state transport bus in Thrissur.
Who was Sakthan Thampuran?
- Sakthan Thampuran, born Raja Rama Varma IX in 1751, was a powerful ruler of the Cochin kingdom from 1790 to 1805.
- He was raised by an aunt who nicknamed him Sakthan, meaning powerful, reflecting his strong personality and leadership.
- The title Thampuran is derived from the Sanskrit word samrat, meaning emperor.
- The Cochin kingdom, a part of the Late Chera Empire, spanned regions from Ponnani (Malappuram) to Thottappally (Alappuzha) in modern-day Kerala.
- At age 18, in 1769, he became heir apparent, advising the king to maintain friendly relations with both the Dutch and the English, who were competing for control of trade in the region.
- He orchestrated the Mysore invasion of Travancore, which eventually led to the Powney treaty.
- This treaty freed the Cochin kingdom from its allegiance to Mysore and formalized its relations with the British East India Company.
- He ended the institution of the Yogiatirippads, spiritual heads of key temples. He shifted temple management to the government, earning a reputation as a fearsome leader who rid his kingdom of crime.
Sakthan and the Thrissur Pooram Festival
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PYQ:[2021] With reference to Indian history, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. The Nizamat of Arcot emerged out of Hyderabad State. 2. The Mysore Kingdom emerged out of Vijayanangara Empire. 3. Rohilkhand Kingdom was formed out of the territories occupied by Ahmad Shah Durrani. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Major Dhyan Chand (1905-1979): India’s first sporting superstar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Major Dhyan Chand and his contributions to hockey
Why in the News?
National Sports Day is celebrated on August 29 in India to honor the memory of “Major Dhyan Chand”, widely regarded as the first superstar of Indian hockey and arguably India’s first sporting superstar.
About Major Dhyan Chand:
| Details | |
| Birth | Born on August 29, 1905, in Allahabad, India |
| Olympic Achievements | Led India to three Olympic gold medals in 1928 (Amsterdam), 1932 (Los Angeles), and 1936 (Berlin). |
| Career Goals | Scored 33 goals in 12 Olympic matches, nearly averaging a hat-trick per game. |
| Signature Skill | Renowned for his exceptional dribbling and ball control. |
| Anecdotes |
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| National Recognition |
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| Legacy | Major Dhyan Chand National Stadium in New Delhi is named after him, underscoring his impact on Indian sports infrastructure. |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Bahadur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Bahadur
Why in the News?
The Prime Minister has paid homage to the great Maharaja of Tripura Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Bahadur on his birth anniversary.
Who was Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya Bahadur?
| Details | |
| Reign | 1923 – 1947 |
| Birth | August 19, 1908 |
| Contributions to Tripura | – Modernized Tripura with infrastructure and educational reforms. – Planned and designed the city of Agartala, earning the title “Architect of Modern Tripura.”-He took initiatives to explore tea cultivation and established several tea estates in Tripura. |
| Education and Infrastructure | – Established schools, colleges, and hospitals. – He was instrumental in establishing the first airport in Tripura, the Maharaja Bir Bikram Airport, which greatly improved connectivity and facilitated economic growth |
| Social Reforms | Introduced land reforms, granted land rights to indigenous people, and worked to abolish untouchability.
Maharaja Bir Bikram was a patron of the arts and culture, supporting various cultural activities and institutions. |
| Military Role | Supported the British during World War II. |
| Legacy | Died on May 17, 1947
Remembered as a visionary ruler who played a crucial role in shaping modern Tripura. |
PYQ:[2022] The political and administrative reorganization of states and territories has been a continuous ongoing process since the mid-nineteenth century. Discuss with examples. (250 words, 15 marks) [2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation of the following states as full states of the Indian Union? (a) Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Haryana (b) Nagaland , Haryana, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh (c) Sikkim, Haryana, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh (d) Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Haryana |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Buddhadeb Bhattacharya (1944-2024)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Buddhadeb Bhattacharya (1944-2024) and His contributions
Why in the News?
Former CM of West Bengal and leader Buddhadeb Bhattacharya passed away at 80.
Who was Buddhadeb Bhattacharya?
- Bhattacharya was a politician who served as CM of West Bengal from 2000 to 2011.
- He was known for his attempts to modernize and industrialize West Bengal while navigating the challenges of maintaining communist ideology.
- In 2022, Bhattacharya was awarded Padma Bhushan by the Indian government, which he declined, citing his political principles.
Key Contributions:
| Category | Details |
| Political Reforms |
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| Social-Cultural Reforms |
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| Economic Reforms |
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PYQ:[2011] Karl Marx explained the process of class struggle with the help of which one of the following theories? (a) Empirical liberalism (b) Existentialism (c) Darwin’s theory of evolution (d) Dialectical materialism |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
85th death anniversary of Shaheed Udham Singh
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Udham Singh
Why in the News?
- On July 31, 1940, Indian revolutionary leader Udham Singh was executed at the Pentonville prison in London for killing Michael O’Dwyer, the former lieutenant governor of Punjab.
- He avenged the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre by assassinating Michael O’Dwyer.
Udham Singh (1899-1940) and his Contributions:
| Details | |
| Birth and Early Life | Singh was born in Sunam in Punjab’s Sangrur district in 1899. |
| Political Activism | Became associated with the Ghadar Party while in the US, which was founded by Sohan Singh Bhakna in 1913 and headquartered in California. |
| Purpose and Actions | In 1934, Singh travelled to London to assassinate Michael O’Dwyer, the former Lieutenant Governor of Punjab during the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre. |
| Reason for Targeting O’Dwyer | O’Dwyer had ordered Brigadier Reginald Dyer to Amritsar before the massacre, fearing a second Indian mutiny due to Hindu-Muslim unity and demonstrations. |
| Assassination of O’Dwyer | On March 13, 1940, Singh shot O’Dwyer at a meeting in Caxton Hall, London. |
| Arrest and Execution | Arrested immediately, held in Brixton prison, sentenced to death, and hanged on July 31, 1940, at Pentonville Prison. |
| Legacy and Recognition |
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| Posthumous Honors |
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PYQ:[2014] The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a: (a) Revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco. (b) Nationalist organization operating from Singapore (c) Militant organization with headquarters at Berlin (d) Communist movement for India’s freedom with head-quarters at Tashkent |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Birth Anniversary of Chandrashekhar Azad and Lokmanya Tilak
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Contributions of Chandrashekhar Azad and Lokmanya Tilak
Why in the News?
Prime Minister paid his tributes to legendary freedom fighters Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Chandra Shekhar Azad on their birth anniversaries.
About Chandrashekhar Azad and Lokmanya Tilak
[1] Chandrashekhar Azad:
| Details: | |
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| Early Life |
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| Revolutionary Life |
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| Support from Congress | Financially supported by Motilal Nehru. |
| Activities in Jhansi | Used Jhansi as a base, practiced shooting, lived as Pandit Harishankar Bramhachari, taught children, connected with local revolutionaries. |
| Collaboration with Bhagat Singh | Reorganized HRA into HSRA, planned to assassinate James A. Scott, mistakenly killed John P. Saunders. |
| Death | Surrounded by police in Alfred Park, Allahabad;
Ensured companion’s escape; shot himself to avoid capture on 27 February 1931. |
[2] Lokmanya Tilak:
| Details: | |
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| Education | Founded Deccan Education Society (1884) and Fergusson College (1885) in Pune. |
| Ideology |
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| Political Life |
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| Surat Split (1907) | Split INC into Extremists (led by Tilak) and Moderates (led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale) due to leadership disputes and differing approaches. |
| Contribution to Freedom Movement |
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| Imprisonment | Imprisoned from 1908 to 1914 in Mandalay Prison for defending revolutionaries Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki. |
| Publications |
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PYQ:[2022] Who among the following is associated with ‘Songs from Prison’, a translation of ancient Indian religious lyrics in English? (a) Bal Gangadhar Tilak (b) Jawaharlal Nehru (c) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (d) Sarojini Naidu |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
National Flag Day, 2024
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adoption of National Flag by Constituent Assembly
Why in the News?
On 22nd July in 1947, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the National Flag.
About the National Flag Day
- The Constituent Assembly met in New Delhi at 10 o’clock, chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
- The Assembly had been meeting since December 9, 1946, discussing various subjects.
- The Chair announced the first agenda item: “a Motion by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru about the Flag.”
Jawaharlal Nehru’s Resolution on National Flag
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Reactions and Support
- There were no significant objections to Nehru’s Resolution.
- Several members, including Seth Govind Das, V I Muniswami Pillai, Chaudhri Khaliquzzaman, S Radhakrishnan, Saiyid Mohammad Saadulla, Frank R Anthony, and Sarojini Naidu, paid tributes to the Flag and supported the Resolution.
- H V Kamath suggested adding a Swastika inside the Chakra to symbolize peace but withdrew the amendment after seeing the Flag’s design.
- Dr. P S Deshmukh preferred retaining the original tricolour with the Charkha but did not push his amendment, respecting the House’s preference.
Back2Basics: History of Our National FlagFirst Public Display in Kolkata (1906):
Indian Flag in Germany:
Home Rule Movement Flag:
Version by Pingali Venkayya:
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PYQ:[2014] The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken from (a) Katha Upanishad |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Prithipal Singh Randhawa, student leader shot dead 45 years ago?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MISA, Implications of Emergency
Why in the News?
- Prithipal Singh Randhawa, leader of the Punjab Students Union (PSU), was murdered in Ludhiana on July 18, 1979.
- At the time of his death, he was 27 years old and among the most prominent leaders of the student union movement in Punjab during the 1970s.
Who was Prithipal Singh Randhawa?
- Randhawa hailed from Hoshiarpur in Punjab and joined Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana, in 1972.
- On October 5, 1972, students protested outside Regal Cinema in Moga district against black marketing of tickets.
- The police opened fire, killing four people, including student leaders Swarn Singh and Harjeet Singh.
- In response, Randhawa launched a mass movement, leading to the arrest of the responsible police officers.
- On October 26, 1974, he organized the massive Moga Sangram rally, addressing issues like student fee hikes and the United States’ imperial war in Vietnam.
- He was assassinated on July 18, 1979, after abduction.
- His rising popularity and anti-establishment stance led to his arrest and 19-month imprisonment under the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) during the Emergency.
- His death led to massive protests in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
Back2Basics: Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA): Overview
Key Provisions:
Controversy and Criticism:
Repeal:
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PYQ:[2022] Which of the following is/are the exclusive power(s) of Lok Sabha?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Santhal Hul of 1855
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Santhal Hul
Why in the News?
- The Santhal Revolt of 1855 was a revolt against imperialism led by four brothers, Sidho, Kanho, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu, along with sisters Phulo and Jhano.
- June 30 marks the 169th anniversary of the beginning of the revolt.
About Santhal Hul
- The Santhal people revolted against the British East India Company and the Zamindari system, also known as the Santhal Rebellion or Santhal Hul.
- The rebellion began on June 30, 1855.
- Martial Law was imposed on November 10, 1855, by the East India Company, lasting until January 3, 1856, when the rebellion was suppressed.
Who are the Santhals?
- Santhals were agricultural people living in the Rajmahal Hills of Bihar.
- Ol Chiki (Ol Chemet) is the writing script of Santhals.
- The British asked them to clear forests for agriculture to increase revenue.
- Damin-i-Koh (1832) was created as a designated area for Santhals, now known as Santhal Pargana.
- Over time, the British began exploiting the Santhals, leading to the Santhal Rebellion.
What makes the revolt so unique?
- Marginalized Indigenous Community: Led by the Santhal tribe, a marginalized indigenous community in mid-19th century India.
- Agrarian Uprising: Primarily a fight against exploitative land laws, high taxes, and forced labor rather than political or religious issues.
- Tribal Unity and Guerrilla Tactics: Characterized by a strong sense of tribal unity and guerrilla warfare tactics, making it unique and significant.
Causes of the Santhal Revolt:
- Permanent Settlement System (1793): Introduced by the British East India Company, giving Zamindars long-lasting property rights.
- Oppression by Zamindars: Zamindars misused their power to oppress and enslave peasants, leading to resentment.
- Exploitation and Debt: Santhals faced exploitation through high-interest loans and lost their land and freedom.
- Violent Suppressions: British police supported Zamindars and moneylenders in evicting Santhals violently.
- Disruption of Traditional Structures: Traditional social and political structures of the Santhals were disrupted, pushing them into debt and poverty.
- Economic Hardship: Led to the Santhals revolting against the British and Zamindars to escape their predicament.
About the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876) and Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908)
- Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876): Enacted by the British as a result of the Hul.
- Land Inheritance: Prohibits the transfer of Adivasi lands to non-Adivasis and allows land to be inherited only as per the Act.
- Self-Governance: Retains the rights of Santhals to self-govern their land.
- Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908): Result of the Birsa Movement.
- Land Transfer Restrictions: Allows land transfers within the same caste and geographical areas with District Collector’s approval.
- Protection of Adivasi and Dalit Land: Restricts the sale of Adivasi and Dalit land but allows transfers within the same community.
PYQ:[2018] After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Sucheta Kripalani (1908-1974): India’s first woman Chief Minister
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sucheta Kripalani
Why in the News?
June 25 is the birth anniversary of “Sucheta Kripalani”, India’s first woman Chief Minister.
Who was Sucheta Kripalani?
- Sucheta Kripalani was born on June 25, 1908, in Ambala, Punjab. Daughter of S. N. Majumdar, a government surgeon. She studied at Indraprastha College for Women and St. Stephen’s College, University of Delhi.
- She married J. B. Kripalani, a former Congress president and Gandhian, in April 1936 against familial and Mahatma Gandhi’s wishes.
Political Journey and Chief Ministership
- Early Career: Joined BHU to teach Constitutional History in 1929, participated in Satyagraha, and was imprisoned in 1940.
- Congress Role: Organized the foreign affairs wing of AICC and later founded the All India Mahila Congress.
- She won by a margin of 99 votes over Kamalapati Tripathi and was sworn in as CM on October 2, 1963.
Contributions and Achievements
- Educational Reforms: Waived school fees for girls up to Class 10 from January 1965. Established Meerut University and Kanpur University.
- Social Reforms: Increased reservation for SCs in government jobs to 24% in Group C and 45% in Group D until the 18% target was achieved.
- Infrastructure Developments: Established a Sainik School in Ghorakhal, a new medical college in Meerut, and the UP Awas Vikas Parishad. She created the post of agriculture production commissioner.
- Crime Control: Neutralized many dacoits in the Chambal Valley with the help of the Police Radio Unit.
- Anti-Corruption Stance: Emphasized the need to tackle growing corruption in public services, supporting the Union government’s initiative to appoint a vigilance commission.
- Multifaceted Contributions: Involved in relief activities for the 1934 Bihar earthquake, Noakhali riots, Tibetan refugee rehabilitation, and the Indo-Pak War of 1971.
- Criticism and Response: Faced criticism for being influenced by English, despite being a staunch supporter of Hindi. Advocated for creating an atmosphere for Hindi in governance.
Later Life and Legacy
- Post-CM Career: Served as Lok Sabha MP until 1971.
- Impact: Her tenure as CM and various social contributions left a lasting impact on Indian politics and society, especially in terms of women’s leadership and social reforms.
PYQ:[2011] With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for: (a) Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of the Quit India Movement (b) Participating in the Second Round Table Conference (c) Leading a contingent of the Indian National Army (d) Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
124th Death Anniversary of Birsa Munda
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Birsa Munda, Sardari Agitation, Birsait Faith, Ulgulan, Khuntkattidar System.
Why in the News?
Jharkhand CM marked the 124th death anniversary of revolutionary tribal leader “Birsa Munda” by paying his tributes.
Who was Birsa Munda (1875-1900)?
- Birsa Munda was born on November 15, 1875, during a period of significant change for his community, the Mundas, residing in the Chotanagpur region of present-day Jharkhand.
- Birsa Munda spent his early years travelling with his parents and received primary education under Jaipal Nag.
- Inspired by the peaceful Sardari agitation against British rule, Birsa became a prominent leader advocating for tribal rights.
Causes of the Rebellion
- Impact of Colonial Policies: Colonial policies, including the Permanent Settlement Act (1793), disrupted traditional land ownership systems, leading to displacement and exploitation of indigenous communities.
- Erosion of Khuntkattidar System: The Mundas’ traditional land rights system, known as khuntkatti, was eroded by jagirdars and thikadars, leading to land alienation.
- Land Alienation and Exploitation: Non-tribal migration into tribal regions accelerated under British rule, resulting in exploitation through high-interest money lending and forced labour.
- Missionary Activity: The spread of education through missionary activities led to increased awareness among tribals, deepening social cleavages but also inspiring movements for tribal reconstruction.
Major Activities:
1. New faith ‘Birsait’ against religious conversion
- Having gained awareness of the British colonial ruler and the efforts of the missionaries to convert tribals to Christianity, Birsa started the faith of ‘Birsait’.
- Soon members of the Munda and Oraon community started joining the Birsait sect and it turned into a challenge to British conversion activities.
- The Mundas called him Dharati Aaba, the father of earth.
2. The Birsa Movement: Ulgulan
- The Munda Rebellion was a tribal rebellion led by Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900.
- It mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon.
- The revolt sought to establish Munda Raj and independence, known as Ulgulan or ‘Great Tumult’ by Munda tribals.
- The rebellion ended with the suppression by British forces and the death of Birsa Munda.
Significant Outcomes
- Impact: Birsa Munda’s mobilization of tribal communities left a lasting legacy, prompting government reforms such as the repeal of the Begar system and the enactment of the Tenancy Act (1903).
- His Death: The movement was violently suppressed and Birsa Munda died in jail on 9 June 1900.
What is Permanent Settlement System?
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PYQ:[2020] With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events? (a) The Revolt of 1857 (b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 (c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 (d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900 |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
131 years of Gandhiji’s Natal Satyagraha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Natal Satyagraha, Beginning of non-violent protest
Why in the News?
- On June 7, 1893, Mahatma Gandhi faced racial discrimination when he was forced off a first-class train compartment at “Pietermaritzburg railway station” in South Africa.
- This event ignited the spirit of civil disobedience in him through his first non-violent protest in the “Natal Satyagraha”.
History of ‘Satyagraha’
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About the Pietermaritzburg Incident
- Gandhi’s forced removal from a first-class train compartment in 1893 served as a catalyst for his commitment to resisting racial discrimination.
- This event inspired him to pursue nonviolent resistance, planting the seeds for his philosophy of Satyagraha.
Its’ Aftermath
- Formation of Natal Indian Congress and Advocacy
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- Establishment: Gandhi organized the Indian community and founded the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in 1894 at Durban to advocate for their rights.
- Campaigns: He initiated various campaigns, including petitions and boycotts, challenging discriminatory laws and policies in South Africa.
- Natal Satyagraha
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- The passage of the Asiatic Registration Act in 1906 sparked the Natal Satyagraha, protesting against this discriminatory law.
- Gandhi emerged as the leader of the movement, advocating for nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience.
- Satyagraha emphasized confronting oppression with moral courage and integrity, without resorting to violence.
Gandhiji’s South Africa Settlements:
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Characteristics and Impact of Natal Satyagraha
- Mass Participation: The movement garnered widespread support from the Indian community, involving thousands in nonviolent protests.
- He mobilized support for the welfare of Indians and established the Transvaal British Indian Association in Johannesburg in 1903.
- Arrests and Imprisonment: Gandhi and many others faced arrests and imprisonment for their acts of civil disobedience. He faced imprisonment multiple times for his nonviolent protests, including the Volkrust Satyagraha in 1913.
- Attracted International attention: The Satyagraha attracted international attention and led to negotiations, culminating in the Indian Relief Act in 1914.
PYQ:[2019] With reference to the British colonial rule in India, consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
299th Birth Anniversary of Ahilyabai Holkar (1725 –1795)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ahilyabai Holkar and her contemporaries
Why in the News?
The 299th birth anniversary of legendary ruler Ahilyabai Holkar was celebrated on 30th May.
About Ahilyabai Holkar
| Details | |
| Birth | May 31, 1725; Chaundi village, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India |
| Family | Daughter of Mankoji Shinde, a respected Dhangar family member |
| Education | Despite societal norms, her father taught her to read and write |
| Marriage | Married Khande Rao Holkar, son of Malhar Rao Holkar, in 1733 |
| Rise to Prominence | Impressed by her piety and character, Khande Rao married Ahilyabai on the Peshwa’s advice |
| Leadership | Took control of Malwa after her husband’s death in 1754 |
| Reign | Ruled Malwa from 1767 to 1795 |
| Capital | Maheshwar became the capital of Malwa under her rule |
| Administrative Prowess | Known for her administrative acumen |
| Military Strategies | Personally led armies into battle and defended Malwa against intruders |
| Cultural Contributions | Established Maheshwar as the seat of the Holkar Dynasty |
| Temple Restorations | Led the reconstruction of Kashi Vishwanath Temple and built Somnath Temple |
| Economic Development | Promoted the production of Maheshwari Sarees and fostered trade and commerce |
| Social Inclusion | Advocated for marginalised communities and mainstreamed their inclusion |
| Legacy | Revered as “The Philosopher Queen” by historians like John Keay |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Kanyakumari’s Vivekananda Rock
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vivekananda Rock, Kanyakumari
Why in the News?
Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced his plan to visit and meditate at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu marking the culmination of the Lok Sabha election campaign.
About Vivekananda Rock:
- Vivekananda Rock Memorial is located in Kanyakumari’s Vavathurai beach, Tamil Nadu.
- It is situated on a rock island at the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, where the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean meet.
- The memorial consists of two main structures: the Vivekananda Mandapam and the Shripada Mandapam.
Historic Significance of Kanyakumari:
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About Swami Vivekananda
| Details | |
| Birth and Death | Narendranath Datta (1862-1902) |
| Message | Spread Ramakrishna’s message, reconciled it with contemporary Indian society, preached neo-Hinduism |
| Spiritual Foundation | Based on the spiritual experiences of Ramakrishna, teachings of Upanishads and Gita, examples of Buddha and Jesus |
| Philosophical Beliefs | Subscribed to Vedanta, believed in fundamental oneness of God, advocated for blending of Hinduism and Islam |
| Advocacy for Social Action | Emphasised social action, criticised religion’s approval of oppression of the poor, called for secular and spiritual knowledge for upliftment |
| Balance between Spiritualism and Materialism | Advocated for a healthy balance between spiritualism and materialism, called for a blend of Western materialism and Eastern spiritualism for global happiness |
| Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission | Founded Ramakrishna Mission in 1897, used it for humanitarian relief and social work, stands for religious and social reform, advocated service as worship, not a proselytizing body |
| Philosophy of Ramakrishna Mission | Believes in using technology and modern science for mankind’s service, recognizes the utility of image worship, emphasizes Vedanta philosophy as a unifying force for all religions, open to all men regardless of caste or creed |
| Physical Establishment | Acquired land at Belur in 1898, shifted Ramakrishna Math there. |
PYQ:What does each of the following quotations mean to you?
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Rabindranath Tagore and his legacy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Eminent Personalities; Rabindranath Tagore;
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Conservation and Cultural Archives Division of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) hosted an exhibition and lecture celebrating Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary in New Delhi.
Tagore’s Journey to France
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About Rabindranath Tagore
| Details | |
| Birth and Early Life | – Born on May 7, 1861, in Calcutta, India. |
| Literary Career | – Published his first poems at age 16 under the pen-name ‘Bhanusimha’.
– Key works include “Gitanjali“, “Ghare-Baire“, “Gora“, and “Manasi“. |
| Music and Art | – Composed over 2,000 songs known as ‘Rabindra Sangeet’.
– Our National Anthem was composed by him and it was first sung on 27 December 1911 at the Calcutta Session of INC. – Created more than 2,000 paintings, influenced by European expressionism. |
| Education | – Founded Visva-Bharati University in 1921, integrating Eastern and Western philosophies. |
| Political Views | – He is said to have given the title of ‘Mahatma’ to Mohandas
– Renounced his ‘Knighthood’ (awarded to him in 1915 by the British King George V) in 1919 following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. |
| Cultural Influence | – Wrote the National Anthems of India (“Jana Gana Mana”) and Bangladesh (“Amar Sonar Bangla”).
– Inspired the national anthem of Sri Lanka through a student. |
| Awards and Recognition | – Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for “Gitanjali“, the first non-European to win.
– Awarded, and later renounced, a knighthood by British King George V in 1915. |
| Philosophical Contributions | – Advocated for the incorporation of the best aspects of Western culture with Indian culture to achieve anti-colonialism. |
| Death | – Passed away on August 7, 1941, in Calcutta. |
| Legacy | – Revered as ‘Gurudev’, ‘Kabiguru’, and ‘Biswakabi’. Highly influential in introducing Indian culture to the West and reshaping Bengali literature and music. |
| Additional Contributions | – Advocated for ‘Unity in Diversity’ and ‘National Integration’.
– Spoke at the World Parliament of Religions, Chicago in 1929 and 1937. – Modernized Bengali prose and poetry, remembered for songs like ‘Ekla Chalo Re’ and his environmental efforts at Santiniketan. |
About Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)
- The IGNCA, New Delhi is a premier government-funded arts organisation in India.
- It is an autonomous institute under the Union Ministry of Culture.
- It was established on 19 November 1985 by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
- IGNCA is envisioned as a centre for the study and experience of arts in the field of:
- Creative literature – written and oral;
- Visual arts inclusive of architecture;
- Sculpture, painting and graphics to general material culture, photography and film; and
- Performing arts of music, dance and theatre.
PYQ:[2019] Examine the linkages between the nineteenth century’s Indian Renaissance and the emergence of national identity. [2021] Who among the following was associated as Secretary with Hindu Female School, later known as Bethune Female School? (a) Annie Besant (b) Debendranath Tagore (c) Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (d) Sarojini Naidu |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’: India’s First Newspaper
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 'Hicky’s Bengal Gazette' and related facts
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- World Press Freedom Day, observed annually on May 3, underscores the significance of journalism in society, tracing its roots back to pivotal moments in history.
- Hicky’s Bengal Gazette, founded by James Augustus Hicky in 1780, marked the inception of Indian journalism, serving as a platform for social discourse and political critique.
Who was James Augustus Hicky?
- Born in Ireland in the 1730s, James Augustus Hicky ventured to India, then known as the “Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire“, in search of better opportunities.
- Faced with initial setbacks, including debts that led to his imprisonment, Hicky demonstrated resilience by setting up a printing press within the jail premises.
Establishment of ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’:
- ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ was the first newspaper ever published in India (indeed in Asia), with its inaugural edition released on January 29, 1780.
- Hicky served as its founder-editor, aiming to cater primarily to the European community in Calcutta.
- He initially focusing on local issues such as road repairs and maintenance.
- The newspaper later delved into broader societal concerns, including government corruption and civic issues.
- Despite its reputation for gossip and salacious content, the Gazette also published articles critical of the British East India Company and advocated for infrastructure development and sanitation improvements.
- Hicky’s newspaper was printed once a week on Saturday, and retailed for Rs 1.
- Its circulation was estimated to be around 400 copies per week, although possibly more.
Challenges and Legal Battles:
- The Gazette faced legal challenges, including multiple libel lawsuits filed by prominent figures such as Governor General Warren Hastings in 1780s and missionary Johann Zacharias Kiernander.
- He described Hastings in an article as being Robert Clive’s “miserable successor”.
- Hicky’s bold stance against powerful figures, including scathing critiques of Hastings’ expansion policies, led to his imprisonment and financial ruin due to legal fees and penalties.
- The publication was ceased on 30 March 1782.
Legacy and Impact:
- Despite its eventual closure due to legal pressure and financial constraints, ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ left an indelible mark on Indian journalism.
- Hicky’s pioneering efforts laid the groundwork for the development of a vibrant media landscape in India, inspiring subsequent generations of journalists and press pioneers.
- The Gazette’s brief but impactful existence demonstrated the power of the press in advocating for societal change and holding the powerful to account.
PYQ:[2020] The Vital-Vidhwansak, the first monthly journal to have the untouchable people as its target audience was published by: (a) Gopal Baba Walangkar (b) Jyotiba Phule (c) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (d) Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Scripting a new tribal identity
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle
Mains level: Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle
Why in the news?
President of India Droupadi Murmu was being presented a book, Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle, at a National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) event.
Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle
- Santhal Revolution: Led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat, and Madara Mahato, the Santhal Revolution was a significant tribal uprising against British colonial rule in 1855. The Kols were joined by other tribes like the Hos, Mundas, and Oraons in this struggle
- Paika Rebellion: The Paika Rebellion in 1817 was a tribal uprising against the British in Odisha. The Paikas were a warrior class who were fighting for their rights and against the exploitation by the British
- Kol Revolt: The Kol Revolt of 1831-32 was a tribal uprising against the British in Chhattisgarh. The Kols were fighting for their rights over the land and against the exploitation by the British
- Birsa Munda: Birsa Munda was a tribal leader from Jharkhand who led the Millenarian Movement against the British in the late 19th century. He mobilized the tribal community against the British and forced them to introduce laws protecting the land rights of tribals
- Rani Gaidinliu: Rani Gaidinliu was a tribal leader from Nagaland who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. She was a spiritual leader who fought for the rights of the Nagas and against the exploitation by the British
- Laxman Naik: Laxman Naik was a tribal leader from Odisha who led a revolt against the British in the early 20th century. He was a farmer who fought for the rights of the farmers and against the exploitation by the British
Impact of Tribal Revolts during Freedom Struggle:
- The tribal revolts during the freedom struggle contributed to the very beginning of the aggression for British Raj. They revolted not against the British but their policy for Indians which were imposed on them without even knowing their culture and its significance. Later this led to the revolt of 1857, which took attention of all over the country
Conclusion: President Droupadi Murmu received the book “Contributions of Tribal Leaders in the Freedom Struggle” at an NCST event, highlighting significant uprisings like the Santhal, Paika, and Kol revolts, emphasizing tribal resistance against British exploitation, influencing broader Indian agitation.
Mains PYQ
Q Several foreigners made India their homeland and participated in various movements. Analyze their role in the Indian struggle for freedom.(UPSC IAS/2013)
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Lachit Borphukan and his Legend
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan, Ahom Kingdom, Treaty of Yandaboo
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- The Statue of Valour, depicting Ahom general Lachit Borphukan, has become a significant landmark in Meleng-Hollongapar, Jorhat in Assam.
- The 125-foot statue commemorates Lachit Borphukan’s leadership in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
|
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- Lachit Borphukan was a legendary military commander from the northeastern region of India, specifically from the state of Assam. Here are some facts related to him:
| Description | |
| Timeline | 1622-1672 |
| Dynasty | Ahom Dynasty |
| Mughal Threat | Faced the Mughal Empire’s expansion into Assam |
| Battle of Saraighat |
|
| Leadership | Known for strategic brilliance and guerrilla tactics |
| Legacy | Revered as a symbol of Assamese pride and resistance |
| Recognition |
|
PYQ:[2015] Who among the following founded a new city on the south bank of a tributary to river Krishna and undertook to rule his new kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all the land south of the river Krishna was supposed to belong? (a) Amoghavarsha I (b) Ballala II (c) Harihara I (d) Prataparudra II |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Mahad Satyagraha: A Landmark Event in the Dalit Movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahad (Chavdar Lake) Satyagraha, Annihilation of Caste etc.
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
The Mahad Satyagraha is hailed as the foundational event of the Dalit movement, marking the community’s collective rejection of the caste system and assertion of human rights.
About Mahad Satyagraha
- The Mahad Satyagraha, also known as Chavdar Tale (Lake) Satyagraha, was led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 in Mahad, Raigad District of Maharashtra.
- Its aim was to assert the right of untouchables to use water from a public tank.
- Background:
- Untouchables (Dalits) were segregated in Indian society and banned from using public water bodies and roads used by other Hindu castes.
- In August 1923, the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution allowing depressed classes to use government-maintained places, but it faced opposition from savarna Hindus.
- In January 1924, Mahad passed a resolution in its municipal council to enforce the act but failed to implement it due to protests.
- Satyagraha:
- In 1927, Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert untouchables’ rights to use water in public places.
- Mahad was chosen for the event due to its support from ‘caste Hindus’.
- Surendranath Tipnis, president of the Mahad municipality, invited Ambedkar to hold a meeting there.
- Ambedkar drank water from the tank, followed by thousands of untouchables.
- He encouraged Dalit women to abandon customs of untouchability and wear saris like high-caste women, which they embraced.
- A riot erupted over rumors of Ambedkar planning to enter a Hindu temple, and the tank was purified with cow-urine and cow-dung.
- Ambedkar planned a second conference in Mahad in December 1927 but faced legal obstacles due to a case filed by caste Hindus.
- On 25 December 1937, the Bombay High Court ruled that untouchables have the right to use water from the tank.
- Legacy:
- On 19 March 1940, Ambedkar arranged a rally in Mahad to commemorate the Satyagraha as “Empowerment Day.”
Back2Basics: Key Initiatives and Movements Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
| Initiative | Location | Objective |
| Temple Entry Movement (1920s-1930s) | Various Locations | Advocating for the right of Dalits to enter Hindu temples. |
| Mahad Satyagraha (Chavdar Tale Satyagraha) | Mahad, Maharashtra | Asserting the rights of untouchables to use water from a public tank. |
| Kalaram Mandir Movement (1930) | Nashik, Maharashtra | Demanding temple entry rights for Dalits at the Kalaram Mandir. |
| Annihilation of Caste (1936) | – | Publication of “Annihilation of Caste,” advocating for the abolition of the caste system. |
| Formation of Independent Dalit Political Party (Independent Labour Party) (1936) | – | Addressing the political concerns and aspirations of Dalits. |
| Push for Separate Electorate by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1932) | India | Advocating for separate electorates for Dalits to ensure their political representation and empowerment. |
| Legal Advocacy (1940s-1950s) | – | Drafting of the Hindu Code Bills, contribution to the framing of the Indian Constitution. |
| Conversion to Buddhism (1956) | Nagpur, Maharashtra | Symbolizing a rejection of the caste system through mass conversion ceremony to Buddhism. |
PYQ:[2018] Which one of the following is a very significant aspect of the Champaran Satyagraha? (a) Active all-India participation of lawyers, students and women in the National Movement (b) Active involvement of Dalit and Tribal communities of India in the National Movement (c) Joining of peasant unrest to India’s National Movement (d) Drastic decrease in the cultivation of plantation crops and commercial crops |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Anniversary of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Rowlatt Act, Hunter Commission
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
On April 13, 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, leaving a deep scar on India’s collective memory.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
- Background: Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act
- The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
- It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
- It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
- It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
- The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
- The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite Revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
- The day
- The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army (Gurkha and Sikh infantry regiments) under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
- The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
- Dyer without warning ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
- The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
- Aftermath
- In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
- Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
- Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
- The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.
Hunter Commission for Inquiry
- In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
- Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
- The commission inquiry was concluded without any significant conclusion.
- Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.
PYQ:[2012] The Rowlatt Act aimed at: (a) Compulsory economic support to war efforts (b) Imprisonment without trial and summary procedures for trial (c) Suppression of the Khilafat Movement (d) Imposition of restrictions on freedom of the press |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Insights from History: Coalition Governments in Colonial India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Provincial Elections of 1937, GoI Act, 1935, Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- Prime Minister recently suggested a link between the Congress manifesto and the Muslim League (which is responsible for the Partition of India), prompting a political debate.
- In rebuttal, critics reminded of a coalition governments formed by Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, Sindh, and North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in the 1940s with the Muslim League.
Provincial Elections of 1937:[A] Indian National Congress
[B] Non-Congress Parties
[C] Religion based Parties
|
Ideological Alignment and Political Alliances
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar noted ideological similarities between the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League, both advocating for the two-nation theory.
- This ideological convergence paved the way for short-lived political alliances, particularly during the turmoil following Congress’s resignation from provincial ministries in 1939.
Reasons for such Alliance
- Opposition to Quit India Movement: When Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942, the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha refrained from participating, opting to support the British war effort.
- Support for British War Efforts: Savarkar, in a letter, instructed Mahasabha members to remain loyal to their positions and not join the movement, while Syama Prasad Mookerjee pledged support to suppress any internal disturbances.
- Increased Push for Partition: Jinnah, meanwhile, intensified his campaign for Pakistan, capitalizing on the absence of Congress leaders and positioning himself as the sole spokesman for Muslims.
Muslim League:
Hindu Mahasabha:
|
Implications of this Coalition
- The period following Congress’s participation in the Quit India Movement saw the rise of the Muslim League’s influence, with League ministries established in several provinces by 1943.
- Jinnah’s strategy to capitalize on Congress’s absence contributed to his claim as the sole representative of Indian Muslims, furthering the demand for Pakistan.
PYQ:[2018] In the Federation established by The Government of India Act of 1935, Residuary Power were given to the: (a) Federal Legislature (b) Governor General (c) Provincial Legislature (d) Provincial Governors |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Mangal Pandey: A Revolutionary Icon of Indian Independence
Why in the news?
It was on April 8th 167 years ago in 1857, Mangal Pandey was hanged.
Who was Mangal Pandey?
- Mangal Pandey, born on July 19, 1827, in Nagwa village of the Ballia district in present-day Uttar Pradesh.
- He belonged to the kingdom of Awadh, which had been treacherously annexed by the British in 1856.
- At the age of 22, he enlisted as a soldier in the British East India Company’s army, joining the 34th Bengal Native Infantry.
Recap of his revolutionary activities
- Annexation of Awadh
- The Begums of Awadh had an understanding with the British, and had been abiding by the terms of the agreement.
- In spite of this, Awadh was annexed, in February 1856, which was greatly resented by the people.
- Awadh was a region that supplied large numbers of soldiers of war to the Company’s army.
- There were 75,000 soldiers from Awadh, and almost every agricultural family in the kingdom had a representative in the army.
- Whatever happened in Awadh was of immediate concern to the Sepoy.
- Rise of Resentment
- The deposition of the Nawab and the confiscation of the villages of taluqdars during the land revenue settlement of 1856 caused outrage.
- Some 14,000 petitions were received from the Sepoys about the hardships they faced on account of the revenue system.
- Mangal Pandey represented the discontent that the misery of British rule had brought upon peasant families.
- Flashpoint and the mutiny
- Mangal Pandey was stationed at Barrackpore, near Calcutta (now Kolkata), where he became involved in a significant event that would later be known as the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857.
- He refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle, the cartridges of which had a covering that was believed to be made of animal fat (beef and pork), and which had to be bit open before the cartridges could be used.
- This was viewed by the soldiers as a direct assault on their religious beliefs by the British who intended to bring an end to their religion and propagate Christianity.
- On March 29, 1857, Pandey mutinied and fired at his Senior Sergeant Major.
- He was overpowered and hanged on April 8, 1857, by the order of a Court Martial at Lal Bagan in Barrackpore.
- His regiment was disbanded, like the 19th infantry at Behrampore, for showing resentment.
PYQ:[2019] The 1857 Uprising was the culmination of the recurrent big and small local rebellions that had occurred in the preceding hundred years of British Rule. Elucidate. |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
100 Years of Vaikom Satyagraha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vaikom Satyagraha and the people associated
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
This year April 1st marks 100 years of the Vaikom Satyagraha, in Kottayam, Kerala.
About Vaikom Satyagraha
- Vaikom was the epicentre of the Vaikom Satyagraha, which began in 1924.
- This movement aimed to challenge the ban imposed on marginalized communities from entering the vicinity of the Vaikom Mahadevar Temple in the princely state of Travancore.
- It sparked similar temple entry movements across India, advocating for the rights of untouchables and backward castes.
- It introduced nonviolent public protest as a method of resistance in Kerala.
A Precursor to the Vaikom Satyagraha
- Social and Political Developments
- Backdrop of Social Injustice: Travancore, characterized by feudal and caste-based governance, imposed stringent restrictions on lower castes, denying them entry to temples and public spaces.
- Emergence of Social Consciousness: By the late 19th century, progressive reforms and missionary activities led to increased awareness and education among lower castes, particularly the Ezhavas.
- Rise of Educated Elite: Educated individuals from diverse backgrounds, including lower castes, began to challenge social norms and demand equality in opportunities and rights.
- Beginning of Agitation
- Advocacy for Change: Ezhava leader T K Madhavan spearheaded efforts to challenge temple entry restrictions, advocating for direct action to confront discriminatory practices.
- Influence of Gandhi’s Ideals: Inspired by Gandhi’s principles of non-cooperation, Madhavan sought support from the Indian National Congress (INC) to mobilize a mass movement against untouchability.
Actual Course of Events
- Agitation
- Leaders such as T.K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon, and George Joseph spearheaded the agitation.
- Despite facing resistance and arrests by the police, the Satyagrahis persisted in their protest for over a year, resulting in numerous arrests and jails.
- Notable figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Chattampi Swamikal, and Sree Narayana Guru extended their support to the movement, which gained nationwide recognition.
- The involvement of women and support from various regions, including Punjab, highlighted the widespread impact of the Satyagraha.
- Suspension:
- Initially suspended in April 1924 at Gandhi’s suggestion, the movement resumed when attempts to resolve the issue with caste Hindu leaders failed.
- The absence of leaders like T.K. Madhavan and K.P. Kesava Menon, who were arrested, posed challenges to the movement.
- V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) lent support from Tamil Nadu before also being arrested.
- The resolution for the right to temple entry faced resistance in the Assembly, thwarted by traditionalist support and government pressure.
- Aftermath
- On October 1, 1924, a procession of Savarnas (forward castes) submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bai of Travancore, signed by around 25,000 individuals, urging for the temple’s open entry.
- Gandhi’s meeting with the Regent Maharani and the procession led by Mannath Padmanabhan Nair underscored the growing support for the cause.
- Eventually, on November 23, 1925, all temple gates were opened to Hindus except the eastern gate, marking a significant victory.
- The Vaikom Satyagraha laid the groundwork for the temple entry proclamation of Kerala in 1936 and inspired similar movements’ nationwide, promoting social justice and equality.
PYQ:Satya Shodhak Samaj organized (2016): (a) a movement for upliftment of tribals in Bihar’ (b) a temple-entry movement in Gujarat (c) an anti-caste movement in Maharashtra (d) a peasant movement in Punjab
Practice MCQ:The Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 was essentially a: (a) Temple Entry Movement (b) Peasants’ Uprising (c) Salt Satyagraha (d) Swadeshi Movement |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Story of Usha Mehta and the Secret Congress Radio
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Congress Radio, Usha Mehta and other personalities mentioned
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- Recently premiered on an OTT Platform, the film “Ae Watan Mere Watan” delves into the narrative of Usha Mehta and Congress Radio during the Quit India Movement of 1942.
Who was Usha Mehta (1920-2000)?
- Usha Mehta was born on March 25, 1920, in Mumbai, India.
- Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s principles of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, Usha Mehta became actively involved in the Indian independence movement from a young age.
- One of Usha Mehta’s most notable contributions to the freedom struggle was her involvement in the radio broadcasting network known as the “Secret Congress Radio.”
- She was conferred the Padma Vibhushan, one of India’s highest civilian honours in 1998.
The Secret ‘Congress Radio’
- On August 8, 1942, the historic Quit India Resolution was passed during the All India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay.
- In this response, the idea of an underground radio station, known by various names such as the Freedom Radio, the Ghost Radio, or the Congress Radio, was conceived to counter the British-controlled AIR.
- Usha Mehta, a 22 YO master’s student at Wilson College, became the voice of the Congress Radio.
- The radio was an expensive endeavour, but funds were procured through various means, including contributions from Mehta’s colleague, Babubhai Khakhar.
- Radio engineering expert Nariman Abarbad Printer constructed the Congress Radio transmission set.
- Their first broadcast was on 14 August 1942.
- Welcome line in her voice: “This is the Congress Radio calling on 42.34 from somewhere in India.”
- In the beginning, they were broadcasting twice a day, in Hindi and English. But they reduced it to just once in the evening between 30 and 8.30 pm.
- On 12th November 1942, the police raided the radio while Vande Mataram was being played and arrested Mehta and others.
PYQ:
2011: With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for-
- Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement
- Participating in the Second Round Table Conference
- Leading a contingent of Indian National Army
- Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
2021: With reference to 8th August, 1942 in Indian history, which one of the following statements is correct?
- The Quit India Resolution was adopted by the AICC.
- The Viceroy’s Executive Council was expanded to include more Indians.
- The Congress ministries resigned in seven provinces.
- Cripps proposed an Indian Union with full Dominion Status once the Second World War was over
Practice MCQ:
In context to the Secret ‘Congress Radio’ in modern Indian history, consider the following statements:
- It was established to supplement the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930s.
- Usha Mehta was the voice of Congress Radio.
- It was broadcasted twice a day, in Hindi and English
How many of the given statements is/are correct?
- One
- Two
- Three
- None
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Nana Jagannath Shankarseth: The ‘Architect of Mumbai’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nana Jagannath Shankarseth and his contributions
Mains level: NA
Why in the news-
- The Maharashtra cabinet has resolved to request the Ministry of Railways to rename Mumbai Central station after Nana Jagannath Shankarseth, a revered social reformer, educationist, and philanthropist often hailed as the “architect” of Mumbai.
About Nana Jagannath Shankarseth (1803-1865)
- Born on February 10, 1803, in Murbad, Thane, into the affluent Murkute family.
- His father, Shankar Murkute, earned the nickname “Shankar Sheth” due to his success in the jewellery and diamond trade.
- He contributed in terms of both ideas and money to multiple sectors, to lay a strong foundation for the Bombay City.
- He was greatly inspired by the legendary merchant and philanthropist Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy.
Contribution of Nana Jagannath Shankarseth
- Founded the Bombay Association in 1852, the first political organization in Mumbai, fostering a platform for civic engagement and political discourse.
- Played a pivotal role as one of the founding members of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in 1853, contributing to India’s infrastructural development.
- Recognized the importance of education in societal progress and opened the first school for girls in Mumbai in 1849, pioneering educational reform.
- Co-founded the School Society and the Native School of Bombay, laying the foundation for educational institutions that nurtured future leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
- Established the Bombay Native Education Society in 1822, the first of its kind in Western India, to promote education among the masses.
- Collaborated with Sir George Birdwood and Dr Bhau Daji in major reconstruction efforts in Mumbai starting in 1857, transforming the city’s urban landscape.
- Became the first Indian to be nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council in 1861, advocating for policies that improved public welfare and urban amenities.
- Honored with a marble statue at the Asiatic Society of Mumbai a year after his death in 1865, commemorating his contributions to society.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2012:
Q.The most effective contribution made by Dadabhai Naoroji to the cause of Indian National Movement was that he-
- exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British
- interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self-confidence of Indians
- stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything else
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Practice MCQ:
Q. Consider the following events:
He founded the Bombay Association in 1852, the first political organization in Mumbai, fostering a platform for civic engagement and political discourse. Recognizing the importance of education in societal progress, he opened the first school for girls in Mumbai in 1849, pioneering educational reform. He became the first Indian to be nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council in 1861, advocating for policies that improved public welfare and urban amenities.
The above description is mentioned about which of the following personality?
a) Gopal Krishna Gokhale
b) Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde
c) Nana Jagannath Shankarseth
d) Dhondo Keshav Karve
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Sabarmati Ashram
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sabarmati Ashram and the associated events
Mains level: NA
In the news
- Prime Minister’s recent activities, commemorating the 94th anniversary of the Dandi March at the Sabarmati Ashram, mark a significant step towards the redevelopment and expansion of this historic site.
Ashrams Built by Mahatma Gandhi
Gandhi set up five settlements during his lifetime — two in South Africa (Phoenix Settlement in Natal, and Tolstoy Farm outside Johannesburg), where he lived from 1893 to 1914, and three in India, where he arrived in January 1915.
South Africa Settlements:
Indian Settlements:
Try this PYQ from CSE Mains 2019:Q. Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian Phase. Elaborate. |
About Sabarmati Ashram
- Founded in 1917 by Mahatma Gandhi, the Sabarmati Ashram holds immense historical significance in India’s struggle for independence and Gandhian philosophy.
- Situated on the western bank of the Sabarmati River, north of the village of Juna Vadaj in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, the ashram became a focal point for various movements and experiments led by Gandhi.
Key Movements and Initiatives
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917): The ashram served as a base for Gandhi’s involvement in the Champaran Satyagraha, a movement against oppressive indigo planters in Bihar.
- Khadi Movement (1918): Gandhi initiated the Khadi movement from Sabarmati Ashram, promoting the use of hand-spun cloth as a means to boycott foreign goods and promote self-reliance.
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918) and Kheda Satyagraha: Gandhi led the workers’ strike in Ahmedabad and the peasants’ movement in Kheda, both of which were pivotal in India’s struggle for independence.
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): The ashram played a crucial role in Gandhi’s call for non-cooperation with British authorities, urging Indians to boycott British goods and institutions.
- Dandi March (1930): One of the most iconic events in India’s freedom struggle, the Dandi March, commenced from Sabarmati Ashram. Gandhi, along with his followers, marched to Dandi to protest against the salt tax imposed by the British.
Philosophy and Ideals
- Gandhi envisioned Sabarmati Ashram as a community based on principles of simplicity, self-reliance, and communal living.
- He emphasized the importance of truth, non-violence (Ahimsa), and Satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) as tools for social and political change.
Activities and Structures
The ashram housed various facilities and structures, including:
- Hriday Kunj: Gandhi’s residence at the ashram, where he lived with his wife Kasturba.
- Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya: A museum dedicated to Gandhi’s life, showcasing his personal belongings, letters, and photographs.
- Magan Niwas: A guesthouse for visitors and volunteers.
- Vinoba-Mira Kutir: Residence of Vinoba Bhave and Mira Behn, Gandhian disciples.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Enduring Friendship of Gandhi and Tagore: Exploring Their Legacy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rabindranath Tagore his literary works
Mains level: NA
In the news
- Santiniketan celebrates ‘Gandhi Punyaha Din’ on March 10 every year, honoring Gandhi’s teachings on self-reliance and communal harmony.
- This event highlights the profound friendship between MK Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore that spanned from 1914-15 until Tagore’s passing in 1941.
Try this PYQ from CSE Mains 2016:Q. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom. |
About Rabindranath Tagore
| Details | |
| Birth | Born in Calcutta on 7th May 1861. |
| About |
|
| Literary Contributions |
|
| Awards |
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| Death | Passed away on 7th August 1941 in Calcutta. |
| Quotes |
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Gandhi and Tagore: Genesis of Friendship
- First Encounter (March 6, 1915): Gandhi’s visit to Santiniketan, West Bengal, where he spent nearly a month, profoundly influenced Tagore’s idyllic school and laid the foundation for their friendship.
- Shared Ideals: Both Gandhi and Tagore were proponents of education, social reform, and cultural revival, fostering a deep connection rooted in their common vision for India’s future.
Meeting of Two Titans
- Tagore’s Acclaim: Tagore was already a global figure, having won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, whereas Gandhi was yet to emerge as the leader he would become.
- Crossing Paths: C F Andrews, recognizing their ideological synergy, facilitated their meeting in Santiniketan, marking the beginning of their enduring friendship.
- Intellectual Exchange: Their initial encounter sparked lively discussions on spirituality, ethics, and the future of India, setting the stage for a profound intellectual partnership.
Diverse Perspectives and Respectful Disagreements
- Philosophical Disputes: Gandhi and Tagore engaged in spirited debates on various issues, including social, political, and economic matters, reflecting their diverse perspectives.
- Respecting Differences: Despite their disagreements, they maintained a deep respect for each other’s viewpoints, fostering a relationship that transcended ideological disparities.
- Intellectual Integrity: Both leaders valued intellectual honesty and integrity, allowing for open dialogue and constructive criticism, even when their opinions diverged.
A Tale of Mutual Admiration
- Endearing Nicknames: Tagore referred to Gandhi as “Mahatma,” signifying his reverence for Gandhi’s moral stature, while Gandhi addressed Tagore as “Gurudev,” acknowledging his role as a spiritual guide.
- Common Ground: Despite their differences, both leaders shared a commitment to truth, non-violence, and service to humanity, which formed the bedrock of their friendship.
- Shared Vision: Gandhi and Tagore envisioned a free and inclusive India, where diversity was celebrated, and social justice prevailed, inspiring generations to strive for a better future.
Legacy and Influence
- Historical Reflections: Their friendship reflected an era of profound intellectual exchange and collaboration, shaping India’s socio-cultural fabric during a pivotal period in its history.
- Modern Interpretations: Scholars continue to analyze their correspondence and interactions, offering insights into the complexity and depth of their relationship, which remains relevant in contemporary discourse.
- Global Impact: The principles espoused by Gandhi and Tagore continue to resonate globally, inspiring movements for peace, justice, and human rights across the world.
Conclusion
- The enduring friendship between Gandhi and Tagore stands as a testament to the power of intellectual exchange, mutual respect, and shared ideals.
- Their bond, characterized by respectful disagreements and a commitment to truth, continues to inspire generations and holds lessons for fostering dialogue and understanding in today’s world.
- As we reflect on their legacy, we recognize the enduring relevance of their teachings in shaping a more inclusive and compassionate society.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
The Dalai Lama’s and His Succession
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dalai Lama, Tibetan sects of Buddhism
Mains level: NA
In the news
- The question of reincarnation, typically seen as an esoteric concept, has significant political ramifications concerning the search for a successor to Tibet’s Dalai Lama.
- As the 88-year-old spiritual leader, Tenzin Gyatso, remains in good health, the anticipation surrounding his succession intensifies, particularly against the backdrop of historical and geopolitical tensions.
Who is the Dalai Lama?
- The Dalai Lama (a title) is the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism.
- He is believed to be the reincarnation of the previous Dalai Lama and is regarded as an important figure not only in Tibet but also around the world.
- The Dalai Lama is traditionally both the political and spiritual leader of Tibet, but after China’s occupation of Tibet in 1950, he went into exile in India and since then has been primarily a spiritual leader.
- The current and 14th Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, who was born in Tibet in 1935 and has been in exile in India since 1959.
Brief Outline of Tibetan Buddhism
- Tibetan Buddhism became the predominant religion in Tibet by the 9th century AD, evolving from the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism and incorporating many tantric and shamanic practices.
- It has four major schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug, with the Janang School being one of the smaller schools that grew as an offshoot of the Sakya School.
- Since 1640, the Gelug School has been the predominant school of Tibetan Buddhism, and the Dalai Lama belongs to this school.
Hierarchy and Reincarnation in Tibetan Buddhism
- The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is one of Buddhism’s key beliefs.
- Tibet’s hierarchical system seemingly emerged in the 13th century, and it was around this time that the first instances of “formally recognizing the reincarnations of lamas” can be found.
- The Gelug School developed a strong hierarchy and instituted the tradition of succession through reincarnation, with the fifth Grand Lama of the school being conferred the title of Dalai Lama.
- Several procedures/tests are followed to recognize Tulkus (recognized reincarnations).
Key Issue: Chinese Interference
- Political Intrigue: The announcement of the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation sparks concerns about Chinese interference, as China seeks to control the succession process to assert dominance over Tibetan culture and politics.
- International Ramifications: The Dalai Lama’s reincarnation is not only a spiritual matter but also a geopolitical issue, with international stakeholders closely monitoring developments to safeguard Tibetan autonomy and cultural heritage.
Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2016:
Q.With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:
- The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
- Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment
- Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Ayya Vaikundar?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ayya Vaikundar and his teachings
Mains level: NA
In the news
- Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi sparked controversy with his recent remarks about Ayya Vaikundar, the 19th-century social reformer.
- At an event commemorating birth anniversary, the Governor portrayed him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, tasked with protecting Sanatan Dharma from the influence of the British government.
About Ayya Vaikundar (1809-1851)
- Born in 1809, Vaikundar is revered as a pioneer of social reform in southern Tamil Nadu.
- His teachings emphasized equality, fraternity, and the abolition of caste-based discrimination, challenging entrenched social hierarchies.
- Vaikundar’s initiatives, such as organizing community eateries for people of all backgrounds and advocating for shared water resources, aimed to dismantle caste barriers and promote inclusivity.
Contributions to Social Equality
- Community Initiatives: Vaikundar introduced revolutionary practices like Samapanthi-bhojana and Muthirikinarus to foster social cohesion and challenge caste-based segregation.
- Teachings: He believed in the concept of “pure love” (in Tamil, “piranthu”) as the ultimate goal of life. According to him, true love is selfless, unconditional, and pure, and it is the key to achieving inner peace and happiness.
- Scriptural References: His teachings are often rooted in Tamil scriptures such as the Tirukkural and the Nalayira Divya Prabandham. He interpreted these texts in a way that emphasized love, devotion, and spiritual growth.
- Community Practices: His followers engage in communal practices such as congregational worship, singing devotional songs (Nadai), and participating in spiritual gatherings known as “Ayyavazhi festivals.”
- Religious Reforms: He advocated for inclusive religious practices, such as Thottu Namam, which symbolized equality before divinity, regardless of caste.
- Educational Empowerment: He promoted education for lower castes, established community worship spaces, and simplified marriage customs to empower marginalized communities.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Pakistan National Day to be celebrated in New Delhi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lahore Resolution (1940)
Mains level: NA
In the news
- Pakistan’s decision to resume its National Day (March 23) celebrations in New Delhi after a four-year gap due to the pandemic and strained bilateral relations reflects a significant diplomatic gesture.
- Let’s delve into the historical significance of Pakistan National Day, centered around the Lahore Resolution, and understand how it is observed in New Delhi.
Observance of Pakistan National Day in New Delhi
- Diplomatic Event: The Pakistan National Day is observed at the Pakistan embassy complex in New Delhi, typically attended by foreign diplomats and Indian dignitaries.
- Symbolic Gestures: The event features the playing of national anthems of both countries and addresses by the Pakistan high commissioner and invited guests, fostering diplomatic ties.
About the Lahore Resolution (1940)
- Historical Context: The Lahore Resolution was adopted by the All-India Muslim League during its session in Lahore from March 22 to March 24, 1940.
- Core Objective: It formally called for an independent state for India’s Muslims, laying the groundwork for the creation of Pakistan.
- Constitutional Transformation (1956): Pakistan officially adopted its first Constitution on March 23, coinciding with the Lahore Resolution, signifying the transition from the Dominion of Pakistan to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
- Symbolic Structure: The Minar-e-Pakistan, erected at the site of the Lahore Resolution, commemorates this historic event, with the resolution’s text inscribed at its base.
Key Elements of the Lahore Resolution
- Geographical Division: The resolution emphasized the formation of “Independent States” in regions where Muslims were in a majority, particularly in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India.
- Safeguarding Minority Rights: It called for the protection of religious, cultural, economic, and political rights of Muslims and other minorities throughout India.
Historical Context and Lead-up to the Lahore Resolution
- Growing Dissent: The resolution reflected the culmination of growing demands for Muslim autonomy within India, amid concerns over representation and safeguarding of rights.
- Impactful Events: The session coincided with the Khaksar tragedy and featured a pivotal address by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, solidifying his leadership role in the movement for a separate Muslim state.
- Government of India Act, 1935: The Lahore Resolution emerged against the backdrop of the GoI Act, 1935, which granted separate electorates to Muslims and served as a catalyst for the demand for Muslim autonomy.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2012:
Q.The Lahore Session of the Indian National Congress (1929) is very important in history, because-
- The Congress passed a resolution demanding complete independence
- The rift between the extremists and moderates was resolved in that Session
- A resolution was passed rejecting the two-nation theory in that Session
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) None of the above
Post your responses here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
200 Years of Kittur Uprising: Commemorating Rani Chennamma
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kittur Uprising, Rani Chennamma
Mains level: Women led armed freedom struggles
Introduction
- In 1824, a fleet of 20,000 British soldiers attempted to invade the former princely state of Karnataka, positioning themselves at the foothills of the Kittur fort.
- However, Rani Chennamma, the Queen of Kittur, led a valiant resistance, marking one of the earliest woman-led anti-colonial struggles in India.
Kittur Uprising: Historical Context
- Background: Rani Chennamma’s rebellion against the British East India Company in 1824 is celebrated as a significant event in Karnataka’s political history.
- Revolt Catalyst: The Company’s refusal to recognize Shivalingappa, adopted as the successor of Kittur under the ‘doctrine of lapse’, triggered the conflict.
- Military Confrontation: Rani Chennamma led the Kittur army in a fierce battle against the British forces, resulting in the death of British official John Thackery.
Doctrine of Lapse
|
Legacy of Rani Chennamma
- Political Leadership: Rani Chennamma’s role as an astute administrator and seasoned stateswoman is highlighted in historical records.
- Popular Perception: Despite her contributions, Rani Chennamma’s significance in national consciousness emerged later, as Karnataka became a state much later than other regions.
- Historical Interpretation: Folklore and local traditions fondly remember Rani Chennamma’s bravery and resilience, portraying her as a protector and guardian in Kannada lavanis or folk songs.
Post-Rebellion Period
- Imprisonment and Death: Following the British capture of Kittur Fort in 1824, Rani Chennamma and her family were imprisoned. She passed away in captivity in 1829.
- Historical Records: Historians emphasize Rani Chennamma’s commitment to serving her people, even during her imprisonment, as evidenced by her efforts to support her family and people.
Commemoration and Contemporary Relevance
- Naanoo Rani Chennamma Campaign: Social groups across India are organizing a national campaign on February 21, commemorating Rani Chennamma’s rebellion.
- Campaign Objectives: The campaign aims to mobilize women against patriarchal, anti-democratic, and casteist forces, invoking Rani Chennamma’s memory as a symbol of resistance and empowerment.
- Political Significance: The campaign underscores the need for gender equality, representation, and social justice, drawing inspiration from Rani Chennamma’s legacy of courage and leadership.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
India nominates 12 forts of Marathas for UNESCO World Heritage List
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UNESCO World Heritage List
Mains level: Maratha Military Landscapes
Introduction
- India’s nomination for the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2024-25 is the “Maratha Military Landscapes of India.”
- This nomination encompasses twelve distinct components, each holding a unique place in history and culture.
- Together, they illuminate the strategic military prowess of the Maratha rulers during the 17th to 19th centuries.
Maratha Military Landscapes
- Selecting the Twelve: Maharashtra boasts more than 390 forts, with only twelve chosen for the Maratha Military Landscapes. Among them, eight are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India, including Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg, and Gingee. Salher, Rajgad, Khanderi, and Pratapgarh are safeguarded by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra.
- Diverse Fort Types: These forts encompass hill forts, hill-forest forts, hill-plateau forts, coastal forts, and island forts, each with its distinct historical and geographical significance.
- Historical Significance: These forts, scattered across varied geographical and physiographic regions, exemplify the Maratha rulers’ exceptional fortification and military strategies.
Maratha Military Ideology
- The origins of Maratha Military ideology can be traced back to the 17th century during the reign of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (circa 1670 CE).
- This enduring legacy continued through subsequent rules, including the Peshwa rule until 1818 CE.
Nomination and Criteria
The Maratha Military Landscapes of India is nominated in the category of cultural criteria, specifically under:
-
- Criterion (iii): Bearing exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or civilization.
- Criterion (iv): Exemplifying outstanding architectural or technological ensembles representing significant stages in human history.
- Criterion (vi): Tangibly associated with events, traditions, beliefs, and works of universal significance.
India’s Rich UNESCO Heritage
- Existing World Heritage Sites: India currently boasts 42 World Heritage Sites, comprising 34 cultural sites, seven natural sites, and one mixed site.
- Maharashtra’s Contribution: Maharashtra contributes significantly to India’s heritage with six World Heritage Sites, including Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Elephanta Caves, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai, and the Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala (in the natural category).
- A Cultural Gem: The Maratha Military Landscapes of India, included in the Tentative List of World Heritage sites in 2021, stands as Maharashtra’s sixth cultural property nominated for inclusion in the prestigious World Heritage List.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
| Description | |
| UNESCO World Heritage Sites | Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties. |
| Importance | World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history. |
| Selection Criteria | Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc. |
| Conservation | World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence. |
| World Heritage Committee | Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term. |
| Membership | India is not a member of the World Heritage Committee. |
Note: “States parties” refer to the countries that have ratified the World Heritage Convention and participate in the decision-making process.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Why was January 26 chosen to be India’s Republic Day?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Republic Day
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- On January 26, India celebrates Republic Day, marking the day when its Constitution came into effect in 1950.
- However, the roots of this celebration trace back to January 26, 1930, when India made the historic “Poorna Swaraj” declaration, signifying its quest for complete independence from British rule.
Context of the 1920s
- Non-Cooperation Movement: The 1920s witnessed the aftermath of the Non Cooperation Movement and the Chauri Chaura incident, which prompted Mahatma Gandhi to temporarily halt non-violent protests.
- Rise of Leaders: This period saw the emergence of notable leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Vallabhai Patel, and C. Rajagopalachari, setting the stage for India’s future freedom struggle.
Simon Commission and Nehru Report
- Simon Commission: In 1927, British authorities appointed the Simon Commission to discuss political reforms in India, sparking nationwide protests with slogans like “Simon Go Back.”
- Nehru Report: In response, the Indian National Congress (INC) established its own commission under Motilal Nehru, advocating dominion status for India within the British Empire.
Internal Disagreements: Dominion or Republic?
- Dominion Status Debate: While the Nehru Report called for dominion status, leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru favored complete independence, fearing that dominion status would align India with colonial exploitation in the British Empire.
- Change in Gandhi’s Views: Initially supporting dominion status, Mahatma Gandhi’s stance evolved as he began advocating for complete independence.
Irwin Declaration and Backtracking
- Irwin Declaration: In 1929, Viceroy Irwin vaguely promised dominion status for India, which sparked hope among Indians but faced opposition in Britain.
- Backtracking: Under pressure from Britain, Irwin retracted his promise during a meeting with Indian leaders, leading to growing unity within the INC for complete independence.
Declaration of Poorna Swaraj
- Lahore Session of INC: In December 1929, during the Lahore Session of the INC, the “Poorna Swaraj” resolution was passed, calling for complete independence from British rule.
- Official Promulgation: On January 26, 1930, this declaration of independence was officially announced, marking a pivotal moment in India’s freedom struggle.
- Nonviolent Protest: The resolution also affirmed the Gandhian principles of nonviolent protest, which became integral to the subsequent struggle for independence.
Republic Day in Post-Independence India
- Celebrating Independence: From 1930 until India’s independence in 1947, January 26 was celebrated as “Independence Day” or “Poorna Swaraj Day,” symbolizing India’s commitment to sovereignty.
- Constitution Adoption: When India adopted its Constitution, leaders chose January 26 for Republic Day, as it held historical significance and aligned with the ideals of complete independence as articulated in the “Poorna Swaraj” declaration.
- Symbolism: Today, Republic Day commemorates India’s journey to self-rule and reflects the principles enshrined in its Constitution.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Somnath Temple: A Historical Perspective
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Somnath Temple
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The inauguration of the Ram temple in Ayodhya on January 22, 2024, has sparked discussions about the role of politics and religion in India.
- In this historical analysis, we delve into the lesser-known aspects of another significant temple, the Somnath Temple, to understand its complex historical background and the British influence on its perception.
Somnath, Till 1947
- Historical Significance: Located in Prabhas Patan, Veraval, Gujarat, Somnath is a revered Hindu pilgrimage site.
- Temple’s Legacy: The temple is known as the “holy place of the First Aadi Jyotirling Shree Somnath Mahadev” and holds religious significance.
- Maratha Queen’s Effort: In 1782, Maratha queen Ahalyabai Holkar built a small temple at the site, but the grandeur of the original was not restored.
Somnath’s Decline
- Historical Attacks: The temple faced numerous attacks throughout history, including the devastating raid by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026 CE.
- Diverse Rulers: While some Muslim rulers permitted worship at the temple, such as Akbar in the sixteenth century, others, like Aurangzeb, ordered its destruction in 1706.
- Abul Fazl’s Remark: Historian Abul Fazl described Mahmud of Ghazni’s raid as “the plunder of the virtuous,” acknowledging the temple’s significance.
- British Intervention: In 1842, British Governor General Lord Ellenborough used the “gates of Somnath” as a symbol of avenging an insult during an Afghanistan expedition.
After Independence
- Junagadh’s Accesion to Pakistan: After Independence, the Nawab of Junagadh attempted to accede to Pakistan, leading to unrest.
- Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel’s Decision: On November 12, 1947, Patel announced the reconstruction of Somnath, endorsed by the Union Cabinet.
- Mahatma Gandhi’s Suggestion: Gandhi proposed that the temple’s funding should come from the public, leading to the creation of a Trust under K M Munshi.
Nehru’s Opposition to the Inauguration
- Political Implications: Nehru opposed President Rajendra Prasad’s participation in the temple’s spectacular opening.
- Concerns about Secularism: Nehru expressed reservations about the government’s involvement in a ceremony with potential political and revivalist implications.
- Financial Concerns: He criticized the Saurashtra government’s contribution to the event, citing austerity measures and economic challenges.
- Secular State: Nehru emphasized the importance of India being a secular state and not associating with religious events.
- Opposition to External Affairs Circular: He objected to a circular requesting the collection of water, soil, and twigs from foreign countries for the ceremony.
Conclusion
- The story of Somnath temple’s revival encapsulates India’s complex journey through history, politics, and religion.
- It highlights the delicate balance between preserving historical heritage and upholding the principles of a secular state.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Nashik’s Kalaram Mandir: Religious and Social Significance
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kalaram Mandir's Legacy
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The Kalaram Mandir, located on the banks of the Godavari in Nashik’s Panchavati area, has recently garnered attention with visits from prominent political leaders, including Prime Minister.
- This temple, steeped in historical, religious, and social significance, has been a focal point for major political and social movements in India.
Kalaram Mandir’s Legacy
- Temple’s Name and Idol: The temple gets its name from the black statue of Lord Ram (‘Kala Ram’ means ‘Black Ram’). The sanctum sanctorum houses statues of Ram, Sita, Lakshman, and a black idol of Hanuman.
- Construction and Features: Built-in 1792 by Sardar Rangarao Odhekar, the temple features 14 steps representing Ram’s years of exile and 84 pillars symbolizing the cycle of rebirth in Hinduism.
- Historical Significance: The temple is renowned for its association with the epic Ramayana, where Lord Ram, along with Sita and Lakshman, is said to have spent time during their exile.
Panchavati’s Role in the Ramayana
- Significance in the Epic: Panchavati, the area where the temple is located, is significant in the Ramayana. It’s believed to be the site where Sita was abducted by Ravan, leading to the epic war in Lanka.
- Name Origin: The name ‘Panchavati’ is derived from the presence of five banyan trees, making the region auspicious according to the epic.
Temple as a Site of Social Reform
- Dalit Satyagraha: In 1930, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and social activist Pandurang Sadashiv Sane (Sane Guruji) led a historic agitation at the Kalaram Mandir, demanding temple entry rights for Dalits.
- Ambedkar’s Protest: The protest involved a sit-in outside the temple, with participants singing songs and raising slogans for equality.
- Continued Relevance: The temple remains a symbol of the struggle for Dalit rights, highlighted by Uddhav Thackeray’s plan to visit on the day of the Ram temple consecration in Ayodhya.
Political Significance
- Recent Political Visits: The temple has seen visits from major political figures, reflecting its continued relevance in contemporary politics and social issues.
- Symbol of Unity and Equality: Leaders visiting the temple often emphasize its role in symbolizing unity and the fight for social justice in India.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Kharsawan Massacre of 1948: A Tragic Chapter in Jharkhand’s History
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kharsawan Massacre
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- On January 1, 1948, the town of Kharsawan in present-day Jharkhand witnessed a massacre reminiscent of what happened in Jallianwala Bagh in 1919.
- Police opened fire at a crowd gathered for a protest and the weekly haat (market), killing hundreds, or by some accounts, thousands of Adivasis.
Kharsawan Massacre: A Background
- Since the creation of the Bihar and Orissa Province in 1912, Adivasis in the region sought a separate state, reflecting their unique culture and grievances.
- This demand gained momentum over the years, with the Simon Commission acknowledging the distinct nature of the region in 1930.
- In 1938, the Adivasi Mahasabha was established to further this cause, led by prominent leader Jaipal Singh Munda.
Kharsawan’s Merger Controversy
- Merger with Orissa: In 1947, Kharsawan, a princely state with a significant Odia-speaking population, decided to join Orissa during India’s princely states’ integration.
- Adivasi Opposition: However, most Adivasis opposed this merger, desiring a separate state instead.
The Massacre
- Protest Gathering: On January 1, 1948, a large gathering was organized in Kharsawan to protest the merger, coinciding with the weekly market day. Over 50,000 people, including those from distant villages, assembled, many to see Jaipal Munda, who was expected but did not arrive.
- Police Open Fire: The large crowd and tense atmosphere led the Orissa military police to open fire, resulting in a massacre. The exact number of casualties remains unclear, with estimates ranging from a few dozen to several thousand.
- Aftermath: The bodies were disposed of in a well and the jungle, and many injured were left untreated. The incident remains a dark and unresolved chapter in Indian history.
Legacy
- Uncertain Death Toll: Official records state 35 deaths, but other sources, like P.K. Deo’s “Memoir of a Bygone Era,” suggest numbers as high as 2,000.
- Lack of Accountability: No definitive report or accountability for the massacre has been established.
- Memorial and Remembrance: A memorial in Kharsawan serves as a reminder of this tragedy, with political leaders often visiting to pay respects.
Conclusion
- The Kharsawan massacre is a poignant reminder of the complexities and tragedies during India’s transition to independence, particularly for marginalized communities like the Adivasis.
- It underscores the unresolved issues of tribal rights and recognition in India’s history.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Indian National Congress (INC): From Foundation to Present Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INC, Important Sessions
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- On December 28, 1885, the Indian National Congress (INC) was established, marking the beginning of a significant journey in Indian politics.
- The INC’s journey from influencing British policy to leading India’s nationalist movement, dominating post-independence politics, and its current decline offers a rich political narrative.
Indian National Congress: Inception in 1885
- Founding by AO Hume: Allan Octavian Hume, an English bureaucrat, founded the INC to advocate for greater self-governance in India.
- First Session: The inaugural session in Bombay saw 72 reformers, journalists, and lawyers unite, aiming not for independence but to influence British policies favorably for Indians.
- Safety Valve Theory: The INC initially served as a platform for Indians to express grievances, seeking to unify diverse population segments and regenerate the nation across various dimensions.
Politics of Petitions
- Early Challenges: The Congress faced criticism from both the British and Indians; the former for disrupting the status quo and the latter for its passive resistance approach.
- Composition and Critique: Dominated by educated, upper-class individuals, the INC was often seen as too moderate and not sufficiently representative of all Indians.
- Internal Divisions: By 1906, ideological differences led to a split between the moderates (Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Surendranath Banerjea) and the extremists (Bal Gangadhar Tilak), particularly over responses to the Bengal Partition.
Leadership under Mahatma Gandhi
- Reunification and Transformation: The INC, under Gandhi’s influence from 1915, transformed into a mass movement, focusing on social issues like caste discrimination and poverty.
- Diverse Membership: Despite its Hindu upper-caste dominance, the party included members from various ethnic and religious backgrounds.
- Purna Swaraj Declaration: At the 1929 Lahore session, the INC, under Jawaharlal Nehru’s presidency, committed to complete independence, a goal achieved in 1947 but marred by Partition.
Dominance in Post-Independence India
- Electoral Success: The INC’s legacy and organizational strength led to victories in the first six general elections.
- Policy Direction: Under Nehru, the party promoted secularism, socialist economics, and non-aligned foreign policy.
- Internal Power Struggles: Post-Nehru, internal conflicts emerged, notably between Indira Gandhi and the party’s old guard, leading to a split into Congress (R) and Congress (O).
Onset of Decline
- Electoral Setbacks: The Emergency period (1975-77) led to the INC’s first national electoral defeat in 1977.
- Fluctuating Fortunes: While it regained power, the 1989 loss marked the end of its dominance, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerging as a strong alternative.
- Recent Struggles: The INC’s significant reduction in parliamentary strength in the 2014 and 2016 elections underscores its ongoing decline.
Back2Basics: Important Sessions of INC
- 1896, Calcutta: Presided over by Rahimtulla M. Sayani, where the national song “Vande Mataram” was sung for the first time.
- 1906, Calcutta: Presided over by Dadabhai Naoroji, where the goal of Swaraj (self-rule) was formally adopted.
- 1917, Calcutta: Annie Besant became the first woman president of the INC.
- 1924, Belgaum: The only session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi.
- 1937, Faizpur: The first session held in a rural area, reflecting the INC’s commitment to rural issues and agrarian reform.
- 1938, Haripura: Subhas Chandra Bose elected as President, which marked a shift towards a more radical approach in the freedom struggle.
- 1940, Ramgarh: Last session presided over by Mahatma Gandhi; emphasized on individual Satyagraha.
- 1955, Avadi (Madras): Adoption of the ‘Avadi Resolution’ which called for a socialist pattern of society.
- 1964, Bhubaneswar: First session after the death of Jawaharlal Nehru, marking a new era in the party’s leadership.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Evolution of Passports in the Context of ‘Dunki’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evolution of Passports
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- A recent Bollywood movie ‘Dunki’ addresses the complex issue of immigration.
- The term “donkey journey” in the title refers to the perilous routes taken by people lacking legal permits or financial means to immigrate.
- The film highlights that the current system of visas and passports is a relatively recent development, dating back about 70 years.
Historical Perspective on Passports
- Early Forms of Passports: Passports, serving as identity proofs and travel permits, have existed in various forms for centuries.
- Biblical Reference: The Book of Nehemiah mentions King Artaxerxes of ancient Persia providing letters for safe passage, akin to modern passports.
- European Documentation: In France and the United Kingdom, systems similar to modern passports were in place well before the French Revolution of 1789.
The French Passport System
- Internal and Overseas Passports: France required internal passports for domestic travel and overseas passports for foreign trips.
- State Control and Regulation: The system was also used to regulate skilled workers and prevent the entry of potential troublemakers.
Emergence of Modern Passports
- Shift in India: Before World War I, India did not issue passports, but the British government introduced mandatory passports under the Defence of India Act (1914 to 1918).
- Global Changes Post-World Wars: The need for secure borders during the World Wars led to a global shift in the perception and use of passports.
- British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act: This 1914 Act in Britain consolidated laws related to citizenship and introduced modern passport features.
Standardization and Regulation
- League of Nations’ Involvement: In 1920, the League of Nations aimed to standardize passport systems, with the British model becoming widely adopted.
- US Immigration Laws and Passports: The US introduced passport laws in the 1920s, coinciding with immigration restrictions from Asia.
Public Reception and Cultural Impact
- Personal Discomfort: In the US and UK, some people found the detailed physical descriptions and identity verification in passports intrusive.
- Media Attention: The requirement for prominent individuals, including President Woodrow Wilson, to have passports garnered significant media interest.
Conclusion
- Beyond Wartime Necessity: Initially intended as a wartime tool, passports have become an integral part of modern citizenship and international travel.
- Continued Evolution: The history of passports, as explored in ‘Dunki’, reflects the ongoing evolution of identity verification and border control in response to global socio-political changes.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Decoding the Annexation of Goa: Operation Vijay and Historical Context
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Goan Liberation
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Liberation of Goa: On December 19, 1961, India successfully annexed Goa, ending years of Portuguese colonial rule.
- Criticism of Nehru: Prime Minister Narendra Modi accused former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of not supporting Goan satyagrahis and delaying military action.
Goa’s Colonization: A Historical Overview
- Portuguese Rule: Goa became a Portuguese colony in 1510 under Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque.
- Long Colonial Encounter: For over four centuries, Goa was a focal point of regional and global power struggles, leading to a unique Goan identity.
- Nationalist Sentiment: The early 20th century saw a rise in nationalist sentiment against Portuguese rule, paralleling India’s anti-British movement.
Beginning of the Freedom Movement
- Goan Nationalism: Tristao de Braganza Cunha, hailed as the father of Goan nationalism, founded the Goa National Congress in 1928.
- Lohia’s Influence: In 1946, Ram Manohar Lohia’s rally in Goa galvanized the freedom movement, advocating civil liberties and integration with India.
- Armed Resistance: Groups like the Azad Gomantak Dal (AGD) advocated for an armed struggle for liberation.
Recognition and Legal Status of Goa’s Annexation
- Supreme Court’s Recognition: The Supreme Court of India validated the annexation, dismissing the law of occupation’s applicability.
- Portugal’s Acknowledgment: In 1974, Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty over Goa through a retroactive treaty.
- International Law: Under jus cogens, forceful annexations post-UN Charter are deemed illegal, but Goa’s annexation is an exception.
Why Goa remained under Portuguese Rule Post-1947?
- Nehru’s Peace Image: Nehru avoided military action to maintain his global peace leader image.
- Partition’s Aftermath: The trauma of Partition and the Indo-Pak war diverted India’s focus.
- International Concerns: There were concerns about internationalizing the issue.
- Lack of Internal Demand: Gandhi believed more groundwork was needed to unify diverse political voices in Goa.
Nehru’s Dilemma and Delay in Military Action
- Global Image and Peaceful Methods: Nehru prioritized India’s global standing and exhausted diplomatic options.
- Portugal’s NATO Strategy: Portugal’s reclassification of Goa aimed to bring it under NATO’s protection.
- Indigenous Push for Liberation: Nehru balanced diplomatic efforts with supporting indigenous liberation movements.
Factors Leading to the 1961 Military Offensive
- Portuguese Aggression: The 1955 firing on satyagraha led India to sever ties with Portugal.
- India’s Decolonization Leadership: India’s role in global anti-colonial movements intensified pressure to liberate Goa.
- African Nations’ Criticism: African criticism at a 1961 seminar highlighted the need to dismantle Portuguese colonialism.
- Decisive Military Action: These factors culminated in Operation Vijay, a swift military campaign liberating Goa in less than two days.
Conclusion
- End of Colonial Rule: The annexation marked the end of Portuguese colonialism in India.
- Historical Significance: Goa’s liberation remains a pivotal event, symbolizing the culmination of India’s struggle against colonialism and the unification of its territories.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Bhagat Singh’s Bombing of Delhi Central Assembly
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bhagat Singh
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- A serious security breach occurred in the Indian Parliament when two individuals jumped into the Lok Sabha chamber, releasing yellow smoke.
- Police sources indicated that the act, involving a total of six individuals, was apparently inspired by the revolutionary Bhagat Singh.
Bhagat Singh’s Historic Act in 1929
- Central Assembly Incident: Over 94 years ago, Bhagat Singh, along with Batukeshwar Dutt, threw bombs and pamphlets in Delhi’s Central Assembly, challenging the British Empire.
- Objective: Their act was not aimed at causing harm but to protest against the lack of autonomy under the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms and to voice against repressive measures.
1929 ‘Indian Parliament’ and Revolutionary Motives
- Political Climate: The period saw Indian nationalists dissatisfied with the limited power under British rule, leading to revolutionary movements.
- HSRA’s Stance: The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA), led by Chandrashekhar Azad and involving Bhagat Singh, sought to oppose the facade of an Indian Parliament run by the British.
- Pamphlet’s Message: The HSRA aimed to ‘make the deaf hear’, using their act as a symbolic protest against the British administration.
Fateful Day: April 8, 1929
- Viceroy’s Proclamation: The incident coincided with the Viceroy’s enactment of controversial bills, despite opposition in the Assembly.
- Well-Planned Action: Bhagat Singh and Dutt conducted reconnaissance and executed their plan while dressed in khaki, throwing bombs and pamphlets into the Assembly.
- Immediate Arrest: Following their slogan-shouting and bomb-throwing, both revolutionaries were arrested as per their plan.
Aftermath: Trial and Sentencing
- Response to Criticism: Bhagat Singh and Dutt defended their actions, emphasizing the sanctity of human life and the moral justification of their cause.
- Trial and Sentencing: A month later, both were sentenced to life imprisonment. Bhagat Singh later faced additional charges leading to his execution in 1931.
Conclusion
- Echoes of History: The recent security breach in the Lok Sabha, inspired by Bhagat Singh’s act, reflects a continued legacy of protest in India.
- Legacy of Bhagat Singh: The incident serves as a reminder of Bhagat Singh’s enduring influence in Indian history, symbolizing resistance and the fight for justice.
- Contemporary Relevance: While the motives of the recent perpetrators are still under investigation, their actions highlight ongoing issues in India, from regional concerns to farmers’ rights, resonating with Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary spirit.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: All Indian Forward Bloc (AIFB)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Forward Bloc, Netaji's split from INC
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- A veteran leader’s centenary who was associated with Netaji Bose’s All Indian Forward Bloc (AIFB), was celebrated.
All Indian Forward Bloc (AIFB)
| Details | |
| Foundation | May 3, 1939 by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose at Makur near Unnao (Uttar Pradesh) |
| Original Purpose | To consolidate left-wing elements within the Indian National Congress and develop an alternative leadership |
| Key Early Members | S.S. Kavishar (Vice-President), Lal Shankarlal (General Secretary), Vishwambhar Dayalu Tripathi, Khurshed Nariman, Annapurniah, Senapati Bapat, Hari Vishnu Kamath, Pasumpon U. Muthuramalingam Thevar, Sheel Bhadra Yagee, Satya Ranjan Bakshi |
| First All India Conference | June 20-22, 1940, in Nagpur; declared as a socialist political party |
| Publication | “Forward Bloc” newspaper started by Netaji in August 1939 |
| Bose’s Arrest and Exile | Arrested in July 1940, escaped in January 1941, sought support in the Soviet Union and Germany |
| World War II Activities | Continued anti-British activities in India, notably in Bihar, without direct coordination with Bose or INA |
| Post-War Reorganization | Reorganized in February 1946 in Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh; declared as a socialist party |
| 1946 Elections | Contested elections to the Constituent Assembly and provincial legislatures; won several seats |
| Arrah Conference | 2nd All India Conference in January 1947 in Arrah, Bihar |
| Post-Independence Status | Re-established as an independent political party after India’s independence |
Try this PYQ:
Who among the following were the founders of the “Hind Mazdoor Sabha” established in 1948?
(a) B. Krishna Pillai, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and K.C. George
(b) Jayaprakash Narayan, Deen Dayal Upadhyay and M.N. Roy
(c) C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, K. Kamaraj and Veeresalingam Pantulu
(d) Ashok Mehata, T.S. Ramanujan and G.G. Mehata
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Kazi Nazrul Islam and his Iconic Song
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kazi Nazrul Islam
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- A movie-maker has issued an apology for the unintended distress caused by its rendition of the iconic song “Karar Oi Louho Kopat” penned by Bengali poet Kazi Nazrul Islam in 1922.
Who was Kazi Nazrul Islam (1899-1976)?
- Kazi Nazrul Islam was born on May 24, 1899, in Churulia, a village in the Burdwan district of West Bengal, India.
- He was a famous poet, writer, and musician from Bengal.
- He is well-known for his songs, which are called “Nazrulgeeti.”
- These songs are very popular and loved by in West Bengal, Bangladesh, almost as much as Rabindrasangeet of Rabindranath Tagore.
- Nazrul is often called the “Vidrohi Kavi (Rebel Poet)” because he wrote more than 4,000 songs, and many of them were about protesting and fighting against unfair rules and powerful rulers.
- These songs inspired the freedom fighters of Bengal who were fighting against the British colonial rule.
- He is celebrated as the national poet of Bangladesh and is also revered in West Bengal, India.
Understanding “Karar Oi Louho Kopat”
- Nazrul was an ardent supporter of India’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule. He used his poetry and writings to inspire and mobilize people against British oppression.
- Published in 1922 in “Banglar Katha” and later included in Nazrul’s “Bhangar Gaan,” the song was penned as a call to break down the iron gates of prison, symbolizing resistance against British oppression.
- He wrote the song of revolution after the British threw Deshbandhu Chittaranjan Das (1870-1925) in prison in 1922.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
An under-discussed facet of colonial history
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kangani System
Mains level: Decolonization
Central idea
The article explores the historical exploitation of indentured labor, particularly focusing on the plight of Plantation Tamils in Sri Lanka. Shashi Tharoor emphasizes the challenges, discrimination, and struggles faced by this community, calling for a post-colonial, inclusive identity and highlighting the importance of decolonization in shaping a more equitable future for nations with colonial histories.
What is indentured labour?
- Definition: Indentured labor is a historical practice where individuals, often from impoverished backgrounds, enter a contract (indenture) with an employer.
- Terms: In exchange for their service, laborers receive passage, accommodation, and sometimes wages, binding them to work for a specified number of years (typically 4 to 7).
- Purpose: Common during the 17th to 20th centuries, indentured labor served as a substitute for slavery, especially in regions where slavery had been abolished.
Key Highlights:
- Bicentenary Commemoration: The article discusses the recent commemoration of the bicentenary of Tamil indentured laborers’ arrival in Sri Lanka, emphasizing the historical significance of this event.
- Impact of British Empire: Shashi Tharoor highlights the detrimental impact of the British Empire’s policies, including the exploitation of colonies, draining of resources, and the introduction of indentured labor as a form of bonded servitude.
- Plight of Plantation Tamils: The article sheds light on the challenges faced by Plantation Tamils in Sri Lanka, detailing their exploitation, discrimination, and struggles for basic rights, identity, and integration.
- Identity and Integration: Despite adversities, Plantation Tamils forged an identity rooted in Tamil traditions and values. The article acknowledges their journey towards integration and efforts to reclaim their heritage as equal citizens of Sri Lanka.
Challenges faced by these labors :
- Indentured Labor Exploitation: The article highlights the exploitative nature of indentured labor, depicting the harsh conditions, misinformation, and economic hardships faced by laborers brought to distant lands.
- Discrimination and Statelessness: Plantation Tamils faced discrimination by colonial practices, being labeled “foreigners” and rendered stateless. Discriminatory laws, like the Citizenship Act of 1948, further marginalized them.
- Kangani System: The detrimental role of the sub-contractor system, known as kanganies, is discussed, emphasizing the abuse of power and exploitation faced by Indian laborers even after the indenture period.
| Highly important term from prelims perspective
Kangani System:
Role: Kangani was like a boss who hired and supervised workers. Function: Managed laborers on plantations, overseeing their work. Abuse of Power: Kangani could be unfair, exploiting workers and causing them to be in debt. After Work Ended: Unlike other workers, Plantation Tamils had no escape from the kangani system even after their work time was over. Restrictions: Workers couldn’t ask to go home or buy land because of unclear contracts with the kangani. |
Key Phrases:
- Licensed Looting: Describes the initial phase of the British imperial project as a form of licensed looting in service of crude capitalism.
- Indentured Labour: Refers to the replacement of slavery with bonded servitude, termed “indentured labor,” as a consequence of the abolition of slavery.
- New Kind of Slavery: Hugh Tinker’s characterization of indentured labor, highlighting its exploitative and degrading nature.
- Decolonization: Stresses the importance of post-colonial countries breaking free from oppressive practices and attitudes inherited from their imperial rulers.
Analysis: Tharoor critically analyzes the historical exploitation by the British Empire, juxtaposing the wave of liberal humanism in Europe with the continued oppression in the colonies. He underscores the challenges faced by Plantation Tamils, portraying their struggle for identity and integration as a valorous subaltern endeavor.
Key Data/Facts:
- Bicentenary: Marks the 200th anniversary of Tamil indentured laborers’ arrival in Sri Lanka in November 1823.
- Citizenship Act of 1948: The legislation rendered Plantation Tamils stateless, hindering their assimilation into Sri Lankan society.
- Economic Shift to Tea: The shift from coffee to tea plantations in Sri Lanka resulted in a massive transfer of Indian Tamils due to increased demand for labor.
Way Forward:
- Decolonization: Tharoor emphasizes the need for post-colonial countries like Sri Lanka to actively decolonize themselves from oppressive practices inherited from imperial rulers.
- Inclusive Identity: The article suggests that forging an inclusive, post-colonial identity for all people in Sri Lanka should be central to the nation-building process.
- Land Ownership: The government’s potential plan to divide plantations, making workers owners of the land they work on, is seen as a positive step, representing a potential way forward.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Mubarak Manzil Palace of Malerkotla Awaits Restoration
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mubarak Manzil Palace
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Hidden amidst the ruins of Punjab’s Malerkotla town lies the 19th-century Mubarak Manzil Palace, a poignant symbol of the state’s indifference towards its rich heritage.
- Beyond its architectural significance, this palace holds a deep cultural and emotional connection for both Sikhs and Muslims alike.
- However, despite its historical value, the restoration of this magnificent structure has languished in bureaucratic inertia.
About Mubarak Manzil Palace
- Historical Significance: The Mubarak Manzil Palace dates back to the 19th century and stands as a testament to the region’s historical heritage.
- Cultural Significance: Beyond architecture, the palace holds immense cultural and emotional importance for Sikhs and Muslims, serving as a shared legacy.
- Unfulfilled Hope: Begum Munawwar-ul-Nisa, the last surviving member of Malerkotla’s royal family, passed away recently, with her desire to witness the palace’s restoration remaining unfulfilled.
Delayed Restoration Efforts
- Congress Government’s Approval: In 2021, the previous Congress government granted approval for the acquisition and preservation of the palace, kindling hopes for its revival.
- Family Disputes and Financial Constraints: The palace had fallen into disrepair due to family disputes and financial limitations. Begum Nisa, after resolving the disputes, appealed to the State government to take over and restore the palace.
- Unfulfilled Promises: Although Begum Nisa and her family entrusted 29 rooms of the palace to the government’s care, the restoration work has yet to commence. Despite expert assessments in 2022, progress has been stalled, leaving the heritage in disrepair.
Cultural Significance
- Guru Gobind Singh’s Blessing: Malerkotla holds a significant place in Sikh history as it was Nawab Sher Mohammed Khan who protested against the execution of Guru Gobind Singh’s younger sons, Sahibzada Zorawar Singh and Sahibzada Fateh Singh, in 1705. Guru Gobind Singh blessed the town to live in peace.
- Sikh Reverence: Sikhs deeply respect Malerkotla’s royal family for their historical role. The restoration of the palace is considered a fitting tribute to their legacy.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
‘Enemy Property’ Butler Palace to turn into a tourist haven
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Enemy Property, Butler Palace
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Lucknow’s iconic Butler Palace, an Enemy Property on the banks of the Gomti River, is set to undergo a remarkable transformation after decades of abandonment and obscurity.
About Butler Palace
- Official Residence: Butler Palace was originally commissioned in 1915 as the official residence of the Avadh Commissioner, Harcourt Butler.
- Ownership by the Raja: It later came under the ownership of the rajas of Mahmudabad, a family with roots tracing back to the 13th century and a history of allegiance to the Mughals.
- Partition and Dispute: After India’s partition, Raja Mohammed Amir Ahmad Khan migrated to Pakistan, while his son, Mohammad Amir Mohammad Khan, stayed in India. Legal disputes over properties, including Butler Palace, ensued.
Genesis of Enemy Property
- Post-War Migration: The origins of enemy property can be traced back to the aftermath of the India-Pakistan wars in 1965 and 1971, which led to the migration of people from India to Pakistan.
- Defence of India Rules: Framed under The Defence of India Act, 1962, these rules empowered the Indian government to assume control of properties and companies owned by individuals opting for Pakistani nationality.
- Custodian of Enemy Property: The central government vested these “enemy properties” in the Custodian of Enemy Property for India (CEPI).
- Similar Instances: A parallel situation emerged concerning property left behind by individuals who relocated to China after the 1962 Sino-Indian war.
- Tashkent Declaration: A pivotal development occurred with the Tashkent Declaration in 1966, where India and Pakistan agreed to discuss the return of properties and assets seized by either side during the conflicts.
- Pakistan’s Disposition: Notably, the Government of Pakistan disposed of all such properties within its territory in 1971.
Legal Framework for Handling Enemy Property
- Enemy Property Act, 1968: Enacted in 1968, this legislation established the continuous vesting of enemy property in the Custodian of Enemy Property for India (CEPI) under the Home Ministry.
- Scope of Properties: The CEPI, acting on behalf of the central government, oversees a range of enemy properties spread across multiple states. This includes both immovable and movable assets, such as shares and gold.
- Amendment in 2017: Parliament passed The Enemy Property (Amendment and Validation) Bill, 2016, which introduced amendments to The Enemy Property Act, 1968, and The Public Premises (Eviction of Unauthorised Occupants) Act, 1971.
Scale and Geographic Distribution
- Vast Inventory: India currently hosts a significant inventory of 12,611 enemy properties, collectively estimated to be worth over ₹1 lakh crore.
- Revenue Generation: The government has generated revenue exceeding ₹3,400 crore by disposing of enemy properties, predominantly involving movable assets like shares and gold.
- Immovable Properties: Interestingly, no immovable enemy properties have been sold to date.
- Origin Breakdown: Out of the 12,611 properties under CEPI’s purview, 12,485 were associated with Pakistani nationals, while 126 were linked to Chinese citizens.
- Regional Distribution: Uttar Pradesh leads with the highest number of enemy properties (6,255), followed by states like West Bengal, Delhi, Goa, Maharashtra, and others. Notably, several states across India have a share of enemy properties, underscoring the broad geographical scope.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Baba Farid and India’s Connection to Jerusalem
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Baba Farid
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Amidst the timeless and contentious history of Jerusalem, India’s enduring presence is manifested through the Indian Hospice—a two-story stone building nestled within the city’s ancient walls.
- The hospice, established in the 12th century, stands as a testament to the 800-year-old connection between India and Jerusalem.
Baba Farid’s Hospice
- Baba Farid’s Spiritual Sojourn: Legend has it that Baba Farid, a revered Sufi saint from Punjab, embarked on a 40-day meditation at this site. His spiritual journey left an indelible mark, inspiring Indian Muslims travelling to Mecca to visit Jerusalem for prayer.
- Transformation into a Shrine: Over time, the place evolved into a sacred shrine and a hospice, welcoming Indian travellers and pilgrims.
Who was Baba Farid?
- Early life: Baba Farid, born in 1173 CE near Shakarganj, near Multan (Pakistan), belonged to a family that had migrated from Kabul to Punjab.
- Sufi Connection: He followed the Chishti Order and was among the first Sufi saints to compose verses in Punjabi.
- Influence on Sikhism: Many of his verses are enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of Sikhs.
Evolution of the Indian Hospice
- Baba Farid’s Lodging: Baba Farid found a humble abode within one of Jerusalem’s gates, known as Bab-az-Zahra among Muslims and Herod’s Gate among Christians. This lodging was situated within a khanqah—a structure for Sufi orders, functioning as both seminaries and hospices.
- A Continuously Cherished Connection: Despite changing rulers, including Christian crusaders, Mamluks, and Ottomans, the lodge maintained its association with India.
Hospice through the Ages
- Prominence during Ottoman Rule: The lodge remained prominent during Ottoman rule, predominantly under the leadership of sheikhs from South Asia.
- Shift during Ottoman Dissolution: As the Ottoman Empire began to dissolve in 1919, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin Al-Husayni, took charge, initiating extensive renovations. He sought support from Muslim patrons worldwide, including Indian princely states.
- Renovation by Khwaja Nazir Hasan Ansari: In 1921, Khwaja Nazir Hasan Ansari from Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh, undertook the renovation of the lodge. It became a sanctuary for travellers and pilgrims from British India, even offering refuge to soldiers during World War II in 1939.
Indian Hospice’s Association with Independent India
- Post-Independence Recognition: After India gained independence, Nazir Ansari sought official recognition from the Indian embassy in Egypt, solidifying the lodge’s Indian identity.
- Resilience through Challenges: The hospice faced challenges, including rocket strikes in 1952 and the Six-Day War in 1967.
- Diverse Functions: Over time, the Indian Hospice expanded to host the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA) and the Jerusalem Health Centre.
Diplomatic and Cultural Significance
- Meeting Place for Dignitaries: In 2000, the hospice hosted a meeting between former Indian Foreign Minister Jaswant Singh and Palestinian leader Faisal Husseini.
- Integral Diplomatic Destination: Every Indian diplomat or visiting dignitary includes a visit to the hospice.
- Sheikh Mohammad Munir Ansari: Sheikh Mohammad Munir Ansari, born in Jerusalem in 1928, administers the hospice and received the Pravasi Bharatiya Samman (Overseas Indian Award) from the Government of India in 2011.
Glimpse of India in Jerusalem
- Ownership and Accessibility: The property is under the ownership of Waqf Board of India, accessible solely to individuals of Indian citizenship or heritage.
- Facilities: The hospice offers guest rooms, a mosque, a library, a dining hall, and a kitchen, encouraging guests to manage their cooking and laundry.
- Ansari Family’s Dedication: The Ansari family diligently maintains the hospice, extending hospitality and preserving a piece of India in the heart of Jerusalem.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s 125th birth anniversary
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Modern Indian, Personalities, contributions and related facts
Mains level: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and his contributions
What’s the news?
- Commemorating the 125th birth anniversary of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a prominent figure in India’s history
Central idea
- Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a name synonymous with educational reforms among Muslims, stands out for his groundbreaking efforts. Yet, his views on women’s education remain controversial and the topic demands a revisit, especially in the context of the recent passing of the Women’s Reservation Bill.
The Complex Legacy of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
- Sir Syed’s Contradictory Views:
- While Sir Syed displayed a clear inclination towards liberal values and rationality, exemplified by his establishment of the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875, his views on women’s education were more conservative.
- He advocated for a form of education that revolved around home tutoring for women, emphasizing their role in family life. He believed that formal education could hinder their primary purpose – marriage.
- Support for Gender Segregation:
- It’s noteworthy that Sir Syed supported gender segregation in education, opposing the British government’s initiatives to open co-educational schools and girls’ exclusive institutions.
- He even considered coeducation a major cause of public unrest during colonial rule, reflecting the prevalent societal disapproval of women’s education.
Sir Syed’s Advocacy for Women’s Empowerment
- Campaigning Against Regressive Practices:
- Sir Syed actively campaigned against various regressive practices that affected women’s lives in India.
- He used platforms like the Aligarh Institute Gazette to address issues such as female infanticide, polygamy, child marriage, sati (the practice of widow self-immolation), the segregation of widows, and poverty-induced marriages of young girls to older men.
- Support for Mary Carpenter’s Initiatives:
- Sir Syed welcomed and appreciated the efforts of Mary Carpenter, a British philanthropist dedicated to female education.
- Carpenter’s commitment to providing modern education to Indian women impressed him.
- This support showcased Sir Syed’s recognition of the importance of education in empowering women and allowing them to participate more fully in public life.
Reevaluation Through European Lens
- Sir Syed’s visit to England in 1869-70 had a transformative effect on his views about women’s education.
- His interactions with European women and observations about their roles in society led him to partially revise his stance.
- He began to appreciate gender equality and the essential role of women in human progress.
- He admired the freedom enjoyed by women in Europe and believed that the rejection of women’s education by Muslims played a part in the community’s decline
Conclusion
- While Sir Syed Ahmed Khan never fully relinquished his initial preference for home-based education for women, his exposure to Western ideals brought about a marked shift in his perspective. As we reflect on his contributions, it’s essential to view him in the nuanced light of a reformer caught between tradition and modernity.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Battle of Colachel: How an accidental shot ended Dutch plans for India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Colachel
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The Battle of Colachel in 1741, where King Marthanda Varma led the Travancore army against the Dutch East India Company, marked a significant turning point in India’s history.
- It was the first instance of an Asian kingdom defeating a European power, effectively halting Dutch colonial ambitions in India.
- This battle also had profound implications for the formation of the unified Travancore state.
Travancore’s Complex Landscape Before 1741
- Fragmented Territories: Travancore, formerly known as Thiruvithamcode, was not a unified state but a network of south Malabar temple states and settlements, characterized by fragmented territories and chieftaincies.
- Marthanda Varma’s Leadership: Born in 1705, Marthanda Varma ascended to power and set his sights on unifying the kingdom by annexing neighboring regions and eliminating internal opposition.
- Territorial Expansion: His ambition to expand threatened neighboring rulers in Kayamukulam, Kollam, Attingal, and others, leading them to seek Dutch intervention against Varma.
- English Connection: Varma’s military relations with the English, who supplied weaponry, further strained Dutch-Travancore relations.
Factors Leading to the Battle
- Dutch Resistance: The Dutch, perturbed by Varma’s expansion and territorial disputes, prepared their forces in Colachel to counter Travancore.
- Internal Conflicts: Some Dutch officials, including Carl August Duijvenschot, defected to Travancore due to internal conflicts within the Dutch ranks.
- Neighboring Rulers’ Instigation: Cochin and Kayamukulam rulers instigated the Dutch against Varma to safeguard their borders.
Battle of Colachel: Unfolds
- Dutch Aggression: In February 1741, the Dutch initiated attacks on several villages and the Travancore army, committing atrocities and plundering the region.
- Varma’s Response: Marthanda Varma deployed his military commander, Rama Iyer Dalawah, to confront the Dutch and protect his kingdom.
- International Support: The French supported Varma against the Dutch, and even the English participated in the siege of Colachel alongside Varma’s forces.
Siege and Surrender
- Long Siege: The continuous attacks and siege depleted Dutch supplies and manpower, leading to a dire situation.
- Explosion and Surrender: On August 5, 1741, a gunpowder explosion occurred in Colachel, devastating the Dutch. Two days later, they surrendered.
- Outcome: Only 24 Dutchmen survived, and Travancore captured 389 muskets, cannons, and swords.
- Mukkuvar Community: The Mukkuvar fishermen community, by refusing to assist the Dutch with fortifications and supplies, played a crucial role in Travancore’s victory.
Aftermath and Legacy
- Resilience to Colonial Rule: The victory at Colachel bolstered Varma’s expansion plans and resistance to colonial rule.
- Dutch Retreat: The Dutch never fully recovered from their defeat and signed the Treaty of Mavelikkara in 1753, ending their dominance on the Kerala coast.
- De Lannoy’s Contribution: Eustachius De Lannoy, captured during the battle, played a vital role in training Travancore’s army and fortifying the region. He was conferred the title ‘Valia Kappithan’ (senior admiral) and served Travancore for 36 years.
Back2Basics: Colonization of India
| Colonial Power | Arrival Year | Departure Year |
| Portuguese | Arrived in 1498 through Vasco da Gama’s voyage. | Departed in 1961 (Goa), with gradual integration of smaller settlements into India over subsequent years. |
| Dutch | Established presence in 1602. | Departed in 1802, with the formal cession of their Indian territories to the British through the Treaty of Amiens. |
| British | British East India Company granted a charter in 1600.
The first factory was established in Surat in 1619. |
Departed in 1947 when India gained independence.
It also led to Partition of India and creation of Pakistan. |
| French | Established the first trading post in 1668. | Departed in 1954 with the formal handover of Pondicherry and other French settlements to India. |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Lesser known facts about Lal Bahadur Shastri
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lal Bahadur Shastri
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- October 2 is a day of double celebration as India remembers the birth anniversaries of two iconic leaders: Mahatma Gandhi, the ‘Father of the Nation,’ and Lal Bahadur Shastri, former Prime Minister.
- Both leaders made significant contributions to India’s freedom struggle and early years of nation-building.
Lal Bahadur Shastri: A Man of Humble Origins
[A] Rising from Modest Beginnings
- Early Struggles: Born in 1904 in Mughalsarai, Uttar Pradesh, Shastri faced adversity early in life, with his father passing away shortly after his birth.
- Simplicity: Raised in a lower-middle-class environment, he possessed only two kurtas and dhotis, symbolizing his humble beginnings.
- A Change of Name: In a demonstration of his early social consciousness, Shastri dropped his birthname “Varma.” In 1925, he acquired the title of ‘Shastri’ (one who knows the Shastras) from the Kashi Vidyapeeth in Benaras, adding it to his name.
[B] Resignation and Accountability
- A Serious Accident: While serving as the Union Minister for Railways and Transport in 1956, a tragic railway accident in Telangana resulted in the loss of 112 lives.
- Owning Responsibility: Deeply affected by the tragedy, Shastri took moral responsibility and tendered his resignation to Prime Minister Nehru. Although Nehru initially did not accept it, Shastri resigned again after another railway accident in Tamil Nadu in November 1956, further solidifying his moral stature.
[C] Championing the Slogan ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan’
- A Return to Cabinet: Shastri made a comeback to the Union Cabinet, serving in roles such as Home Minister and Commerce and Industry Minister.
- Language Assurance: In response to concerns about Hindi domination, he assured the continued use of English as an official language alongside Hindi.
- Economic Challenges: In 1965, faced with economic stagnation and growing food demand, Shastri called upon farmers to increase production, traders to maintain fair prices, and consumers to exercise restraint. He coined the famous slogan, ‘Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan (Hail the soldier, hail the farmer!).’
[D] Leadership during the 1965 India-Pakistan War and Tashkent Agreement
- Unforeseen Conflict: The 1965 war with Pakistan erupted as Pakistan launched attacks in Jammu and Kashmir, believing India to be vulnerable after the 1962 war with China.
- Firm Response: Shastri approved an Indian counterattack, leading to hostilities on both sides.
- Tashkent Declaration: Soviet Premier Aleksey Kosygin invited Shastri and Pakistan President General Ayub Khan to Tashkent, Uzbekistan, where they signed the Tashkent Declaration on January 10, 1966, committing to long-term peace.
- Sudden Passing: Tragically, Shastri passed away due to a heart attack the following day in Tashkent, leaving behind speculation about the circumstances. However, available evidence suggests it was a natural death, dispelling doubts of external factors.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Gandhi and Ambedkar Dynamic
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Poona Pact and other related facts
Mains level: Gandhi and Ambedkar dynamic: critical roles in shaping India's social landscape.
What’s the news?
- Prominent figures Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s historic collaboration on the Poona Pact, addressing caste and social injustice, remains relevant in contemporary India’s ongoing debates.
Central idea
- Gandhi is indispensable. You may love him or hate him, but you can’t ignore him. As world leaders gathered for the G-20 summit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi emphasized the timeless importance of Gandhi’s ideals in shaping a harmonious global future. Gandhi’s persona transcended ideologies, making him a creed unto himself.
Gandhi’s Profound Persona
- Gandhi’s persona transcended ideologies, becoming a creed in itself. To truly appreciate his legacy, we must approach it with an open mind, free from preconceived biases. His extensive literary contributions, spanning over a hundred volumes, offer insights into his complex worldview and philosophy.
Gandhi’s Humility and Self-Reflection
- One admirable aspect of Gandhi was his recognition of his own fallibility.
- He encouraged readers to choose the interpretation of his writings that resonated with them, demonstrating courage and humility.
- His continual self-growth was evident, emphasizing his commitment to his principles.
The Gandhi-Ambedkar Dynamic
- October holds significance for both Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, known for their opposing views on social issues like varna and caste.
- Despite their differences, they reached a historic agreement known as the Poona Pact, which played a pivotal role in shaping India’s social landscape.
The Poona Pact: An Agreement for Inclusivity
- Historic Agreement: The Poona Pact was a significant development in Indian history. It marked an agreement reached between Gandhi and Ambedkar in Pune, India, during a period of intense discussions and debates about political representation for the depressed classes (Dalits), who were formerly known as untouchables.
- Background: Before the Poona Pact, there was a demand for separate electorates for Dalits, a move advocated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. This demand led to divisions and tensions within Indian society.
- Gandhi’s Fast Unto Death: Mahatma Gandhi, opposed to the idea of separate electorates, embarked on a fast unto death in protest. This fast put immense pressure on the political leaders and created a crisis situation.
- Outcome: The Poona Pact was the result of negotiations between Gandhi and Ambedkar. It led to the abandonment of the demand for separate electorates for Dalits. Instead, it introduced the concept of reserved seats (quotas) for the depressed classes within the general electorate.
- Significance: The Poona Pact aimed to secure political representation for Dalits while maintaining the unity of the Hindu community. It was seen as a compromise that prevented further division within Indian society.
- Legacy: The Poona Pact’s legacy is still felt in modern India. It introduced the system of reserved seats for Dalits in provincial legislatures and other political bodies. This system, known as scheduled castes, continues to ensure political representation for Dalits in India.
Unity Amidst Differences
- A Shared Goal:
- Though Gandhi and Ambedkar held divergent philosophical views on the foundation of caste, they both agreed on the need to eradicate untouchability and uplift the depressed classes.
- Gandhi advocated for treating untouchables on par with caste Hindus, while Ambedkar sought to eliminate the varna system entirely.
- Gandhi’s Support for the Varna System: Gandhi, inspired by Swami Dayananda Saraswati’s teachings, supported the Vedic varna system, where an individual’s qualities, actions, and nature determined their varna. He considered it a beneficent law, separate from untouchability.
- Ambedkar’s Rejection of Varna Dharma: Ambedkar vehemently opposed the Varna system, viewing it as the root of the problem. He challenged the idea that caste and untouchability were distinct issues, arguing that they were inseparable.
Ongoing Debate
- The debates surrounding caste, varna, and Sanatan Dharma (the traditional Hindu way of life) are still actively discussed in India.
- Despite the Poona Pact and other social reforms, India grapples with issues related to caste discrimination and untouchability.
- The ongoing debate reflects the complexity of India’s social fabric, with differing perspectives on how to address these issues.
Conclusion
- Gandhi and Ambedkar, despite their differences, played critical roles in shaping India’s social landscape. Their historic collaboration in the Poona Pact demonstrated a shared commitment to inclusivity and justice. The debates they ignited still resonate in contemporary Indian society, underscoring the enduring relevance of their ideas and ideals.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Lesser-Known Facets of Bhagat Singh’s Life
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bhagat Singh
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Bhagat Singh, born on September 28, 1907, in the village of Banga (now in Faisalabad, Pakistan), is celebrated as a charismatic revolutionary who sacrificed his life for the cause of Indian independence at the young age of 23.
Five Lesser-Known Aspects of Bhagat Singh’s Life
[1] A Family of Progressive Freedom Fighters
- Anti-Colonial Roots: Bhagat Singh’s father, Kishan, and uncle, Ajit, were actively involved in anti-British activities. Kishan faced imprisonment in 1910 for disseminating seditious literature, while Ajit was deported to Mandalay in 1907 for his inflammatory speeches against the Punjab Colonisation Bill. Both played significant roles in the freedom struggle, influencing Bhagat Singh’s upbringing in an anti-colonial environment.
- Dissent within the Family: Despite the family’s strong anti-British stance, Bhagat Singh publicly criticized his father for submitting a mercy plea to the Viceroy when he and other revolutionaries faced the gallows, revealing his unwavering commitment to the revolutionary cause.
[2] A Scholar and Writer
- Prolific Writer: Bhagat Singh contributed to Urdu and Punjabi newspapers in Amritsar during the 1920s and authored pamphlets and ‘seditious’ literature condemning British colonial rule.
- Eclectic Reading: His jail notebooks revealed his interests extended beyond politics, encompassing literature from renowned poets and writers, including Rabindranath Tagore, William Wordsworth, Wajid Ali Shah, Mirza Ghalib, and Iqbal.
[3] An Atheist and Marxist with Anarchist Leanings
- Religious Critique: Bhagat Singh was an avowed atheist who criticized religion in his essay ‘Why I am an Atheist’ (1930), rejecting the concept of one true religion. He viewed religious beliefs as divisive and demoralizing.
- Inspirations: Bhagat Singh drew inspiration from Marxist thinkers such as Marx, Lenin, Trotsky, and Bakunin. In his final testament, ‘To Young Political Workers’ (1931), he advocated for “social reconstruction on new, i.e., Marxist, basis.” However, he did not fully align with orthodox Marxist views, particularly on authoritarianism.
[4] Support from Jinnah
- Jinnah’s Defense: While Mahatma Gandhi refrained from intervening in Bhagat Singh’s trial, MA Jinnah ardently defended him. Jinnah vehemently opposed a proposed Bill that would have allowed trials in absentia, delivering a compelling speech in the Central Assembly in 1929.
- Successful Opposition: Jinnah’s staunch stance led to the foiling of the attempt to pass the law, but Bhagat Singh’s trial continued under dubious circumstances, resulting in his death sentence in 1930.
[5] Jawaharlal Nehru’s Support
- Nehru’s Critique: Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the British legal process and the injustice inflicted on Bhagat Singh. He admired Bhagat Singh’s courage and self-sacrifice.
- Historic Visit: Nehru, along with other leaders like Subhash Chandra Bose, visited Bhagat Singh in prison. Despite their differences in methods, Nehru’s respect for Bhagat Singh remained unwavering.
- Congress Resolution: After Bhagat Singh’s execution, Nehru moved an official resolution in a Congress session, condemning the execution and demanding commutation, even though the Congress officially rejected violence as a means of achieving independence.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
MS Swaminathan: Father of the Green Revolution
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Revolution
Mains level: Green Revolution and Contributions and the significant roles played by MS Swaminathan
What’s the news?
- Monkomb Sambasivan Swaminathan, the legendary agricultural scientist widely regarded as the Father of the Green Revolution, passed away at the age of 98 on September 28. His contributions to agriculture in the 1960s and ’70s transformed India’s farming landscape, ushering in an era of food security.
Central idea
- The passing of MS Swaminathan marks the end of an era in Indian agriculture. His unwavering commitment to the welfare of farmers and his pioneering efforts in the Green Revolution have left an indomitable legacy. This op-ed is dedicated to the father of the Green Revolution.
Early life and education
- Born on August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu
- Initially, I aimed for a career in the civil services and even cleared the civil services examination.
- He switched to agriculture due to his passion, inspired by the Quit India Movement and the Bengal famine of 1942–43.
- He enrolled in the Agriculture College in Coimbatore to pursue his interest in agriculture.
Diverse Roles in Agriculture
- Swaminathan held various significant positions related to agriculture, both in India and abroad.
- His roles included Independent Chairman of the Food and Agricultural Organization Council (1981–85), President of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (1984–90), and President of the World Wide Fund for Nature (India) from 1989–96.
- He also served as the Director General of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), among other positions.
The Green Revolution: A Turning Point
- Swaminathan’s mission was to transform Indian agriculture.
- Introduced high-yielding crop varieties, improved irrigation facilities, and promoted fertilizer use.
- Wheat production in India surged from 6 million tonnes in 1947 to 17 million tonnes between 1964 and 1968.
- The Green Revolution bolstered India’s food security and reduced dependence on imports.
Swaminathan’s Contributions to the Green Revolution
- Swaminathan worked on enhancing crop varieties, particularly rice and wheat.
- He pioneered the development of semi-dwarf wheat varieties to reduce lodging and boost yields.
- Collaboration with Norman Borlaug resulted in the introduction of dwarfing genes into wheat varieties, leading to the “Wheat Revolution.”
- Swaminathan recognized the challenges of the Green Revolution, including the displacement of local crop varieties, soil fertility conservation issues, and indiscriminate pesticide use.
- He also noted the risks of overexploiting groundwater.
Advocacy for Farmers
- As the head of the National Commission on Farmers from 2004 to 2006, Swaminathan advocated for the welfare of farmers.
- He recommended that the Minimum Support Price (MSP) for agricultural produce should be at least 50% more than the cost of production, ensuring fair compensation to farmers.
Awards and recognition
- Swaminathan was awarded the first World Food Prize Laureate in 1987 for his contributions to India’s wheat and rice production.
- He received the Padma Bhushan and Padma Vibhushan, two of India’s highest civilian honors.
Conclusion
- As we remember the Father of the Green Revolution, we must also reflect on the challenges that persist in Indian agriculture and work towards a sustainable and equitable future. Swaminathan’s vision and dedication will continue to inspire generations of agricultural scientists and policymakers in their pursuit of a food-secure India.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
How Bal Gangadhar Tilak made the worship of Lord Ganesh a grand community festival
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lokmanya' Tilak and associated facts, role, contribution etc
Mains level: Lokmanya Tilak's vision, Nationalistic Ideals, role, contribution
What’s the news?
- The ten-day Ganesh festival, commencing on September 19, is celebrated nationwide with mass participation, a transformation attributed to Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s 19th-century efforts, now symbolizing India’s unity and resilience.
Central idea
- The ten-day Ganesh festival is a spectacle of devotion and festivity celebrated with enthusiasm across India, particularly in the western regions. This grand public event, characterized by mass participation, owes its transformation from a one-day private affair to a colossal celebration to the visionary nationalist leader, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, fondly known as Lokmanya or the Leader of the People.
Tilak’s Nationalistic Ideals
- Advocated Swaraj (self-rule) with unwavering commitment: Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a visionary leader who firmly believed in India’s right to self-rule. At a time when many nationalist leaders were seeking concessions from the British, Tilak boldly asserted that India should have full self-governance, known as Swaraj, as its birthright.
- Fearlessly criticized British exploitation in India: Tilak was an outspoken critic of British colonial rule in India. He fearlessly highlighted the exploitation, economic hardships, and cultural subjugation faced by Indians under British rule.
- Promoted modern civil and political rights: Tilak advocated for the modernization of India’s political and civil rights. He argued for greater political participation and civil liberties for Indians, emphasizing the need for Indians to have the same rights as citizens of other nations.
- Gained popularity through fiery rhetoric and direct language: Tilak’s communication style was marked by fiery rhetoric and direct language. He used newspapers and public speeches to communicate his ideas to a wide audience.
Tilak’s Leadership and Vision
- Emerged as a prominent mass leader in India’s anti-colonial movement: Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s leadership during the late 19th and early 20th centuries made him one of the most prominent figures in India’s anti-colonial struggle.
- Iconic declaration: Tilak’s famous declaration, Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it, encapsulated his determination and became a rallying cry for the Indian independence movement.
- Effectively mobilized people against British rule: Tilak’s leadership was instrumental in mobilizing people against British colonial rule. He organized protests, public meetings, and social and cultural events that galvanized support for the nationalist cause.
- Utilized Hindu imagery and symbolism in political campaigns: Tilak recognized the power of symbolism in political mobilization. He used Hindu imagery and symbolism to appeal to the cultural and religious sentiments of the majority of Indians.
The Transformation of the Ganesh Festival
- Shifted the Ganesh festival from a one-day private event: Before Tilak’s intervention, the Ganesh festival was a one-day private affair largely observed by Brahmins and upper castes. However, in 1893, Tilak initiated a transformative change by expanding the festival into a ten-day community celebration.
- Introduced community Ganpati worship in 1893: Tilak introduced the concept of community Ganpati worship during the Ganesh festival, allowing people from all social strata to participate in the festivities.
- Incorporated patriotic songs and propagated nationalist ideas: Under Tilak’s guidance, the Ganesh festival became a platform for singing patriotic songs and propagating nationalist ideas.
- Formation of Ganesh festival societies and increased youth participation: Tilak’s efforts led to the establishment of Ganesh festival societies across Maharashtra, encouraging youth participation and instilling a sense of pride, valor, and patriotism among the youth.
Shivaji Festival and Boycott Campaign
- Initiated the Shivaji festival in 1896 to inspire nationalism: In addition to the Ganesh festival, Tilak introduced the Shivaji festival in 1896 to celebrate the legacy of the Maratha king Shivaji and inspire nationalist sentiments among young Maharashtrians.
- Celebrated the legacy of Maratha King Shivaji: The Shivaji festival paid tribute to Shivaji’s role in resisting foreign rule and promoting Swaraj, instilling pride in Maharashtrians.
- Organized a campaign in Maharashtra to boycott foreign cloth: In 1896, Tilak organized a campaign in Maharashtra to boycott foreign cloth in response to the imposition of an excise duty on cotton by the British colonial administration.
- Efforts galvanized support for the nationalist cause: Both the Shivaji festival and the boycott campaign were instrumental in galvanizing support for the nationalist cause.
Controversies and Criticisms
- Accused of introducing a communal aspect to the freedom struggle: Tilak faced criticism for allegedly introducing communal elements into the freedom struggle, particularly during the communal clashes of 1893.
- Maintained a conservative stance on women’s emancipation and caste reforms: Tilak’s conservative positions on women’s rights and caste reforms were points of contention.
- Criticize the British for favoring Muslims due to fears of a Hindu majority: During the communal clashes of 1893, Tilak accused the British of being partisan towards Muslims out of fear of a growing Hindu majority.
- Left a complex legacy with an enduring impact on India’s nationalist movement: Despite the controversies and criticisms, Bal Gangadhar Tilak left a complex but indelible legacy in India’s struggle for independence, shaping the course of the nationalist movement.
Conclusion
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s vision and leadership and his efforts to unite and instill nationalist fervor through this festival continue to shape the way it is celebrated today. Ganesh Chaturthi stands as a symbol of India’s unity and resilience in the face of colonial rule, thanks to the foresight of Lokmanya’ Tilak.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Why Gandhi opposed Caste-based Separate Electorates?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Poona Pact
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Mahatma Gandhi used fasting as a potent tool to press for change during India’s struggle for independence.
- He employed it both as a form of personal penance and as a means to pressure the British authorities to meet his demands.
The Gandhi-Ambedkar Debate
- The 1932 Turning Point: In September 1932, within the walls of the Yerawada Central Jail in Pune, Gandhi initiated a hunger strike against the idea of separate electorates for the harijans (lower castes). This action brought him into a fierce debate with another prominent leader, B.R. Ambedkar.
- The Debate’s Legacy: The “Gandhi-Ambedkar debate” revolved around their differing views on caste and ultimately influenced the reservation system that India has today.
Gandhi’s Changing Views on Caste
- Early Beliefs: In his early years, Gandhi held orthodox views on caste, supporting prohibitions on inter-dining and inter-marriage. He considered caste a crucial part of Hinduism.
- Evolution of Beliefs: As Gandhi became a central figure in India’s freedom movement, his views evolved. Partially influenced by the emerging Dalit movement, he advocated unity and opposed untouchability, referring to untouchables as “harijans” or children of God.
- Important Quote: Gandhi wrote in 1936, “I do know that it [untouchability] is harmful both to spiritual and national good.”
Ambedkar’s Radical Views on Caste
- Ambedkar’s Perspective: B.R. Ambedkar’s stance was more radical than Gandhi’s. He believed that mere reform wouldn’t undo centuries of discrimination. He argued that change would only come when the oppressed themselves rejected their condition, including the divine authority of the shastras (holy scriptures) that upheld caste.
- Political Empowerment: Ambedkar emphasized that political power was essential for lower castes to address their grievances and proposed separate electorates as a form of affirmative action.
- Separate Electorates Explained: Ambedkar’s proposal involved separate electorates for lower castes, allowing them to vote for candidates from their own community as well as in the general electorate. He believed this would empower lower castes.
Gandhi’s Opposition to Separate Electorates
- Gandhi’s Perspective: Gandhi opposed separate electorates, arguing that they did too little for lower castes. He believed that lower castes should aspire to lead, not settle for a small share of seats.
- Concerns: Gandhi feared that separate electorates would divide Hindu society further and play into the hands of British colonial rulers who exploited internal divisions.
- Challenging Times: The rising tensions between Hindus and Muslims at the time also fueled Gandhi’s concerns. Separate electorates for lower castes alongside those for Muslims would weaken the unity of the Hindu community.
The Yerawada Fast and the Poona Pact
- Gandhi’s Hunger Strike: In September 1932, Gandhi embarked on a hunger strike in Yerawada Jail against separate electorates for castes. He called it a “God-given opportunity” to sacrifice his life for the downtrodden.
- Ambedkar’s Dilemma: Ambedkar faced a challenging decision. Giving in to Gandhi’s demands was difficult, as it conflicted with his own ideas. However, Gandhi’s immense popularity and the potential for violence against Dalits pressured him.
- The Poona Pact: Eventually, under duress, Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact, securing reservations for lower castes while putting the idea of separate electorates to rest.
Legacy of the Fast
- Mixed Perspectives: Gandhi’s fast is seen by some as preventing British “divide and rule” tactics. Others view it as coercion, as Ambedkar had little choice but to concede. Ambedkar questioned why Gandhi didn’t fast against untouchability itself.
- Unresolved Tensions: The debate’s legacy endures. While the Poona Pact addressed immediate concerns, it left lingering issues of political representation and social transformation within India’s caste system.
- Ambedkar’s View: Ambedkar later wrote, “The Joint Electorate is… a ‘Rotten Borough’ in which the Hindus get the right to nominate an untouchable to set nominally as a representative of the untouchables but really as a tool of the Hindus.”
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Santiniketan gets UNESCO’s World Heritage List tag
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Santiniketan
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Situated in West Bengal’s Birbhum district, the small town of Santiniketan has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
- This is the place where Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore spent much of his life.
About Santiniketan
- Santiniketan, situated in Birbhum District, West Bengal, India, is an iconic cultural and heritage destination with a rich historical legacy.
- Its prominence is attributed to its association with Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.
Significance of Santiniketan
- Rabindranath Tagore’s Home: Santiniketan served as the residence of Rabindranath Tagore, where he not only lived but also composed numerous literary works, encompassing songs, poems, and novels.
- Artistic Abode: The Santiniketan campus is adorned with magnificent sculptures, frescoes, murals, and paintings created by eminent artists like Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Ramkinkar, Binodbehari Mukhopadhyay, and others.
- Cultural Festivals: The broader Birbhum District, where Santiniketan is nestled, is renowned for its vibrant fairs and festivals. Notable celebrations include Poush Mela (December), Joydev Mela (January), Basanta Utsav (Holi) in March and the renowned mystic Baul Singers.
- Unique Events: Santiniketan hosts special cultural festivities during Bengali New Year and Rabindra Janmotsav (Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary) in the Bengali month of Boisakh, marked with great enthusiasm.
- Distinctive Festivals: The region observes distinctive festivals such as Briksharopan (festival of Planting Saplings) and Halakarshan (festival of Plowing the Fields) on the 22nd and 23rd days of Sravana (August), respectively. Additionally, Varshamangal, the festival of rains, is celebrated in August/September.
- Poush Mela: Santiniketan hosts the annual Poush Mela, commencing on the 7th day of the Poush month. While officially spanning three days, vendors may extend their stay throughout the month. The festival is renowned for live performances of Bengali folk music, particularly by bauls (traditional wandering minstrels), and showcases tribal dances like Santali.
West Bengal’s Presence on the World Heritage List
- Santiniketan is the second cultural symbol from West Bengal to join the prestigious UNESCO list.
- In 2021, UNESCO added ‘Durga Puja in Kolkata’ to its Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list, highlighting West Bengal’s rich cultural heritage.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
| Description | |
| UNESCO World Heritage Sites | Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties. |
| Importance | World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history. |
| Selection Criteria | Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc. |
| Conservation | World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence. |
| World Heritage Committee | Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term. |
| Membership | India is not a member of the World Heritage Committee. |
Note: “States parties” refer to the countries that have ratified the World Heritage Convention and participate in the decision-making process.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
M Visvesvaraya: India’s pioneering Civil Engineer
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: M Visvesvaraya
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- September 15 marks the birthday of Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (1861-1962), celebrated for his pivotal role as a civil engineer and administrator during colonial India.
About M. Visvesvaraya
- Early life: Born on September 15, 1861, in the village of Muddenahalli, Karnataka, Visvesvaraya commenced his educational journey in his hometown.
- Academic Pursuits: He pursued a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Madras and later embarked on a diploma course in civil engineering at the College of Science in Pune.
Career Achievements
- Engineering Pioneer: After completing his engineering studies at Poona College of Science, Visvesvaraya commenced his career as an Assistant Engineer in the Public Works Department (PWD) of the Government of Bombay at the age of 22.
- Notable Projects: Among his initial projects was the construction of a pipe syphon across one of Panjra river’s channels.
- Dewan of Mysore: In 1909, he assumed the role of Chief Engineer in the Mysore service, eventually becoming the 19th Dewan of Mysore.
- Voluntary Retirement: In 1918, Visvesvaraya took voluntary retirement due to his disagreement with the proposal to allocate state jobs based on caste.
- Committees and Contributions: Following retirement, he chaired or participated in various committees, including the Bombay Technical and Industrial Education Committee, Bombay University Committee for Promoting Chemical Industries, and the Cauvery Canal Committee.
Significant Works
- Block System of Irrigation: In 1899, he introduced the block system of irrigation in the Deccan canals, enhancing the equitable distribution of irrigation benefits among numerous villages.
- Water Quality Improvement: Visvesvaraya tackled the issue of “muddy and discolored” water in Sukkur, a city on the banks of the Indus River.
- Invention of Automatic Gates: He invented automatic gates for regulating water flow in reservoirs, securing a patent for this innovation.
- Implementation at Krishnaraja Sagar Dam: The Krishnaraja Sagar Dam in Karnataka became the first to adopt these gates in the 1920s.
Global Perspective
- International Learning: Visvesvaraya travelled abroad to study various aspects of other countries’ systems. During a visit to Italy, he examined soil erosion problems and irrigation and drainage works.
- Advocating for Indian Contributions: He challenged the perception that only British officers were capable of overseeing advanced engineering works, emphasizing that Indian expertise was valuable when supported by qualifications and dedication.
Vision for Progress
- Inspirational Speech: In a speech delivered on March 16, 1912, at Central College Bangalore, Visvesvaraya emphasized the need for India to adopt modern practices, scientific precision, inventiveness, discipline, and economic fundamentals for progress.
- Promoting Self-Examination: He encouraged a secular self-examination, comparing local conditions in India with global counterparts.
- Authorship: Visvesvaraya authored two influential books, “Reconstructing India” (1920) and “Planned Economy of India” (1934).
Impact on Education
- Education as a Catalyst: Visvesvaraya recognized the critical role of education in shaping an economy during his visit to Japan in 1898.
- Founding the University of Mysore: As the Dewan of Mysore in 1916, he played a pivotal role in establishing the University of Mysore, emphasizing that educational institutions should mirror real-life conditions.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Operation Polo: Integrating Hyderabad – 75 Years On
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Operation Polo
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- September 13, 2023, marks the 75th anniversary of Operation Polo, a significant military action undertaken by the Indian Army in 1948 to integrate the princely state of Hyderabad.
- This operation, also known as the “Police Action,” led to the Nizam of Hyderabad’s forces surrendering to the Indian Army by September 18, 1948.
- Understanding the background and events surrounding Operation Polo is essential to appreciate its historical significance.
Context of Operation Polo
(1) The Nizam’s Stand:
- The Nizam of Hyderabad, Mir Osman Ali Shah, was reluctant to join India or Pakistan after India’s Independence in 1947.
- He exploited the diversion of Indian resources towards the Kashmir conflict, signing a standstill agreement with India in November 1947, maintaining the status quo in Hyderabad.
(2) Growing Tensions:
- Hyderabad, a populous and prosperous state in the Deccan, was predominantly Hindu but administered by Muslim rulers.
- The state had no common border with Pakistan, yet the Nizam sought amicable relations with Pakistan.
- The Nizam’s forces, especially the Razakars, escalated tensions with their actions, including cross-border raids and overtures to Pakistan.
The Military Campaign: Operation Polo
(1) Hyderabad’s Forces and Situation:
- Hyderabad’s military consisted of approximately 25,000 troops, with limited training and readiness.
- The Razakars, though numerous, posed a minor military challenge.
(2) Indian Army’s Leadership:
- Major General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, the General Officer Commanding of 1 Armoured Division, led the Indian forces.
(3) Multi-Directional Offensive:
- The primary assault came from the west, led by 1 Armoured Division, supported by forces from the north, south, and east.
- Key elements included the Smash Force, Kill Force, and Vir Force in the western thrust.
- Additional thrusts were launched from Aurangabad, Jabalpur, and the eastern front.
- The southern thrust originated from Vijayawada.
Conclusion: Surrender and Significance
(1) Ceasefire and Surrender:
- The Nizam announced a ceasefire on September 17, 1948.
- On September 18, Major General Chaudhuri entered Hyderabad, and Major General El Edroos surrendered to him.
- Major General Chaudhuri was subsequently appointed as the Military Governor of Hyderabad.
(2) Honoring a Hero:
- Havildar Bachhitar Singh of 2 Sikh was posthumously awarded the first Ashoka Chakra of Independent India for his role in Operation Polo.
- He sacrificed his life on September 13, 1948, while advancing towards Naldurg, a part of Hyderabad state.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Ancient India-Europe Maritime Trade Route
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ancient India-Europe Maritime Trade Route, Port of Muziris
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor, announced at the G20 Summit, traces its historical roots to an ancient maritime trade route connecting the Indian subcontinent and the Europe.
India- Europe: Glimpse into Historical Trade Route
- Early Discoveries: The trade between Rome and India during antiquity was established by early excavations. Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s work at Arikamedu in the 1930s and 40s confirmed the existence of Indo-Roman trade in the 1st century CE.
- Recent excavations: Ongoing archaeological excavations, such as those at Muziris in Kerala and Berenike in Egypt, continue to yield new evidence.
- Revised Understanding: However, early interpretations often overlooked the agency of Indian merchants and ship owners in this trade. Recent discoveries have expanded and corrected our understanding of this ancient trade network.
- Staggering Scale: Recent estimates, supported by the Muziris Papyrus, reveal the immense scale of the Red Sea trade. Custom taxes on goods from India, Persia, and Ethiopia possibly contributed up to one-third of the Roman exchequer’s income.
Details unveiled by Muziris Excavations
- Custom Taxes: The Muziris Papyrus detailed a cargo’s value, highlighting its enormous worth, with one cargo alone being equivalent to the purchase of premium farmland in Egypt or a prestigious estate in central Italy.
- Roman Revenue: The import tax collected on this cargo alone exceeded two million sesterces. Extrapolating from these figures, Indian imports into Egypt were likely worth over a billion sesterces annually, with tax authorities generating 270 million sesterces.
- Comparative Significance: These revenues surpassed those of entire subject countries, emphasizing the pivotal role of this trade route in sustaining the Roman Empire’s vast conquests and legions.
Trade details
- Peak Period: During the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, a maritime highway connected the Roman Empire and India through the Red Sea. This route witnessed hundreds of ships travelling in both directions annually.
- Traded Goods: The Romans had a great demand for Indian luxuries, including perfumes, ivory, pearls, gemstones, and exotic animals like elephants and tigers. Pepper, India’s major export, was particularly sought after, finding its way into Roman cuisine.
- Trade from Rome: The flow of goods from Rome to India was limited, with gold being a prominent export. Roman wine was one notable exception, appreciated by Indians.
Pre-Common Era Trade
- Early Indian Diaspora: Evidence suggests the existence of an Indian diaspora in the Middle East during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300-1300 BCE). This early trade was coastal and involved smaller quantities of goods.
- Roman Period Expansion: The trade expanded significantly during Roman times, facilitated by large cargo ships directly connecting the subcontinent and the Roman Empire. Romans played a key role in industrializing this trade.
- Post-Conquest Peak: The conquest of Egypt by the Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE opened up the route to India, leading to a substantial increase in trade.
Organization and Duration of Journeys
- Highly Organized Trade: Contracts were established between Indian merchants in Kerala and shippers in Alexandria. Goods were transported in containers, similar to modern practices, with references to insurance.
- Understanding Monsoons: Indians recognized the monsoon winds’ seasonal patterns, enabling them to navigate the route efficiently. The journey to Egypt took approximately six to eight weeks, depending on favorable wind conditions.
- Extended Stays: Indian diaspora rented houses in Egyptian ports while waiting for wind patterns to shift, allowing for the integration of Indian culture into these regions.
Roles of Indians in the Trade
- Indian Seafaring Culture: Evidence suggests that Indian dynasties were interested in seafaring, as depicted in Ajanta paintings and early Indian coin designs featuring ships.
- Indian Sailors: Graffiti left by Indian sailors, primarily Gujaratis from Barigaza (modern-day Bharuch), has been discovered in the Hoq caves on the island of Socotra, emphasizing their active participation in the trade network.
Comparing with the Silk Road
- Indian Centrality: The ancient economic and cultural hub of Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and its ports played a central role in maritime East-West exchange. The concept of the “Silk Road” is relatively recent and inaccurately portrays the ancient trade routes.
- Historical Invisibility: The Silk Road concept was coined in the late 19th century and did not exist in ancient or medieval times. It gained popularity in the 20th century, fostering romanticized ideas about East-West connectivity.
- Recent Politicization: Chinese President Xi Jinping’s Belt and Road Initiative has politicized the Silk Road, making it a central component of Chinese foreign policy.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
From Meluha to India: The Journey of Names
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Etymology of India
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- India, with its rich heritage, has borne various names throughout its history, each encapsulating a distinct facet of its identity.
- The process of naming this diverse land has sparked debates, controversies, and reflections on its collective consciousness.
Historical Evolution of Names
- Meluha (Third Millennium BCE):
- The ancient Mesopotamian texts referenced ‘Meluha’ to denote the Indus Valley Civilization, highlighting India’s antiquity and interactions with ancient civilizations.
- ‘Meluha’ is believed to have been used to describe the Indus Valley Civilization in texts from the third millennium BCE.
- Bharata (Ancient Times to Modern Era):
- Rooted in Puranic literature and the Mahabharata, ‘Bharata’ resonates with religious and socio-cultural connotations.
- Associated with a supraregional and subcontinental territory where Brahmanical society prevailed.
- Evident during the freedom struggle through slogans like ‘Bharat Mata ki Jai’.
- ‘Bharata’ was derived from the mythological founders of the race, and its popularity during modern times is also due to its usage during the freedom movement.
- Aryavarta, Jambudvipa, Nabhivarsa (Ancient Vedic Period):
- ‘Aryavarta’ referred to the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges, where the Indo-Aryans resided.
- ‘Jambudvipa’ and ‘Nabhivarsa’ were also used in Vedic texts and Jain literature to signify the subcontinent, emphasizing different cultural contexts.
- Hindustan (7th Century BCE):
- Originated during Persian occupation, ‘Hindustan’ referred to the lower Indus basin.
- ‘Hind’ in Persian meant ‘Sindhu’ (Indus river), leading to its application to the region beyond Indus.
- The Persian suffix ‘stan’ (land) was added to form ‘Hindustan’.
- India (Ancient to Colonial Era):
- The Greeks transliterated ‘Hind’ as ‘Indus’, establishing ‘India’ as a name for the region.
- Colonial usage solidified ‘India’ as a political and geographical term, signifying the subcontinent under British rule.
- ‘India’ was adopted due to its Graeco-Roman associations, history of use in Europe, and bureaucratic usage such as the Survey of India.
Constitutional Deliberations (1947-1949)
- The Constituent Assembly engaged in heated debates over the nation’s official name.
- Jawaharlal Nehru noted the significance of ‘Hindustan’, ‘Bharat’, and ‘India’.
- Nehru’s book “The Discovery of India” captured the coexistence of these names in the collective consciousness.
- The Constitution retained ‘India’ and ‘Bharat’, reflecting diverse visions of the nation.
- The first Article of the Constitution reads, “India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of states.”
Fact for Prelims
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Contemporary Reflections
- Identity and Pride (2023):
- Recent developments suggest a potential change in India’s official name to ‘Republic of Bharat’.
- Assam Chief Minister Himanta Biswa Sarma hinted at the change, signaling a reset in India’s central identification.
- Political leaders and citizens expressed opinions on the potential change, invoking sentiments of national pride.
- Symbolism and Debate:
- The change of name is interpreted as a move to reflect India’s ancient identity and cultural heritage.
- Congress leader Jairam Ramesh discussed the implications of the change on national identity and opposition alliances.
- Shashi Tharoor, a former Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations, highlighted the significance of both ‘India’ and ‘Bharat’.
- Constitutional and Historical Context:
- Article 1 of the Indian Constitution declares ‘India, that is Bharat’ as a ‘Union of States’.
- Some leaders emphasized the importance of preserving the brand value associated with the name ‘India’.
- The historical roots of ‘Bharat’ as described in ancient texts and its constitutional adoption were highlighted.
- ‘Bharat’ and ‘India’ Coexistence:
- Both ‘Bharat’ and ‘India’ have been used interchangeably, signifying the country’s diverse identity.
- The official names ‘Bharat Ganarajya’ (in Hindi) and ‘Republic of India’ (in English) are present on Indian passports.
- The names reflect the continuity of historical legacy and modern nation-building.
Conclusion
- The journey of India’s names mirrors its complex identity, blending history, culture, and politics.
- As India continues to evolve, its names continue to encapsulate its essence, fostering a deep connection with its past and an ever-evolving future.
- Each name is a testament to India’s rich tapestry of history, culture, and collective consciousness.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Evolution of Madras to Chennai: Tracing its Historical Transition
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: History of Chennai
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Madras Day celebrated on August 22, commemorates the foundation day of the city of Madras, now known as Chennai.
The Birth of Madras
- 1639: The East India Company (EIC) purchased the town of Madrasapatnam on August 22, 1639, laying the foundation for the modern-day city of Chennai.
- British Presence: The EIC established trading posts and fortified settlements along the eastern and western coasts, leading to the emergence of Madras as a crucial hub.
Transition from Madras to Chennai
- British Rule: The region remained under British rule until India gained independence in 1947, with both the state and city referred to as Madras.
- 1969: The state was officially renamed Tamil Nadu, and in 1996, Madras transformed into Chennai as a nod to its historical roots.
Origins and Significance of Madrasapatnam
- Origins of the Name: The origin of the name “Madras” remains debated, with theories suggesting connections to local fishermen, churches, and the term “pattinam” (town on the coast).
- Pre-British History: Madrasapatnam had a history shaped by various rulers, including the Pallavas and Cholas, before the British arrival.
Purchase and Founding of Madrasapatnam
- Damarla Venkatapathy Nayak: Under his influence, the English were granted a piece of land between the Cooum River and the Egmore River in 1639, where Fort St. George was established.
- Chennapatanam: The city around Fort St. George was named Chennapatanam, honoring Chennappa Nayak, which later inspired the name “Chennai.”
Urban Growth and Development
- Growth of the City: Over the centuries, Chennai evolved from Fort St. George and the Black and White towns into a significant urban center.
- Institutionalization: Under Governor Elihi Yale, a mayor and Corporation were established, and areas like Egmore and Tondiarpet were acquired.
Evolution to Tamil Nadu and Chennai
- Post-Independence Era: After British rule ended, Madras province became Madras State.
- Demand for Change: Various demands to rename the state as Tamil Nadu gained traction, with K P Sankaralinganar’s protest in 1956 being a pivotal moment.
- Name Change: The renaming to Tamil Nadu was approved by Parliament in 1968 and came into effect in 1969.
- Chennai’s Transition: Chennai’s renaming from Madras in 1996 was part of a broader trend to shed colonial influences, though British influence on these names’ evolution cannot be denied.
Continuing Identity
- The transformation of Madras to Chennai is not just a change in nomenclature, but a reflection of the dynamic interplay between historical heritage, regional identity, and post-colonial aspirations.
- The city’s evolution stands as a testament to the diverse threads that weave India’s urban tapestry.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Ajnala Massacre of 1857 and its Rediscovery
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ajnala Massacre
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- A recent collaborative effort of professional geneticists has resulted in a scientific confirmation of the Ajnala massacre – an event lost to history for 165 years.
- This project, marked by emotional intensity and rigorous analysis, brought long-lost victims to light through molecular and isotope data.
Ajnala Massacre
- Buried Tragedy: 282 soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry Regiment met a brutal fate during the 1857 uprising, drowned in a well by the British East India Company.
- Discovery of Location: Cooper’s book provided clues that helped locate the 1857 Kallianwala Martyrs’ Well beneath the Gurdwara Singh Sabha in Ajnala.
- Chance Encounter: In 2003, historian Surinder Kochhar found a reference to ‘Ajnala’ in a discarded book titled “Crisis in Punjab” by Frederick Henry Cooper.
- Massacre Rediscovered: Kochhar’s research led to the revelation of the Ajnala Massacre, a grim incident hidden for over 157 years.
Excavation and Revelation
- Unveiling the Remains: The well was excavated in 2014, exposing the skeletal remains of the soldiers.
- Gruesome Discovery: During the 1857 Sepoy mutiny, many Indian soldiers revolted against the British. Around 500 revolted at Mian Mir Cantonment in Lahore.
- Evading execution: They swam across the Ravi River to reach the town of Ajnala, now in Amritsar district. Of them, 218 were killed by British soldiers at Dadian Sofian village near Ajnala.
- Dumped into a well: The remaining 282 were stuffed in a small room, where many died of asphyxiation. The rest were shot dead and their bodies were thrown into a well, which was later named “Kalianwala Khu” and “Shaheedan da Khu”.
Verification and Acknowledgment
- Scientific Verification: DNA-based evidence confirmed that the remains belonged to soldiers of the 26th Native Bengal Infantry regiment.
- Historical Importance: The Ajnala Massacre adds to the narrative of the 1857 Indian uprising against the British East India Company’s oppression.
Conclusion
- The Ajnala Massacre underscores the often-overlooked brutalities of the 1857 Indian uprising.
- The lack of acknowledgement and memorials can be attributed to the government’s hesitance to address uncomfortable aspects of history.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Madan Lal Dhingra and his Contributions
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Madan Lal Dhingra
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- On the 114th anniversary of his execution, a memorial is being formally inaugurated in honour of Madan Lal Dhingra.
Who was Madan Lal Dhingra?
- Early Life: Born on September 18, 1883, in an affluent family in Amritsar, Dhingra’s father was a staunch British loyalist, working as a chief medical officer.
- Shift towards Nationalism: Dhingra’s exposure to the nationalist movement in Lahore during his studies ignited his patriotism.
- Socio-Economic Concerns: Driven by a sense of justice and concern for India’s impoverished masses, Dhingra’s patriotism extended to socio-economic issues.
- Expulsion and Resilience: Expelled from college for protesting against the use of British-imported cloth, Dhingra’s defiance marked his commitment to the cause.
Involvement in Revolutionary Circles
- Contact with Leaders: Dhingra connected with prominent figures like Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Shyamji Krishna Varma, active in London’s revolutionary circles.
- India House: Dhingra frequented India House, a hub for revolutionary Indian nationalism founded by Shyamji Krishna Varma, further igniting his revolutionary spirit.
- Abhinav Bharat Mandal: Dhingra joined Abhinav Bharat Mandal founded by Vinayak Savarkar, where he refined his plan to assassinate Curzon Wyllie.
Assassination of Curzon Wyllie
- Curzon Wyllie’s Profile: Curzon Wyllie was a British Indian officer and intelligence officer known for collecting information on revolutionaries.
- The Assassination: On July 1, 1909, Dhingra attended an event where Curzon Wyllie was present. Dhingra fired five shots, fatally hitting both Curzon Wyllie and a doctor who tried to intervene.
- Dhingra’s Justification: During his trial, Dhingra argued that if fighting Germans was patriotic for an Englishman, fighting the British was even more justifiable for him.
Legacy and Memorial
- Execution and Burial: Dhingra was found guilty, executed on August 17, 1909, and buried in London. His remains were brought to India in 1976.
- Struggle for a Memorial: A memorial in Dhingra’s name has been a long-standing demand. The efforts culminated in the formal inauguration of the memorial on the 114th anniversary of his execution.
- Memorial Inauguration: The memorial was inaugurated by Governor Banwari Lal Purohit on August 17, 2023, in Amritsar’s Golbagh area.
- Memorial’s Significance: The memorial stands as a tribute to Dhingra’s sacrifice and his role in the fight for India’s freedom.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
President pays tribute to Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- On the eve before Independence Day, President of India paid tributes to great women freedom fighters like Matangini Hazra and Kanaklata Barua.
[A] Matangini Hazra
- Early Life and Dedication: Born in 1869 in Hogla village, West Bengal, Matangini Hazra’s early life was marked by poverty and lack of formal education. She married at a young age and was widowed by 18. Devoted to social causes, she emerged as a dedicated freedom fighter.
- Gandhian Influence: During the Nationalist movement, Hazra’s admiration for Mahatma Gandhi earned her the nickname “Gandhiburi” in her village. She actively participated in protests, earning her several arrests and jail sentences.
- Quit India Movement: A prominent leader during the Quit India Movement of 1942, Hazra led a procession of around 6,000 protesters, mostly women, towards the Tamluk police station. She was shot three times by British police during a confrontation, and she passed away at the age of 73 while chanting “Vande Mataram.”
- Legacy: Matangini Hazra’s sacrifice inspired revolutionaries to establish local governments. In 1977, the first statue of a woman revolutionary in Kolkata Maidan was dedicated to her. Schools, streets, and neighborhoods across Bengal are named after her as a tribute to her immense contribution to the freedom struggle.
[B] Kanaklata Barua
- Young Martyr: Kanaklata Barua, a symbol of courage, was just 17 years old when she became a martyr. She led the Mrityu Bahini procession to unfurl the Tricolour at Gohpur police station in Assam during the Quit India Movement.
- Daring Spirit: Despite the age limit for joining the Mrityu Bahini being 18 and above, Barua’s determination led her to be an exception. Just two days into joining, she was at the head of the procession, holding the Tricolour.
- Tragic End: In a confrontation with the police at the police station, Barua refused to let go of the flag, even as bullets rained down. She fell, holding onto the flag until another volunteer took it from her. Her bravery and sacrifice left an indelible mark on the movement.
- Legacy: Kanaklata Barua’s story continues to inspire generations. In her honor, the Coast Guard named a Fast Patrol Vessel “ICGS Kanaklata Barua” in 2020, ensuring that her legacy lives on as a testament to her remarkable spirit and dedication to India’s freedom.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Karnail Singh Isru’s contribution in Goan Liberation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Karnail Singh Isru, Goan Liberation
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Karnail Singh Isru, a valiant activist, is remembered with reverence and admiration on India’s Independence Day.
- He made the ultimate sacrifice while participating in the Goa Liberation Movement, striving for the state’s accession to India.
Who was Karnail Singh Isru?
- Birth and Childhood: Born on September 9, 1930, in Chak 30 village (now in Pakistan), Isru lost his father at a young age and was raised by his mother. His upbringing was marked by a strong sense of justice and a longing for freedom.
- Inspired by National Heroes: Isru’s admiration for national heroes like Bhagat Singh and Udham Singh, along with their dedication to the freedom movement, ignited a fire within him. Their struggle against colonial oppression left a deep impact on his young mind.
Joining the Goa Liberation Movement
- Formation of Ideals: Isru’s involvement in student activism and his presidency of the student union highlighted his commitment to social justice. He joined the Communist Party of India (CPI) and embraced rationalist ideals.
- Goa Liberation Movement: In the 1950s, despite India’s independence, the territories of Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli remained under Portuguese rule. CPI sent Satyagarhis, followers of Gandhian principles, to Goa to hoist the Indian flag on Independence Day.
His Fateful Journey
- Sahodrabai Rai’s Leadership: Isru, alongside other Satyagarhis, embarked on the march towards Goa under the leadership of Sahodrabai Rai. They aimed to challenge colonial rule and establish India’s sovereignty in the region.
- Tragedy Strikes: As they entered the Patradevi village in North Goa, Portuguese forces opened fire on the Satyagarhis. Isru’s unwavering determination led him to the forefront, but tragically, he was struck by a bullet in his chest. His sacrifice was a significant moment in the fight for Goa’s liberation.
Legacy and Remembrance
- Tributes in Punjab: Isru’s memory is etched in the heart of Punjab, where the government and political parties organize annual functions to honor his sacrifice. A statue, library, park, and school bear his name, reflecting the respect he commands.
- Recognition in Goa: In Goa, a bronze bust of Isru was installed in the primary school of Patradevi village, commemorating his sacrifice. His bravery and dedication are a source of inspiration for generations.
Also read:
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Red Fort’s symbolism for Independence Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red Fort
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Every year on August 15, India commemorates its Independence Day with the hoisting of the national flag at the iconic Red Fort in Delhi.
- This historic tradition, initiated by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, holds deep significance in India’s journey towards self-rule and liberation from colonial rule.
About Red Fort
- Constructed by: The Red Fort, also known as “Lal Qila” in Hindi, was constructed during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. Its construction began in 1638 and was completed in 1648. It was designed to be the main residence of the Mughal emperors.
- Architectural Marvel: The Red Fort is a masterpiece of Mughal architecture, characterized by its red sandstone walls and intricate marble decorations. It combines Persian, Timurid, and Indian architectural styles.
- UNESCO World Heritage Site: The Red Fort was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. It is recognized for its historical and cultural significance and its exceptional architectural design.
- Layout: The Red Fort is a massive structure with walls extending over 2 kilometers. It is designed in the shape of an irregular octagon, with two main entrances: the Lahore Gate and the Delhi Gate.
- Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas: The complex houses the Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience) and the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience). The former was used for addressing the general public, while the latter was reserved for private meetings and discussions.
- Mumtaz Mahal: Within the complex, there is a white marble structure known as Mumtaz Mahal, often mistaken for the Taj Mahal. It is the burial place of Shah Jahan’s wife Mumtaz Mahal.
Historical Significance of the Red Fort
- Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Era: Under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal rule, Delhi emerged as a pivotal capital city. It became synonymous with the seat of power, and the Mughals established their dominion from the magnificent Red Fort.
- Symbolic Rulership: The Mughal emperors’ association with Delhi granted them symbolic legitimacy even as their actual authority waned. They continued to be recognized as the sovereign rulers of India, despite their diminishing control.
- Rebellion of 1857: The Rebellion of 1857 further emphasized the Red Fort’s symbolic significance. The rebels rallied around the aged Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, underscoring the fort’s role as a rallying point for indigenous authority.
Impact of British Imperialism
- British Rule and Red Fort: After suppressing the Rebellion of 1857, the British retained the Red Fort but stripped it of its grandeur. They transformed the fort into a British garrison, erasing elements of its Mughal heritage.
- Co-opting Symbolism: Despite reducing Delhi’s significance, the British recognized its symbolic importance. The Delhi Durbars and the decision to shift the capital to Delhi from Calcutta highlighted its centrality and authority.
Red Fort and India’s Independence Struggle
- INA Trials: The Red Fort regained prominence during the Indian National Army (INA) trials, where INA officers were tried for treason. These trials evoked nationalistic sentiments and established the Red Fort as a symbol of resistance against British oppression.
- Reclaiming for Independence: As India approached independence, Nehru’s decision to hoist the national flag at the Red Fort in 1947 symbolized the reclamation of this historical site from British colonial rule. It marked the assertion of India’s sovereignty and the culmination of its struggle for freedom.
Key events
- INA Trials: The Red Fort played a crucial role in the trials of the Indian National Army (INA) officers in the mid-1940s. The trials stirred nationalist sentiments and highlighted the site as a symbol of resistance against British rule.
- Nehru’s Flag Hoisting: Jawaharlal Nehru’s decision to hoist the national flag from the Red Fort on August 15, 1947, signified the reclamation of the site from colonial dominance and marked India’s emergence as a sovereign nation.
Annual Celebration and Symbolism
- Continuing Tradition: The tradition of hoisting the national flag and delivering the Independence Day address from the Red Fort continues to this day.
- Reclamation of Identity: The celebrations at the Red Fort annually emphasize the triumph of India’s struggle for independence and the reclaiming of its cultural and historical identity from colonial rule.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Sant Guru Ravidas?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sant Ravidas, Bhakti Movement
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Prime Minister laid the foundation stone for a ₹100 crore temple dedicated to Sant Ravidas in Madhya Pradesh’s Sagar.
Guru Ravidas
- Ravidas was an Indian mystic poet-saint of the Bhakti movement and founder of the Ravidassia religion during the 15th to 16th century CE.
- Venerated as a guru (teacher) in the region of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and mainly Punjab and Haryana. He was a poet-saint, social reformer and spiritual figure.
- The life details of Ravidas are uncertain and contested. Scholars believe he was born in 1450 CE, in the cobbler caste.
- Ravidas’s devotional verses were included in the Sikh scriptures known as Guru Granth Sahib.
- The Panch Vani text of the Dadupanthi tradition within Hinduism also includes numerous poems of Ravidas.
- He taught the removal of social divisions of caste and gender and promoted unity in the pursuit of personal spiritual freedoms.
Significance of his teachings
- Philosophy and values of Sant Ravidas like social justice, equality and fraternity have been imbued in our constitutional values.
- He had envisaged a society that is based on equality and free from any kind of discrimination.
- He gave it the name ‘Be-gampura’ (a city near Lahore) where there is no place for any kind of grief or fear.
- Such an ideal city would be bereft of fear, vulnerability or scarcity. Rule of law based on the right ideas like equality and welfare of all would be the principle for governance.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
IPC is history: In 1837, how Macaulay cracked the code
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Three key bills
Mains level: Bhartiya Nyaya Sanhita Bill, IPC, CrPC, Macaulay's role in shaping India's legal landscape, Rationale behind the new bills
What’s the news?
- On the final day of the Monsoon Session, Home Minister Amit Shah unleashed a surprising and profound transformation of India’s criminal justice system.
Central idea
- The introduction of three key Bills in the Lok Sabha signals a pivotal departure from the colonial-era approach to criminal laws. The intent to supplant the archaic Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860, the Evidence Act of 1872, and the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) of 1973 aims to usher in relevance, simplicity, and expedited justice.
Three Key Bills
- Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Bill:
- This bill aims to replace the colonial-era Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860.
- The IPC defines crimes, sets out their elements, and prescribes corresponding penalties.
- The proposed Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Bill seeks to revamp the existing penal code to ensure it aligns with contemporary values and caters to the needs of modern society.
- Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita Bill:
- This bill is presented alongside the others and intends to replace the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) of 1973.
- The CrPC outlines procedures related to the administration of criminal justice, including aspects like investigation, arrest, bail, trial, and sentencing.
- The Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita Bill’s primary objective is to streamline these procedures, enhance efficiency, and ensure the equitable treatment of all citizens under the law.
- Bharatiya Sakshya Bill:
- The third bill aims to replace the Indian Evidence Act of 1872.
- The Indian Evidence Act governs the rules of evidence in legal proceedings, including what can be presented as admissible evidence and how it should be evaluated.
- The proposed Bharatiya Sakshya Bill seeks to modernize and adapt the rules of evidence to current legal requirements, making the legal process more effective and transparent.
The need for codification
- Complex Legal Landscape: The intricate mix of legal sources—parliamentary charters, Acts, Regulations, customary laws, and religious laws—led to confusion, contradictions, and inconsistencies.
- Administrative Challenges: The need for effective governance under expanding British colonial control was hindered by fragmented legal systems, causing disorder and unequal justice.
- Clarity and Predictability: The absence of a unified legal framework caused uncertainty for citizens and administrators, lacking clear guidelines for legal matters.
- Efficiency in Governance: Codification streamlined administration, enabling efficient enforcement, and consistent application of laws.
- Enhancing the Rule of Law: Codified laws ensured fairness, transparency, and accessibility, upholding the rule of law more effectively.
- Eliminating Contradictions: A uniform code resolved inconsistencies and conflicts among different legal systems, ensuring equitable treatment.
Rationale behind the new bills
- Eliminating Colonial Influence: The current laws, such as the Indian Penal Code (IPC) of 1860, carry a British colonial stamp. The new bills aim to discard this colonial legacy and establish laws that are truly representative of the needs and aspirations of the Indian population.
- Relevance to Modern Society: The colonial-era laws were formulated in a different historical context and might not effectively address the complexities of contemporary Indian society. The new bills intend to update and adapt the legal framework to align with present-day realities.
- Enhancing Justice for Citizens: The colonial laws were primarily designed to protect British interests. The new bills seek to prioritize the interests of common Indian citizens, ensuring that the justice system serves their needs and rights.
- Simplification and Speedy Justice: The new bills aim to simplify legal procedures, making them more accessible and understandable. This simplification is expected to expedite legal processes, ensuring a quicker delivery of justice.
- Adapting to Technological Advancements: Rapid technological progress has introduced new dimensions to crime and evidence. The new bills are likely to address cybercrime, digital evidence, and other technological challenges in the modern context.
- Aligning with Contemporary Values: The bills aim to incorporate modern values, human rights principles, and global legal standards into the legal framework. This ensures that the laws are relevant, progressive, and in harmony with present-day societal values.
- Removing Outdated Provisions: Over time, some provisions of the colonial laws might have become obsolete or irrelevant. The new bills aim to remove or modify such provisions to ensure a more coherent and effective legal framework.
How did the rebellion of 1857 influence the fate of the IPC?
- Initial Delays and Resistance: Despite Macaulay’s efforts to draft the IPC, its enactment faced hurdles. The project encountered governmental inertia, resistance from European residents who opposed having the same legal status as indigenous populations, and a loss of momentum for reform.
- Governors-General’s Opposition: Governors-General like Auckland and Ellenborough opposed reforms, considering them unnecessary. This opposition reflected a reluctance to change the existing legal framework and resisted codifying the legal system.
- East India Company Rule: The governance of India was under the control of the East India Company rather than the British Crown. This administrative structure affected the decision-making process and the pace of legal reforms.
- Impact of the Rebellion of 1857: The Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Indian Mutiny or the Sepoy Mutiny) was a widespread uprising against the East India Company’s rule. It challenged the authority of the Company and led to significant consequences.
- Change in Ruling Authority: The Rebellion marked the decline of the East India Company’s control. In 1858, the British Crown assumed direct control over India, ending the Company’s rule. This transition from Company rule to direct Crown rule was a significant historical shift.
- Crisis of Legitimacy: The Rebellion and its aftermath raised a crisis of legitimacy for colonial rule. The British claim to enlightened and just governance was seriously undermined by the harsh reprisals and brutal actions taken in response to the Rebellion.
- Impact on British Perception: The British political classes became aware of the damage caused to the legitimacy of British rule due to the repressive responses to the Rebellion. The principles of constitutionalism and the rule of law, which formed the basis of British governance claims, were called into question.
- Enactment of the IPC: In this context, the enactment of the IPC was seen as a means to address legitimacy concerns. The codification of laws was considered a step towards presenting a more just and orderly legal system, aiming to restore confidence in British rule’s claims of legality and fairness.
Macaulay’s complex role in shaping India’s legal landscape
- Macaulay’s Role in Charter Act Debates: During the deliberations of the 1833 Charter Act in the UK Parliament, Macaulay played a significant role in advocating for a uniform legal code for India.
- Advocating Uniformity and Certainty: Macaulay passionately argued that India needed a legal system characterized by uniformity where possible; diversity where necessary, and certainty in all cases. This approach would provide clarity and consistency in legal matters.
- Advantage of Absolute Governments: Macaulay believed that the ability to establish a comprehensive legal code was a distinct advantage of absolute governments over popular ones. This viewpoint underscored his belief in the efficacy of centralized legal reforms.
- Desire for a Role in India: While advocating for the uniform code, Macaulay subtly indicated his interest in securing a role as a law member in India. He recognized the potential financial benefits that such a position could bring.
- Financial Motivations: Macaulay’s interest in the law member role was driven by financial considerations. He anticipated a substantial salary and the prospect of accumulating wealth during his tenure in India, which would significantly improve his financial situation.
- Impactful Arrival in India: Macaulay’s arrival in India in 1834 marked the beginning of his active involvement in the legal and legislative affairs of the country. His subsequent contributions and initiatives left a lasting impact on India’s legal landscape.
Conclusion
- While Macaulay’s legacy carries both praise and censure, his codification journey serves as a foundation for the ongoing transformation. As the new Bills navigate legislative processes, India must remain committed to justice that transcends punitive measures and embodies equity, accessibility, and modern relevance.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Quit India Movement Day on 9th August
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quit India Movement
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- On August 9, 1942, India embarked on a historic journey towards independence by launching the Quit India Movement.
Genesis of Quit India Movement
- Gandhi’s Ultimatum: On August 8, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi issued a powerful ultimatum to the British Raj, urging them to “Quit India.” With the entire Congress leadership imprisoned, the people were galvanized to take matters into their own hands.
- People-Powered Movement: The Quit India Movement was an authentic display of people’s determination. The call for “Do or Die” echoed in the hearts of millions who rallied on the streets, marking a turning point in the struggle.
- Massive Scope: The movement’s magnitude was unprecedented, surpassing previous uprisings. India’s masses united to demand complete freedom, showcasing their unwavering commitment to breaking free from colonial shackles.
Birth of the Slogan ‘Quit India’
- Yusuf Meherally’s Contribution: The catchphrase “Quit India” was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist leader and Mayor of Bombay. He had earlier coined the slogan “Simon Go Back” in 1928 during another anti-colonial agitation.
Precursors to the Movement
- Failure of Cripps Mission: While factors leading to such a movement had been building up, matters came to a head with the failure of the Cripps Mission. With WW2 raging, the beleaguered British government needed the cooperation of its colonial subjects. With this in mind, in March 1942, a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps arrived in India to meet leaders of the Congress and the Muslim League.
- Betrayal on WW2 Promises: The idea was to secure India’s whole-hearted support in the war, and the return offer to Indians was the promise of self-governance. But things did not go that way.
- No complete freedom: Despite the promise of “the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India”, Cripps only offered dominion status, not freedom.
- Unviable partition plan: Also, there was a provision for the partition of India, which was not acceptable to the Congress.
Outcomes: Gandhi’s Strategic Shift
- From Non-Violence to Action: The failure of the Cripps Mission compelled Gandhi to shift from non-violent means to active resistance. The Congress, though initially hesitant to disrupt wartime efforts, embraced mass civil disobedience as a means to achieve freedom.
- The “Do or Die” Call: On August 8, 1942, Gandhi addressed a massive gathering in Bombay’s Gowalia Tank maidan. He proclaimed the potent mantra of “Do or Die,” pledging India’s resolve to secure freedom at any cost.
Course of Events and Popular Uprising
- People’s Resilience: The arrest of Congress leaders failed to quell the movement. Ordinary Indians across cities and towns took charge, engaging in acts of civil disobedience, strikes, and protests.
- Working-Class Participation: Railway tracks were blocked, students boycotted schools, and mill workers across cities joined the movement. Bridges were destroyed, and government symbols were targeted.
- Violent Phase: The movement escalated to a violent phase, marked by the destruction of infrastructure and defiance of government authority. This time, Gandhi dint resist for violence.
Suppression and Unyielding Passion
- Brutal Crackdown: The British responded with violence, inflicting casualties, imprisoning thousands, and imposing severe fines. Villages were burned, and repressive measures were enforced.
- Transformative Impact: Despite being suppressed, the Quit India Movement transformed the freedom struggle’s character. The masses’ fiery passion and unprecedented intensity illuminated the path to India’s imminent independence.
Conclusion
- The Quit India Movement remains etched in history as a symbol of India’s unyielding spirit and collective determination to overthrow colonial rule.
- The movement’s legacy lives on, inspiring generations to uphold the ideals of freedom, justice, and national pride.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Quit India Movement was launched in response to:
(a) Cabinet Mission Plan
(b) Cripps Proposals
(c) Simon Commission Report
(d) Wavell Plan
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
History of Pepper Trade from India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pepper Trade
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Pepper, often referred to as the “king of spices,” played a pivotal role in driving exploration, colonization, and cultural exchanges between the East and West.
Early Origins and Mystique of Pepper
- Luxury Commodity: Pepper, once considered a luxury good, was produced predominantly along India’s Malabar Coast and was shrouded in secrecy and legend. European Christians believed it came from the mythical land of “Prester John,” while Arabs, who controlled the trade, believed it grew behind waterfalls guarded by fire-breathing dragons.
- Ancient Trade: Archaeological evidence indicates that pepper was consumed in ancient India as early as 2000 BCE. It was exported to other parts of Asia and North Africa, with the mummified remains of Ramesses the Great from 1213 BCE found with peppercorns in Egypt.
- Arab Dominance: By the 10th century, Arab traders held a virtual monopoly on the spice trade, connecting India with the Middle East, Africa, and Europe, controlling supply and prices.
Pepper’s Role in Global Commerce
- Currency and Rent: Pepper became so valuable that it was used as currency and rent in various parts of the world. For example, in 408 BCE, the King of Visigoths demanded 3,000 kilograms of pepper as part of the siege of Rome.
- Spices and the Age of Discovery: The European craving for spices, particularly pepper, was a driving force behind the Age of Discovery. Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas in search of India, while Vasco da Gama found the route to India around the Cape of Good Hope.
- Portuguese and Dutch Dominance: The Portuguese initially controlled the spice trade from the Malabar region but were unable to dominate the pepper-producing areas. The Dutch East India Company monopolized the sale of pepper and challenged Portuguese supremacy.
- English East India Company: Queen Elizabeth I granted the English East India Company the right to trade in the East Indies in 1600. The Company’s expeditions marked the foundation of the English colonial presence in India.
Cultural Exchanges and Islam’s Spread:
- Malabar’s Trading Legacy: The Malabar Coast, known as “the city of spices,” served as a hub for international trade. The Zamorin welcomed traders from various cultures, including Jewish, Christian, and Muslim communities.
- Islamic Influence: The pepper trade helped spread Islam across regions, extending from East Africa to southern China. Malabar witnessed a significant Islamic presence going back almost a thousand years.
Pepper’s Evolution and Legacy
- From Luxury to Staple: Improved production techniques and cultivation in tropical regions led to pepper becoming a household staple. Its significance in driving exploration and colonial empires remains a significant part of world history.
Conclusion
- Pepper’s journey through history reflects the transformative power of trade and the influence of commodities in shaping the world.
- Once a prized luxury, pepper became a driving force behind exploration, colonization, and cultural exchanges between East and West.
- Its significance as a global commodity and the desire to control its trade shaped the course of history, and its legacy as a vital spice endures in our daily lives.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Person in news: Anna Bhau Sathe
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Anna Bhau Sathe
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Telangana CM has expressed a desire to see social reformer, writer, and folk poet Anna Bhau Sathe honoured with the prestigious Bharat Ratna award.
Who was Anna Bhau Sathe?
- Anna Bhau Sathe, born Tukaram Bhaurao Sathe on August 1, 1920, in Maharashtra’s Wategaon village, emerged as a prominent figure in the field of literature, poetry, and social activism.
- His journey from humble beginnings in a Dalit family to becoming a prolific writer and folk poet is a testament to his indomitable spirit and commitment to social reform.
Early Life and Struggles
- Mumbai Sojourn: In 1930, Sathe’s family moved to Mumbai, where he worked as a porter, hawker, and cotton mill helper, enduring the hardships of working-class life.
- Labour Activism: His participation in the 1934 workers’ strike, led by the Lal Bawta Mill Workers Union, marked the beginning of his engagement in labor and social issues.
- Learning to Read and Write: Denied schooling due to his Dalit identity, Sathe joined labor study circles where he learned to read and write.
Evolution as a Writer
- Early Poetry: His first poem, focusing on the menace of mosquitoes in the labour camp, laid the foundation for his future creative endeavours.
- Cultural Group: Sathe formed the Dalit Yuvak Sangh, a cultural group that composed poems reflecting workers’ protests and agitations.
- Influence of Progressive Writers: The Progressive Writers Association’s national formation, with writers like Premchand and Faiz Ahmad Faiz, exposed him to translated Russian works, inspiring him to write plays, stories, and novels.
Wide-ranging Impact of His Work
- Spreading Awareness: Together with his group, Sathe travelled across Mumbai, raising awareness about workers’ rights and social issues.
- Prolific Output: Over 49 years, he authored 32 novels, 13 collections of short stories, four plays, a travelogue, and 11 ballads (povadas).
- Cinematic and International Recognition: Several of his works were adapted into films, and some were translated into other languages, including Russian. His “Bangalchi Hak” was presented at London’s Royal Theatre.
- Depiction of Social Realities: Sathe’s literature delved into the caste and class realities of Indian society during his time.
Left-leaning Ideology and Russian Connection
- Influence of Marxism: While influenced by Marxism, he also depicted the harsh realities of the caste system in his work.
- The Lal Bawta Kala Pathak: In 1943, Sathe founded this group, which toured Maharashtra, performing programs on caste atrocities, class conflict, and workers’ rights.
- Dedication to Dr. Ambedkar: His most famous novel, “Fakira,” was dedicated to Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, reflecting his commitment to the Dalit cause.
Russian Inspiration
- Maxim Gorky’s Influence: Often referred to as the “Maxim Gorky of Maharashtra,” Sathe drew inspiration from Gorky’s work “The Mother” and the Russian Revolution, evident in his writings.
- Visit to Russia: In 1961, Sathe travelled to Russia with a group of other Indians, fostering his connection with Russian culture.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Opium Wars
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Opium Wars
Mains level: World History: Decolonization in Asia
Central Idea
- The Opium Wars, waged by European colonial powers on China, exemplify how opium, as an inanimate object, became a powerful historical agent under specific social and political circumstances.
Possible mains question:
Q. Discuss the historical significance of opium as a powerful agent in shaping world history, with a focus on its role in the Opium Wars and its impact on colonialism and Chinese society.
Story of Opium and Tea
- Tea’s Introduction to Europe: Tea, originating in China over 2,000 years ago, became popular among the British elite in the mid-17th century and transcended class barriers to become the quintessential British beverage.
- Trade Deficit with China: However, the British East India Company faced a trade deficit with China due to the import of tea.
- Opium as a Solution: In 1763, the British acquired a monopoly on opium production and trade, which was already in demand in China. Selling opium to China from their rapidly growing colony in India helped offset the trade deficit caused by tea imports.
Opium Cultivation in India
- Rapid Growth: Under the British Opium Department, opium production in India saw a massive increase, rising almost 800% within a century. India’s total opium exports to China increased a hundred-fold between 1780 and 1880.
- Selective Selling: Interestingly, while India grew all the opium, the British avoided selling it in their own colony, choosing instead to push it into Chinese society.
China’s Addiction and Socio-economic Crises
- Addiction Spreads: The highly addictive and debilitating drug led to widespread addiction among China’s upper classes and literati, causing socio-economic crises.
- Decline of Qing Dynasty: The ruling Qing dynasty’s inability to curb opium trade eroded the machinery of the state and legitimacy of China’s governance.
The Opium Wars
- Discovery of Opium: In 1839, after discovering his son’s opium use, the Qing Emperor launched a crackdown, leading to tensions with British opium traders in Canton.
- First Opium War (1839-42): British forces arrived in China to protect “free trade,” leading to a series of defeats for China. The Treaty of Nanking forced China to compensate British opium traders, cede Hong Kong, and open more ports for European trade.
- Second Opium War (1856-60): Triggered by a conflict between a Chinese official and British traders, the war further expanded European presence in China and legalized opium trade.
Opium as a Historical Agent
- Colonialism and Opium: The Opium Wars epitomized colonialism in Asia, generating immense profits for colonialists at the expense of Indian labor and Chinese sobriety.
- Continued Impact: Opioid crises worldwide show opium’s capacity to transcend social classes, making it a historical force with tragic consequences.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1822-1887)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- An exhibition, heritage walk, and talk will be held in Kolkata to commemorate the bicentenary year of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the last king of Awadh.
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah
- Mirza Wajid Ali Shah (30 July 1822 – 1 September 1887) was the eleventh and final King of Awadh, reigning from 13 February 1847 to 11 February 1856.
- He is remembered as a poet, playwright, dancer, and patron of the arts who made significant contributions during his rule.
Reign and fall
- Ascension to the Throne: Wajid Ali Shah became the King of Awadh in February 1847, assuming the position during a period of decline for the kingdom.
- British Annexation: The British East India Company annexed Awadh on 11 February 1856, just two days before the ninth anniversary of Wajid Ali Shah’s coronation. He was subsequently exiled to Garden Reach in Metiabruz, near Kolkata, living on a pension.
Patron of the Arts
- Contributions to Music: Wajid Ali Shah was a generous patron of music and a talented composer. He nurtured the Lucknow Gharana of Kathak dance and enriched the light classical form of thumri. He composed ghazals and introduced new ragas, leaving a lasting impact on Hindustani music.
- Kathak Dance: Wajid Ali Shah’s patronage elevated Kathak dance in Lucknow. He emphasized artistic expression, incorporating drama, emotion, and literature. The king popularized Kathak as a court dance and made it accessible to the common people.
- Hindustani Theatre: The king established the Jogia Jashan, a grand pageant, and staged Rahas (dance-dramas) filled with poetry, lyrical compositions, and Kathak performances. His contributions laid the foundation for the development of Hindustani theatre.
Literary Pursuits
- Prose and Poetry: Wajid Ali Shah was a prolific writer in both Persian and Urdu. His works covered various subjects, including history, literature, and personal reflections. Notable works include “Huzn-i-Akhtar,” an autobiographical piece, and “Bani,” a treatise on music and dance.
- Patronage of Writers: The king patronized numerous poets and writers in his court, including Mirza Ghalib. He granted pensions to renowned literary figures and encouraged the production of works that reflected the culture and life of the era.
Exile Years and Legacy (1856-1887)
- Exile in Metiabruz: After losing his kingdom, Wajid Ali Shah settled in Metiabruz near Kolkata. He created a miniature version of Lucknow and maintained his lavish lifestyle. Matiya Burj, a magnificent complex, served as a reminder of his beloved city.
- Enduring Impact: Wajid Ali Shah’s compositions, including his famous thumri “Babul Mora Naihar Chhooto Jaay,” remain influential and have been performed by various artists. His contributions to music, dance, literature, and theatre continue to shape the cultural landscape, preserving his legacy.
Conclusion
- Mirza Wajid Ali Shah, the last King of Awadh, reigned from 1847 to 1856 before being exiled.
- His patronage of the arts, including music, dance, theatre, and literature, left an indelible mark on the cultural heritage of Awadh.
- Despite the challenges he faced and the loss of his kingdom, Wajid Ali Shah’s artistic endeavors and enduring legacy continue to inspire and enrich the region’s cultural identity.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dadabhai Naoroji
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Dadabhai Naoroji, the first Indian member of the British Parliament, played a significant role in India’s anti-colonial struggle.
- His scholarly work exposed the economic exploitation of India under British rule, emphasizing the drain theory.
Who was Dadabhai Naoroji?
- Early Life: Naoroji was born in Navsari, Gujarat, into a Parsi Zoroastrian family. He received his education at the Elphinstone Institute School.
- Social Reforms: He founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha and the Rast Goftar newspaper to promote Parsi social reforms and clarify Zoroastrian concepts.
- Political Activism: Naoroji co-founded the London Indian Society and the East India Association, advocating for Indian political rights and countering negative stereotypes.
- Indian National Congress: He played a crucial role in the Indian National Congress and served as its President on three occasions.
- British Parliament: Naoroji became the first Indian MP in the British House of Commons, representing Finsbury Central from 1892 to 1895.
- Economic Critique: His book “Poverty and Un-British Rule in India” exposed the drain of wealth from India to Britain and its impact on India’s development.
His proposition of Drain Theory and Poverty
- Naoroji’s Drain Theory: He identified six factors contributing to the wealth drain, including foreign governance, lack of immigration, and unequal employment opportunities.
- Impact of Drain: Naoroji estimated a drain of 200-300 million pounds from India to Britain, which hindered India’s economic progress.
- Railways and Tribute: Naoroji argued that India paid for services like railways, but the profits were drained out of the country, leading to economic imbalances.
- Exploitative Trade: British workers in India were encouraged to repatriate their earnings, and Indian goods were undervalued, allowing for economic exploitation.
Major works
- Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854.
- The manners and customs of the Parsees (Bombay, 1864)
- The European and Asiatic races (London, 1866)
- Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868)
- The wants and means of India (London, 1876)
- Condition of India (Madras, 1882)
Legacy and Views
- Naoroji’s Significance: He is considered a crucial figure in India’s independence movement, advocating for responsible government and Indian autonomy.
- Influence on Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi was influenced by Naoroji’s writings and recognized him as a father figure for the Indian people.
- Admirations: Bal Gangadhar Tilak praised Naoroji’s leadership and stated that Indians would unanimously elect him if given the chance.
- Recognition: Naoroji’s contributions are honoured through various roads, streets, and awards named after him.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Alluri Sitarama Raju?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Alluri Sitarama Raju
Mains level: Tribal revolts
Central Idea
- The President of India, Draupadi Murmu, honoured the freedom fighter Alluri Sitarama Raju during the closing ceremony of his 125th birth anniversary celebrations in Hyderabad.
- The President highlighted the significance of Alluri Seetharama Raju’s struggle against injustice and exploitation in India’s freedom struggle.
About Alluri Sitarama Raju
- Raju was believed to be born in 1897 or 1898 in Andhra Pradesh.
- He became a sanyasi (ascetic) at the age of 18 and gained a mystical aura among the hill and tribal people due to his austerity, knowledge of astrology and medicine, and his ability to tame wild animals.
Revolutionary Activities of Alluri Sitarama Raju
- Raju channelled the discontent of the hill people in Ganjam, Visakhapatnam, and Godavari into effective guerrilla resistance against the British.
- The Forest Act of 1882 and other colonial policies threatened the tribals’ traditional podu cultivation and forced them into labor.
- The tribals and muttadars (village headmen) who were affected by the curtailment of their powers by the British government joined together in armed resistance against colonial rule in August 1922.
Contribution to the Freedom Struggle
- Raju’s guerrilla war, known as the Rampa or Manyam Rebellion, continued until May 1924.
- The rebellion coincided with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Raju admired Gandhi and promoted his ideas of wearing khadi (homespun cloth) and giving up alcohol.
- However, Raju believed that India could only be liberated through the use of force, contrary to Gandhi’s principle of non-violence.
Capture and Execution of Alluri Sitarama Raju
- Raju’s resistance came to an end when he was captured by the British in May 1924.
- He was executed for his involvement in the rebellion.
- Raju became known as the ‘Manyam Veerudu’ or Hero of the Jungle, and his efforts are remembered as a significant contribution to India’s freedom struggle.
Conclusion
- Overall, Alluri Seetharama Raju played a crucial role in leading a guerrilla resistance against British colonial rule, fighting for the rights of tribal communities, and advocating for India’s independence through forceful means.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Hul Diwas: Remembering the Santhal Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hul Diwas, Santhal Revolt
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Prime Minister commemorated Hul Diwas, honoring the sacrifice of Santhals in their fight against British colonial authorities.
What is Hul Divas?
- The Santhal rebellion, known as the ‘Hul,’ was an organized war against colonialism led by the Santhals, who stood against various forms of oppression inflicted upon them by the British.
- This article explores the significance of the Santhal rebellion, their identity, the reasons behind the Hul, its organization, and its lasting impact.
Santhals and their Migration
- The Santhal people, or Santhalis, migrated from the Birbhum and Manbhum regions of Bengal to modern-day Santhal Pargana.
- The British relocated the Santhals to the forested area of Damin-i-Koh, dislodging the indigenous Pahariya community, as part of their revenue collection strategy.
- However, the Santhals faced severe colonial oppression, including exploitative moneylenders and the police.
Reasons behind the Hul
- The Santhals rebelled against the British due to extortions, oppressive extractions, dispossession of property, false measurements, and other illegalities.
- Tribal councils and meetings discussed the possibility of rebellion, leading to a massive assembly of over 6,000 Santhals on June 30, 1855, marking the beginning of the rebellion.
- Led by Sidhu and Kanhu, the Santhals rose against the British, attacking symbols of colonial rule and executing moneylenders and zamindars.
Organization of the Hul
- Contrary to popular belief, the Hul was a well-planned and organized political war.
- Evidence from documents and historical accounts reveals preparations such as guerrilla formations, military teams, detectives, secret bases, logistics, and a network of message carriers for coordination.
- Non-Adivasi Hindu castes also participated in the rebellion, highlighting the diverse nature of the movement.
Lesser-Known Facts about the Hul
- The rebellion saw participation from 32 communities, both tribals and non-tribals, challenging the notion that it was solely a Santhal rebellion.
- Phulo-Jhano, two sisters, led an army of 1,000 women, playing crucial roles in providing food supply, gathering information, and attacking British camps.
- The East India Company’s army was defeated twice during the rebellion, debunking the belief that they were invincible.
British Narratives and Accounts
- British reports and personal narratives provide insights into the causes of the Santhal rebellion, including excessive taxation, falsehood, and negligence of British officials, extortion by moneylenders, corruption, and oppression.
- The sufferings inflicted by moneylenders or ‘mahajans’ on the Santhals were a primary cause of the uprising.
Accounts from Prisoners and Divine Intervention
- Similar to other tribal uprisings, accounts exist of deities appearing in dreams or before the rebels.
- Judicial proceedings of captured Santhals revealed instances where deities instructed rebellion leaders to fight against the British and oppressors.
Lasting Impact of the Hul
- The Santhal rebellion did not end with its suppression in 1855; it continued to inspire future uprisings, such as the Santhal involvement in the 1857 mutiny.
- The Hul rebellion symbolized resistance against British colonialism and laid the foundation for subsequent movements in Jharkhand.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Mahalanobis in the era of Big Data and AI
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Applications of Big Data and AI
Mains level: Significant developments in Big Data and AI and the Relevance of P.C. Mahalanobis
Central Idea
- Professor P.C. Mahalanobis, the pioneer of statistics in India, left an indelible mark on the field of statistics and survey culture in the country. His contributions, including the establishment of the Indian Statistical Institute, continue to shape the nation’s statistical landscape. As India grapples with the evolving socio-economic dynamics in the post-pandemic era, the absence of Mahalanobis’s expertise is keenly felt. This era, characterized by copious amounts of data, is commonly referred to as the age of Big Data
*Relevance of the topic*
- Due to the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic, the Census 2021 and the related field activities have been postponed.
- Questions over data quality and delay in releasing surveys has been raised
- You can use this as case study and examples
Mahalanobis’s strategy in handling large-scale data
- Tackling Big Data: Mahalanobis encountered a Big Data challenge when his large-scale surveys yielded substantial amounts of data that required effective analysis for planning purposes. He successfully persuaded the government to procure the country’s first two digital computers in 1956 and 1958 for the Indian Statistical Institute. This accomplishment marked the introduction of computers and their utilization in handling vast amounts of data in India.
- Embracing Technology: Mahalanobis embraced technology throughout his career. He built simple machines to facilitate surveys and measurements, displaying a keen interest in leveraging technology for data collection and analysis. His adoption of digital computers showcases his progressive approach to incorporating technological advancements into statistical practices.
- Mathematical Calculations: Mahalanobis’s strategy involved employing complex mathematical calculations to tackle the extensive data generated from surveys. By utilizing digital computers, he aimed to streamline and expedite the process of analyzing large-scale datasets, enabling effective planning and decision-making.
- Built-in Cross-Checks: Mahalanobis was inspired by Kautilya’s Arthashastra and introduced the concept of built-in cross-checks in his surveys. This approach aimed to ensure data accuracy and reliability, minimizing errors and contradictions in the collected data. These cross-checks were implemented to enhance the quality control of statistical analysis and maintain the integrity of the findings.
Advantages of Big Data
- Improved Decision-Making: Big Data analytics provides organizations with valuable insights and patterns derived from vast amounts of data. These insights support data-driven decision-making, enabling organizations to make informed and evidence-based choices that can lead to improved outcomes.
- Enhanced Customer Understanding: Big Data allows organizations to gain a deeper understanding of their customers. By analyzing large and diverse datasets, businesses can identify customer preferences, behavior patterns, and trends, enabling personalized marketing strategies, product development, and customer experiences.
- Operational Efficiency: Big Data analytics can optimize operational processes by identifying bottlenecks, inefficiencies, and areas for improvement. By analyzing data from various sources, organizations can streamline workflows, reduce costs, and enhance productivity.
- Innovation and New Product Development: Big Data insights can drive innovation and the development of new products and services. By analyzing market trends, consumer demands, and competitive landscapes, organizations can identify opportunities for innovation and create products tailored to specific market needs.
- Fraud Detection and Security: Big Data analytics can help in detecting and preventing fraudulent activities. By analyzing patterns and anomalies in data, organizations can identify potential fraud or security breaches in real-time, reducing financial losses and protecting sensitive information.
- Personalized Marketing and Customer Experience: Big Data enables targeted and personalized marketing campaigns. By analyzing customer data, organizations can segment their audience, deliver customized messages, and create personalized experiences that resonate with individual customers.
- Improved Healthcare and Public Health: Big Data analytics has the potential to revolutionize healthcare. By analyzing patient data, medical records, and clinical research, healthcare providers can make better diagnoses, develop personalized treatment plans, and identify public health trends for proactive interventions.
key challenges associated with Big Data
- Data Quality and Integrity: Ensuring the quality and integrity of Big Data can be a significant challenge. Data may contain errors, inconsistencies, and biases, which can adversely affect the accuracy and reliability of analyses and insights.
- Data Privacy and Security: The vast amount of data collected and stored in Big Data systems raises concerns about privacy and security. Safeguarding sensitive information and preventing unauthorized access or data breaches require robust security measures and compliance with privacy regulations.
- Data Storage and Management: Storing and managing large volumes of data can be complex and costly. Big Data requires scalable and efficient storage solutions, including distributed storage systems and cloud-based platforms. Managing data across various sources and formats also poses challenges.
- Data Processing and Analysis: Processing and analyzing massive datasets in a timely manner can be computationally intensive and time-consuming. Traditional data processing tools and techniques may not be suitable for handling Big Data, requiring the use of specialized frameworks, algorithms, and infrastructure.
- Data Integration and Interoperability: Integrating and making sense of diverse data sources can be challenging due to differences in formats, structures, and semantics. Ensuring interoperability and data integration across systems and platforms is crucial for deriving comprehensive insights from Big Data.
Way forward: Mahalanobis’s potential approach to Big Data and AI
- Embrace Technological Advancements: Following Mahalanobis’s lead, it is crucial to embrace the latest technological advancements in handling Big Data. Continuously explore emerging technologies, such as advanced analytics tools, cloud computing, and distributed computing frameworks, to efficiently process and analyze large-scale datasets.
- Foster Statistical Expertise: Cultivate statistical expertise to navigate the complexities of Big Data. Invest in training programs and educational initiatives to develop a skilled workforce capable of extracting insights and interpreting the vast amounts of data generated. Promote interdisciplinary collaboration, involving statisticians, technologists, domain experts, and policymakers.
- Ensure Data Integrity and Quality: Establish robust data governance frameworks to ensure the integrity and quality of Big Data. Implement built-in cross-checks, validation processes, and quality control measures to enhance data accuracy, reliability, and transparency. Adhere to ethical guidelines to safeguard privacy, prevent bias, and address fairness in AI and Big Data applications.
- Encourage Ethical AI and Big Data Practices: Promote ethical AI and Big Data practices by integrating principles such as transparency, fairness, and accountability. Develop guidelines and regulations that address potential biases, discrimination, and privacy concerns. Foster a culture of responsible data use and continuous evaluation of AI systems to mitigate risks and ensure positive societal impact.
- Foster Collaboration and Interdisciplinary Approaches: Promote collaboration across disciplines, sectors, and organizations to leverage diverse expertise in tackling Big Data challenges. Foster partnerships between academia, industry, and government entities to encourage knowledge sharing, research collaboration, and the development of innovative solutions.
- Invest in Capacity Building and Education: Invest in educational programs and initiatives to build a skilled workforce capable of harnessing the potential of Big Data and AI. Promote data literacy and provide training opportunities to empower individuals and organizations to effectively collect, analyze, and interpret data. Support research and development in the field of AI and Big Data to drive innovation.
- Inform Evidence-based Decision-making: Advocate for evidence-based decision-making by integrating data-driven insights into policy formulation and resource allocation. Encourage policymakers to leverage Big Data analytics to understand societal trends, make informed decisions, and address pressing challenges effectively.
Conclusion
- Professor P.C. Mahalanobis’s legacy as a statistical luminary remains relevant in the age of Big Data and AI. His unique combination of perfectionism, tireless dedication, and visionary leadership positions him as an ideal candidate to handle vast amounts of data and embrace technological advancements for the betterment of humanity and national development. As India’s statistical landscape continues to evolve, the absence of Mahalanobis’s expertise and guidance is keenly felt
Also read:
| Remembering P C Mahalanobis |
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: 1947 Partition of Bengal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Partition of Bengal
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The recent controversy surrounding West Bengal’s ‘Foundation Day’ has brought attention to the partition of Bengal in 1947.
- This event marked a significant chapter in the history of the state, leading to the creation of West Bengal and East Pakistan (later Bangladesh).
Partition of Bengal in 1947: An overview
- Demand for a separate Muslim nation-state: The partition of Bengal was a consequence of the Muslim League’s demand for a separate nation-state for Indian Muslims.
- Communal violence in Calcutta: The society became deeply divided along religious lines, leading to severe communal violence, particularly in Calcutta in August 1946.
Contours of East Pakistan’s Formation
- Partition of India and Pakistan: In June 1947, it was decided to partition India into India and Pakistan. Punjab and Bengal, both with significant non-Muslim minorities, were also partitioned along religious lines.
- Boundary Commission and the Radcliffe Line: A boundary commission, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, was established to demarcate separate districts with Hindu and Muslim majorities. The resulting boundary line is known as the Radcliffe Line.
Concentration of Muslims in East Pakistan
- Demographic composition: Bengal had a Hindu majority in the western districts and a Muslim majority in the eastern districts.
- Grouping under East Pakistan: The eastern districts were grouped together to form East Pakistan, similar to how Muslims were concentrated in the western districts of Punjab.
Precursor: Curzon’s Partition of Bengal in 1905
- Historical context: Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal in 1905, aiming to break the unity of the Bengali-speaking population and create a separate province with a Muslim majority.
- Reversal of partition: The partition of 1905 was withdrawn in 1911, restoring the linguistic unity of Bengal while separating Bihar and Orissa from Bengal.
Aftermath of the 1947 Partition
- Communal violence and Gandhi’s influence: Bengal witnessed significant communal violence in 1946, particularly in Calcutta and Noakhali. However, the presence of Mahatma Gandhi helped prevent large-scale violence during the partition.
- Migration and displacement: Unlike Punjab, migration in Bengal occurred gradually over time, resulting in a continuous trickle of people moving from East to West and vice versa. This led to a large refugee population and the need for rehabilitation and settlements.
Conclusion
- The partition of Bengal in 1947 was a complex event with far-reaching consequences.
- Understanding this historical context helps shed light on the impact it had on the population and the socio-economic landscape of West Bengal and todays Bangladesh.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Rani Durgavati?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rani Durgavati
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The recent launch of the Rani Durgavati Gaurav Yatra by the Madhya Pradesh government has sparked interest in the life and legacy of Rani Durgavati.
- As a symbol of India’s self-determination and bravery, Rani Durgavati’s story has gained prominence in political discourse, particularly in relation to tribal outreach.
Who was Rani Durgavati?
- Birth and lineage: Rani Durgavati was born in 1524 in the Chandela dynasty in present-day Uttar Pradesh, near the border with Madhya Pradesh. Her father was Raja Salbahan of Ratha and Mahoba, known for the famous Khajuraho temples.
- Marriage and widowhood: She married Dalpat Shah, the son of Gond King Sangram Shah of the kingdom of Garha-Katanga. However, she was widowed a few years later and took charge of ruling the kingdom.
Mughal Attack on Garha-Katanga
- Early Mughal expansion: During the mid-16th century, Akbar led the Mughal Empire’s expansion in India. Rani Durgavati fought against Baz Bahadur, the Sultan of Malwa, who was eventually defeated by Akbar. However, conflicts between the two states continued.
- Rani Durgavati’s leadership: Rani Durgavati managed the affairs of the kingdom for 16 years, maintaining trade relations and undertaking public works. She was admired for her beauty, grace, courage, and prosperity.
Battle and Sacrifice
- Mughal invasion: The Mughal governor Asaf Khan launched an attack on Garha-Katanga, drawn by tales of Rani Durgavati’s bravery and prowess.
- Her strategy: She positioned her troops in a challenging forested area called Narhi. Although she won the initial battle, the Mughals fortified their position.
- Sacrifice and defeat: During the prolonged fighting, Rani Durgavati was struck by arrows and, rather than surrendering, is believed to have stabbed herself with her dagger. Her son also lost his life. Asaf Khan consolidated his victory and later returned the kingdom to a member of the Gond dynasty.
Legacy and Present-day Politics
- Political symbolism: Rani Durgavati is hailed as a patriotic ruler and defender of culture, becoming a symbol of pride and honor. .
- Tribal outreach: The renaming of public spaces after tribal leaders reflect efforts to engage with tribal communities, which constitute a significant population in Madhya Pradesh.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Heliopolis Memorial for Indian Soldiers
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heliopolis Memorial
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- PM Modi will pay his respects at the Heliopolis (Port Tewfik) Memorial in the Heliopolis War Cemetery in Cairo, Egypt.
- Here the names of nearly 4,000 Indian soldiers who fought in World War 1 in Egypt and Palestine are commemorated.
Heliopolis Memorial
- Unveiling and Destruction: The original Port Tewfik memorial unveiled in 1926 and later destroyed during the Israeli-Egyptian War of 1967.
- New Memorial: A new memorial was erected in Heliopolis Commonwealth War Grave Cemetery in 1980, commemorating Indian soldiers who died in the First World War campaigns in Egypt and Palestine.
- Inclusion of Names: The new memorial includes the names of Indian soldiers, unlike its predecessor.
Role of the Indian Army in West Asia during World War 1
- Significance of Indian Troops: Indian troops played a major role in securing the Suez Canal in Egypt and participating in campaigns in Palestine and Mesopotamia.
- Battle of Haifa: Indian cavalry’s participation in the Battle of Haifa, commemorated by a war memorial in New Delhi.
- Diverse Representation: The memorial commemorates numerous Indian regiments from the Indian Army and State Forces of princely states.
- Princely States’ Contribution: Troops from princely states actively participated in various theatres of the war effort during World War 1.
Prominent Indian Soldier Commemorated
- Risaldar Badlu Singh: Risaldar Badlu Singh, a brave soldier and Victoria Cross recipient, is commemorated at the memorial.
- Selfless Sacrifice: Risaldar Badlu Singh displayed exceptional bravery and self-sacrifice during a charge against enemy positions.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Gita Press to receive Gandhi Peace Prize
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: The International Gandhi Peace Prize
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Gita Press, located in Gorakhpur is awarded the prestigious Gandhi Peace Prize for 2021.
- The jury, led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, unanimously selects Gita Press for this honor.
The International Gandhi Peace Prize |
|
| Establishment | 1995 |
| Award Details | Cash prize of ₹1 crore (US$130,000), which can be converted into any currency worldwide
Includes a plaque and a citation |
| Jury composition | PM (Chair), Leader of the Opposition, Chief Justice, Speaker, and Eminent person |
| Evaluation | Evaluation based on contributions to non-violence and Gandhian methods
Nominees are considered from competent individuals Award can be withheld if no deserving candidate is found |
| Recent laureates | Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Bangladesh Founder) was posthumously awarded in 2020 |
Significance of the Prize
- The International Gandhi Peace Prize pays tribute to Mahatma Gandhi and his philosophy.
- The award recognizes outstanding contributions to social, economic, and political transformation through non-violence and Gandhian methods.
About Gita Press
- Founding and Establishment: Gita Press was officially founded in 1923 by Jaydayal Goyandka, a businessman from Bankura, West Bengal.
- Authenticity of texts: Goyandka’s extensive travels as a businessman led him to form satsangs with like-minded individuals in various towns.
- Translation work: The group desired an authentic translation and commentary of the Bhagavad Gita, which led to the establishment of Gita Press.
- Publication: Gita Press emerged as a prominent publisher with the launch of its monthly magazine, Kalyan, in 1926.
- Versatility: It offers over 1,850 religious books in 15 languages, with approximately 93 crore copies sold.
Pioneering work by the Press
- Promotion of Hindi: It played a pivotal role in the consolidation of Hindi as a language of masses.
- Bridging Divisions: Gita Press strategically focused on emotional cultivation and avoided highlighting differences between various Hindu sects, fostering unity among the Hindu community.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Private: Tungnath Temple
Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Kamala Sohonie: First Indian Woman to earn PhD
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kamala Sohoni
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- On June 18, the Google Doodle commemorated Kamala Sohonie on her 112th birth anniversary.
- Kamala Sohonie, the first Indian woman to earn a PhD in a scientific discipline, made significant contributions in the field of nutrition and fought against malnutrition among tribal children.
- Despite facing gender bias, including from Nobel laureate CV Raman, Sohonie left a lasting impact on Indian science.
Who was Kamala Sohonie?
- Kamala Sohonie (nee Bhagvat) was born on June 18, 1911, in Indore, Madhya Pradesh.
- Her father and uncle were chemists who had studied at the Tata Institute of Sciences (now IISc, Bengaluru).
- Sohonie graduated in 1933 with a BSc degree in Chemistry and Physics from Bombay University, topping the merit list.
Encounter with CV Raman
- Sohonie faced rejection from CV Raman when she applied for an MSc degree at IISc.
- Determined, she confronted Raman and challenged him to allow her admission.
- Raman reluctantly agreed but imposed several conditions, including probation and restrictions on her status as a student.
Academic Achievements and Work
- Sohonie completed her course with distinction and secured admission to Cambridge University, where she completed her PhD in just 14 months.
- Her research focused on potatoes, leading to the discovery of the enzyme ‘Cytochrome C’ and its role in cellular respiration.
- Returning to India, Sohonie served as the head of the Department of Biochemistry at Lady Hardinge College, New Delhi.
- She worked at the Nutrition Research Lab, Coonoor, and the Royal Institute of Science in Mumbai, studying various food items to identify their nutrients.
Contribution to Nutrition and Social Impact
- Sohonie’s notable work revolved around ‘neera,’ a palm extract drink recommended by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India’s first President.
- She demonstrated that ‘neera’ was a rich source of Vitamin C and other nutrients, making it beneficial for the health of malnourished tribal children and pregnant women.
- Sohonie also collaborated with the Aarey Milk project to improve milk quality.
- Beyond her scientific endeavors, she played a vital role as a founding member of the Consumer Guidance Society.
Personal Life and Legacy
- In 1947, Sohonie married MV Sohonie, an actuary, and the couple resided in Mumbai.
- Kamala Sohonie’s accomplishments broke barriers and inspired future generations of women in science.
- Her resilience against gender bias and remarkable contributions to nutrition and consumer protection remain an enduring legacy.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Prime Ministers Museum and Library Society
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML)
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The decision to rename the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) Society has ignited a political controversy.
- The institution will now be known as the ‘Prime Ministers Museum and Library Society’.
- The controversy reflects the ongoing debate surrounding dynastic politics in India.
About the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library (NMML) (erstwhile)
- NMML in New Delhi, is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Culture.
- It is a leading resource center on India’s first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Established in 1964, it houses extensive archives, including Mahatma Gandhi’s writings and private papers of prominent figures like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, C. Rajagopalachari, and Sarojini Naidu.
- It is located in the majestic Teen Murti House, the official residence of the first Prime Minister of India.
- It has four major constituents, namely, a Memorial Museum, a library on modern India, a Centre for Contemporary Studies and the Nehru Planetarium.
Pradhanmantri Sangrahalaya (the PM’s Museum)
- In April 2022, the NMML inaugurated the Museum as a new addition to the institution.
- It is a tribute to every Prime Minister of India since Independence, showcasing their contributions to the nation’s development over the past 75 years.
Why rename it now?
- The meeting acknowledged the contributions of all past and present Prime Ministers and expressed the mission of the Society to preserve India’s democratic journey and legacy.
- It was felt that renaming the institution would better align with this purpose.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Ram Prasad Bismil: A Revolutionary and a Poet
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ram Prasad Bismil, Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea: This article revolves around the life, contributions, and legacy of Ram Prasad Bismil, a revolutionary figure in India’s freedom struggle against British colonial rule.
Ram Prasad Bismil
- Birth: Ram Prasad Bismil was born on June 11, 1897, in Shahjahanpur district, UP.
- Revolutionary activities: He actively fought against British Raj and participated in notable events like the Mainpuri Conspiracy of 1918 and the Kakori Train Action of 1925.
- Founding of Hindustan Republican Association: Bismil established the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA, later known as the Hindustan Socialist RA) and played a pivotal role in the organization.
- Sacrifice and execution: Bismil was hanged for his revolutionary activities on December 19, 1927, at the age of 30.
Early life and Arya Samaj connections
- Upbringing and linguistic influences: Bismil was born into a Rajput Tomar family and learned Hindi from his father, Urdu from a nearby maulvi, and also studied in an English medium school in Shahjahanpur.
- Association with Arya Samaj: Bismil joined the Arya Samaj during his childhood, becoming a prolific writer and poet. He used pen names such as ‘Agyat’, ‘Ram’, and the well-known ‘Bismil’.
- Poem “Mera Janm”: At the age of 18, Bismil wrote the poem “Mera Janm” expressing his anger over the death sentence of Arya Samaj missionary Bhai Parmanand.
Major events associated to Bismil
(1) Mainpuri Conspiracy
- Political disillusionment: Bismil became disillusioned with the moderate wing of the Congress Party and rejected negotiation or appeasement with the British.
- Formation of Matrivedi: Bismil established the revolutionary organization Matrivedi and collaborated with Genda Lal Dixit, who had connections with dacoits and sought to utilize them in the armed struggle.
- Mainpuri Ki Pratigya: Bismil’s famous poem, “Mainpuri Ki Pratigya,” was widely distributed in pamphlets across the United Provinces. He carried out acts of looting to gather funds for his organization.
(2) Founding the Hindustan Republican Association
- Return to Shahjahanpur: After being underground for several years, Bismil returned to Shahjahanpur in February 1920.
- Formation of HRA: Bismil, along with Ashfaqullah Khan, Sachindra Nath Bakshi, and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee, founded the Hindustan Republican Association. Later, Chandra Shekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh joined the organization.
- Release of the manifesto: Bismil played a significant role in penning the manifesto titled “Krantikari,” which was officially released on January 1, 1925. The manifesto called for an organized and armed revolution to establish a federal Republic of United States of India.
(3) Kakori Train Action
- Objective and planning: The Kakori Train Action aimed to rob a train carrying treasury bags between Shahjahanpur and Lucknow.
- Execution of the action: On August 9, 1925, around ten revolutionaries, including Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan, stopped the train at Kakori station, overpowered the guard, and looted the treasury bags containing approximately Rs 4,600.
- Consequences and crackdown: The action drew both British outrage and mixed responses from the Indian public. The misfiring of a gun resulted in the accidental killing of a passenger, Ahmad Ali, dampening public support. Subsequently, a violent crackdown led to the arrest of most involved, excluding Chandrashekhar Azad.
Death and legacy
- Trial and sentencing: Bismil, along with Ashfaqullah Khan and Rajendranath Lahiri, faced a long trial and were ultimately sentenced to death.
- Execution and martyrdom: On December 19, 1927, Bismil was executed at the age of 30, leaving behind a legacy of sacrifice and dedication to the cause of freedom.
- Enduring influence and remembrance: Bismil’s poetry continues to inspire and his call for Hindu-Muslim unity serves as a symbol of communal harmony. He is remembered for his revolutionary spirit and deep concern for society, justice, and equality.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Dr. M. Emperumal Naidu: A Gandhian Freedom Fighter
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dr. M. Emperumal Naidu
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea: Naidu Hospital in Kottar (Nagercoil, TN), stands as a symbol of the forgotten heroes of the freedom movement, spearheaded by Dr. M. Emperumal Naidu, and their enduring impact on social justice
Who was Dr. M. Emperumal Naidu (1880-1958)?
- Introduction to Naidu Hospital: Naidu Hospital, located in Kottar is a significant hospital with historical ties to the freedom movement and the fight for social justice.
- Founder: M. Emperumal Naidu, a freedom fighter and associate of Mahatma Gandhi, established the hospital.
- Contribution to Vaikom Movement: Naidu actively participated in the Vaikom temple street entry movement, following the footsteps of Periyar E.V. Ramasamy and his wife Nagammal.
- Enduring the Struggle: Naidu faced adversity during the movement, including being splattered with limestone powder and standing in waist-deep rainwater with Gandhidas Muthusamy.
His Life and Achievements
- Family and Education: Naidu’s ancestors hailed from Andhra Pradesh, and his father served as an artiste in the court of Travancore. Naidu studied at Scott Christian College in Nagercoil and later attended the Madras Medical College.
- Involvement in Freedom Movement: Naidu became actively involved in the freedom movement while studying in England and declined a medical college offer to pursue a degree in Glasgow, aligning himself with the ideals of Gandhi.
- Contributions to Healthcare: In 1914, Naidu established a hospital in Kottar, one of the first private hospitals providing modern medical treatment. He offered free treatment to Dalits and marked prescriptions with ‘HF’ (Harijan Free).
- Leadership and Connections: Naidu played a crucial role in the Indian National Congress and hosted prominent leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai, C.F. Andrews, Sarojini Naidu, and Jawaharlal Nehru in Nagercoil.
- Link to Gandhi: Naidu served as a vital link to Gandhi in Travancore and actively participated in various campaigns and Congress meetings alongside him.
Major contribution: Temple Entry Movement
- Vaikom Temple Street Movement: Naidu, along with his wife and other volunteers, actively participated in the Vaikom temple street movement, advocating for equal rights and facing arrests and restrictions.
- Continued Activism: Naidu continued organizing protests and campaigns, leading a protest in Suchindram to open temple streets to all communities in the Kanniyakumari district.
- Achievements: Naidu’s relentless efforts for temple entry and the welfare of Dalits led to the Travancore government issuing a proclamation in 1936, opening temple doors and streets to all communities.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Maharashtra’s Ahmednagar to be renamed Ahilyanagar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ahilyabai Holkar, Ahmednagar
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Government decision: Ahmednagar district was renamed after Punyashlok Ahilya Devi Holkar.
- Support from officials: Government officials express gratitude and believe it enhances district honour.
- Previous discussions: Maharashtra Education Minister planned to rename the city as ‘Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar’.
Origin and History of Ahmednagar
- Ancient references: Ahmednagar was mentioned in reference to Mauryan Emperor Ashok (240 BC).
- Rule of prominent kingdoms: Rashtrakuta Dynasty, Western Chalukyas, and Delhi Sultanate.
- Emergence of Ahmednagar: Revolt led to the establishment of Bahmani kingdom, with Ahmednagar as one of the five independent kingdoms.
Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah and Ahmednagar
- PM of Bahmani Sultanate: Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah assumed the position in 1486.
- Victory and city foundation: Defeated the king of Bahmani kingdom and founded Ahmednagar in 1494.
- Unifying communities: Gained loyalty of Muslims, Maratha peasants, and warriors.
Ahilyabai Holkar: Early Life and Marriage
- Remarkable upbringing: Ahilyabai born in Chondi village, received rare education.
- Marriage to Khande Rao: Malhar Rao Holkar arranged the marriage after being impressed by Ahilyabai’s devotion.
Administration and Temple-building
- Assumption of power: Ahilyabai took control of Malwa after her husband’s death in 1754.
- Effective governance: Excelling in administration and military strategies under her father-in-law’s guidance.
- Temple restoration: Notable efforts in restoring Hindu temples, earning respect as a capable ruler.
Legacy of Ahilyabai Holkar
- Recognizing achievements: Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s inauguration of Samudra Darshan Path and Somnath Exhibition Gallery.
- Symbol of inspiration: Somnath temple built by Ahilyabai Holkar in 1783, representing triumph of truth and faith.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Neh Pema Shelphu Shrine
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Neh Pema Shelphu Shrine
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The landowner of a disputed area in Arunachal Pradesh has demanded either compensation from Army for a land where Army has built Gurdwara near the Neh Pema Shelphu Shrine.
Neh Pema Shelphu Shrine
- It is a holy shrine located in the Mechukha Valley of Arunachal Pradesh.
- It holds significant religious importance for the local Memba Buddhist community.
- The shrine is believed to have been sanctified by Guru Padmasambhava, a prominent figure in Tibetan Buddhism, during his exploration of the area in the 8th century AD.
- It has been a place of worship and pilgrimage for the Memba people since 1274 AD, according to historical records.
- It attracts hundreds of Buddhists who visit the shrine annually during a pilgrimage in March.
Why in news?
- The Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee claimed the shrine associated with Guru Nanak Dev, the first Sikh Guru, in Arunachal Pradesh has been turned into a Buddhist shrine.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Private: Shilabhattarika
Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Private: Jantar Mantar in New Delhi
Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What is ‘Adopt a Heritage’ Scheme?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adopt a Heritage Scheme
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Private firms, companies, and public sector units can adopt and maintain State-owned archaeological sites or monuments through agreements with the Union Ministry of Culture.
- These businesses are referred to as “Monument Mitras” under the ‘Adopt a Heritage’ Scheme.
Adopt a Heritage scheme
- The ‘Adopt a Heritage: Apni Dharohar, Apni Pehchaan’ scheme is a collaboration between the Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Culture, and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- Launched in September 2017, it aims to develop selected monuments and heritage sites across India with the participation of public and private entities.
- The scheme focuses on providing and maintaining basic amenities, improving accessibility, cleanliness, illumination, and advanced facilities like surveillance systems and night-viewing facilities.
Selection and Adoption Process
- Sites/monuments are selected based on tourist footfall and visibility, and they can be adopted by private and public sector companies and individuals known as “Monument Mitras.”
- The Oversight and Vision Committee, co-chaired by the Tourism Secretary and the Culture Secretary, selects the Monument Mitras based on their vision for developing the site.
- No financial bid is involved in the selection process, and corporate entities are expected to use their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) funds for the upkeep of the site.
- The adopted sites provide limited visibility to the Monument Mitras on the premises and on the Incredible India website.
- The oversight committee has the authority to terminate the memorandum of understanding in case of non-compliance or non-performance.
Previous Initiatives and Controversy
- The government previously formed the National Culture Fund and initiated the ‘Campaign Clean India’ scheme to involve the corporate sector in maintaining tourist sites.
- The ‘Adopt a Heritage’ scheme faced controversy when it was reported that Dalmia Bharat, under a MoU, would build infrastructure and maintain the Red Fort.
- Critics argued that the involvement of private parties in iconic monuments raised concerns about the preservation of India’s heritage.
- The government defended the scheme, stating that it aimed to increase tourist footfall and improve the maintenance of sites.
Perils and Challenges of the Scheme
- Diminishing role of ASI: The scheme sidelines the role of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and disregards established guidelines for presenting excavated objects.
- Undue commercialization: Allowing businesses to occupy prime public land and build their brands can further diminish the grounds around iconic monuments.
- Demographic impacts: The involvement of big businesses in guided tours and illumination of monuments may impact local communities and their livelihoods.
- Disregarding historical preservation: Concerns arise about businesses altering the historical character of monuments not protected by the ASI or located in states without Archaeology Directorates.
Govt intention behind the scheme
- Businesses can help citizens understand why monuments matter: This can be done by earmarking CSR funds for grants for researching, writing, and publishing high-quality textbooks, and developing imaginative and effective ways of teaching history.
- Skillful conservation: Industrial houses can support the meaningful conservation of heritage buildings by looking within through their CSR.
- Collaborative efforts: The private sector’s resources and expertise may also help the ASI and State Archaeology Directorates to secure monuments from dams, mining projects, defacement, and looting.
- Cultural contribution: By embracing principles of historical preservation, businesses and organizations can showcase India’s progress in safeguarding its pluralistic heritage and inspire citizen participation in this endeavour.
Way ahead
- Transparent selection process: Implement a fair and transparent process for selecting entities or Monument Mitras to adopt heritage sites, ensuring accountability and avoiding favoritism.
- Robust monitoring mechanism: Develop a strong monitoring system to ensure that the adopted sites are maintained and developed according to the agreed-upon standards and guidelines.
- Preservation protocols: Strictly adhere to preservation guidelines set by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and other relevant authorities to protect the historical and cultural integrity of heritage sites.
- Engagement with local communities: Involve local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes, encouraging their participation, ownership, and contribution to the conservation efforts.
- Sustainable tourism practices: Promote sustainable tourism practices that minimize the environmental impact, respect the local culture and heritage, and provide socio-economic benefits to the communities living around the heritage sites.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Thirunelli Temple
Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Santiniketan in tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage list
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Santiniketan
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The article announces that Santiniketan, the home of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore in West Bengal, has been recommended for inclusion in UNESCO’s World Heritage List.
About Santiniketan
Santiniketan is a renowned cultural and heritage place located in Birbhum District, West Bengal, India. It holds historical significance and is known for its association with Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore. Here are key points about Santiniketan:
- It was the home of Rabindranath Tagore, where he lived and composed many of his literary works, including songs, poems, and novels.
- The Santiniketan campus is adorned with splendid sculptures, frescoes, murals, and paintings created by renowned artists such as Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Ramkinkar, Binodbehari Mukhopadhyay, and others.
- The region of Birbhum District, where Santiniketan is located, is also famous for its fairs and festivals. Some notable ones are Poush Mela (December), Joydev Mela (January), Basanta Utsav (Holi) in March, and the famous mystic Baul Singers.
- Special cultural events are held during Bengali New Year and Rabindra Janmotsav (birth anniversary of Rabindranath Tagore) in the Bengali month of Boisakh with great enthusiasm.
- Santiniketan celebrates unique festivals like Briksharopan (festival of Planting Saplings) and Halakarshan (festival of Plowing the Fields) on the 22nd and 23rd days of Sravana (August), respectively.
- Varshamangal, the festival of rains, is celebrated during August/September.
- Poush Mela is an annual fair and festival held in Santiniketan, starting on the 7th day of the month of Poush. The fair officially lasts for three days, but vendors may stay until the end of the month. It is known for live performances of Bengali folk music, particularly by bauls (traditional wandering minstrels), and also features tribal dances like Santali.
Recommendation by ICOMOS
- The recommendation for Santiniketan’s inclusion was made by the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), which is the advisory body to the UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- ICOMOS is a France-based international cultural body dedicated to the conservation and enhancement of global architectural and landscape heritage.
West Bengal’s Representation in World Heritage List
- If selected, Santiniketan would be the second cultural symbol from West Bengal to be included in the UNESCO list.
- In 2021, UNESCO included ‘Durga Puja in Kolkata’ in its list of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
| Description | |
| UNESCO World Heritage Sites | Landmarks or areas selected by UNESCO for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other significant value, legally protected by international treaties. |
| Importance | World Heritage Sites represent collective and preservative interests of humanity, signifying remarkable accomplishments and intellectual history. |
| Selection Criteria | Sites must be already-classified landmarks, unique and significant culturally or physically, such as ancient ruins, historical structures, cities, monuments, etc. |
| Conservation | World Heritage Sites require practical conservation to protect them from risks like trespassing, uncontrolled access, or administrative negligence. |
| World Heritage Committee | Selects and monitors World Heritage Sites, manages the World Heritage Fund, and provides financial assistance. Composed of 21 states parties elected for a four-year term. |
| Membership | India is not a member of the World Heritage Committee. |
Note: “States parties” refer to the countries that have ratified the World Heritage Convention and participate in the decision-making process.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Significance of Meerut: Birthplace of India’s First War of Independence
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Meerut, 1857 Uprising
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The article highlights the historical significance of Meerut, a city in western Uttar Pradesh.
- Alamgirpur, the easternmost settlement of the Harappa civilization, is located in Meerut and has archaeological importance.
- However, Meerut gained fame for its role in India’s First War of Independence on May 10, 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny or Revolt.
Meerut: Historical origins and name
- Meerut has historical origins, possibly deriving its name from Mayarashtra, the capital of Mayasura, who was Ravana’s father-in-law.
- The archaeological site of Vidura-ka-tila, located northeast of Meerut, is believed to be the remains of Hastinapur, the ancient capital of the Kauravas and Pandavas from the Mahabharata.
- Meerut was ruled by the Scindias before being ceded to the British in 1803, which eventually paved the way for the British exit from India.
The 1857 Rebellion
- The rebellion in Meerut was sparked by the introduction of the Enfield rifle and the use of cartridges rumored to be greased with a mixture of cow and pig fat.
- Sepoys (Indian soldiers) who refused to use the cartridges were punished and stripped of their uniforms.
- This incident led to a rebellion among the sepoys and a call for the uprising against British rule.
Outbreak of the Mutiny
- On May 10, 1857, while the European residents of Meerut were attending church, the sound of musketry and columns of smoke signalled the revolt of the native troops.
- The sepoys, having revolted, marched towards Delhi, considering it the power center and the capital of Mughal India.
Meerut’s Significance
- Meerut played a crucial role in the Indian Mutiny, serving as the starting point for the rebellion that spread across the country.
- The mutiny in Meerut inspired and influenced the subsequent events of the uprising.
- D. Savarkar later referred to the Mutiny as the First War of Independence.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Babasaheb Ambedkar’s Contribution Towards Women’s Rights
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Women's' rights and reforms
Mains level: Babasaheb Ambedkar's Contribution Towards Women's Rights
Central Idea
- Babasaheb Ambedkar’s contribution towards women’s rights is often overlooked, and he needs to be recognized as a champion of social justice, a visionary, and a philosopher. He advocated for women’s equal participation in both personal and professional spheres, was instrumental in drafting legislation to protect women’s rights, and played a key role in reducing working hours and improving working conditions.
Ambedkar’s Advocacy for Women’s Rights
- Equal participation of women: Ambedkar advocated for equal participation of women in both personal and professional spheres. He was the first man to raise his voice against the unequal treatment of women in factories and other workplaces.
- No of legislations: Ambedkar drafted legislation such as the Mines Maternity Benefit Act, which demanded equal pay and equal rights for coal mine workers, ensuring that the question of maternity leave for women was brought up and they were protected under labor laws.
- Improving working conditions: He was instrumental in reducing working hours and improving working conditions.
- Reproductive rights of women: Ambedkar was a strong believer in the reproductive rights of women and urged them to make their own choices about conception.
Ambedkar’s Contribution to Women’s Rights
- Hindu Code Bill: Ambedkar’s most important contribution to the cause of women’s rights was the Hindu Code Bill, which revolutionized property and marriage practices and established laws of maintenance for women.
- Four acts, resulting from the Bill, were passed:
- The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, which gave women the right to divorce and maintenance;
- The Hindu Succession Act, 1956, which gave them the legal right to inherit property;
- The Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, 1956, which allowed women to legally adopt a child; and
- The Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act, 1956, which allowed women to be the natural guardian of their children.
- Pro-women Acts: The influence of these reforms led to other pro-women Acts such as the Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 and the Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961, which brightened the dark roads of women’s struggles.
Ambedkar’s Vision for Women’s Rights
- Women’s right to education: Ambedkar believed that education was crucial for the country’s progress and regularly spoke up for women’s right to education, defying the Manusmriti and the Dharmashastra.
- Targeted hierarchical social order: He targeted the hierarchical social order and condemned it for degrading women, and believed that endogamy was the root cause of caste consolidation.
- Caste system and atrocities on women: His 1917 paper, titled ‘Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development’ outlines how atrocities on women are rooted in the caste system.
- For instance: He denounced sati, child marriage, and the condemnation of widow remarriage, which were all meant to control women.
- Vision of equality: Ambedkar’s vision of equality despite caste, gender, race, and ethnicity differences is a pioneering thought of social justice.
Conclusion
- Ambedkar’s contribution towards women’s rights is often overlooked, and he needs to be recognized as a champion of social justice, a visionary, and a philosopher. His work to empower all sections of marginalized communities needs to be acknowledged, and his vision of equality despite caste, gender, race, and ethnicity differences is a pioneering thought of social justice. Women’s rights and their liberation are crucial for building a progressive society, and Ambedkar’s values and vision continue to guide feminist principles in India.
Mains Question
Q. Ambedkar’s contribution towards women’s rights is often overlooked. In this backdrop discuss his advocacy, contribution to Women’s Rights.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
NCERT’s Changes On Mughal History and Sparked Heated Debate
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: National educations policy, Importance of History
Central Idea
- The controversy over the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) reducing the content on Mughal history in the school curriculum has sparked a heated debate in the country. While some argue that this move is part of a larger agenda to erase the Mughal legacy, others believe that it is a necessary step towards reducing the burden on students and providing a more balanced approach to teaching Indian history.
NCERT’s changes
- The NCERT removed overlapping material from grades 6 to 12 to reduce the burden on students.
- Grade 12 has been designed around themes in Indian history. It is divided into three parts spanning over 2,000 years. One theme out of 12 focuses on Kings and Chronicles. It revolves around the significant policies that redefined the landscape and mindset of the people. Akbar’s policies feature in this theme in the rationalized syllabus as well.
- This is over and above the extensive coverage they get in the middle school curricula, at the cost of the exclusion of the rest. Mughals have been overrepresented in Indian history books and were an obvious area for right-sizing.
What NCERT has said on omitting chapters?
- Part of rationalisation process: According to NCERT director, Chapters on Mughals have not been dropped. There was a rationalisation process last year because due to COVID, there was pressure on students everywhere.
- Reducing the burden without affecting the knowledge: The expert committees examined the books from standards 6-12. They recommended that if some sections or this chapter is dropped, it won’t affect the knowledge of the children and an unnecessary burden can be removed.
- Transition towards National Education Policy (NEP): NCERT working as per NEP, 2020. This is a transition phase. NEP 2020 speaks of reducing the content load. NCF (National Curriculum Framework) for school education is being formed, it will be finalised soon. Textbooks will be printed in 2024 as per NEP.
Need for a balanced approach
- Purpose of studying Indian history: The purpose of studying Indian history should be to understand who we are and how we got here, by understanding the demography, culture, and practices of the various components of India over the last two-and-a-half millennia.
- Dive deep into all polities: This requires us to dive deep into all polities that have resided in the subcontinental region for significant periods.
- Mughal history is just one part: Mughal history is just one part of just one period (medieval) of Indian history, and there is a lot more to our history that needs attention.
Need for a more comprehensive approach
- Rich and long history: Indian history is too rich, long, and unwieldy for any curriculum to do justice.
- Children needs to have broader understanding: In the age of Wikipedia, we need to expose our children to the broad themes and grand sweep of history, create an understanding of their origins, and equip them with the tools and curiosity to read and research further as they grow.
- Step is in good direction: The current reorganization is a good step in that direction.
Conclusion
- The real debate should be how to teach 2,500 years of Indian history to children in an engaging and informative manner. Those quibbling over the current rearrangement lack both a perspective on the scale of Indian history and an understanding of the complexities of teaching it. They would be better served by picking up a few history books themselves.
Mains Question
Q. The national education policy speaks of reducing the content load and ensure the understanding in this light discuss the significance of teaching history of India in more rational and comprehensive manner.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Mahad Satyagraha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mahad Satyagraha
Mains level: Dalit movement
Central idea
- B.R. Ambedkar’s life was full of milestones, and he was the first Dalit to study at Elphinstone College in Bombay.
- He was also the chair of the drafting committee of the Constitution of India and became the first law minister of independent India.
- Moreover, he contributed significantly to the movement for Dalit emancipation, awakening Dalit consciousness and leading the community’s bid for political power.
Context of the Mahad Satyagraha
- The Mahad Satyagraha of 1927 was one of the earlier and most significant milestones in Ambedkar’s life.
- The events leading up to it began in August 1923, when the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution to allow the Untouchable classes to use all public water sources.
- Although the Bombay government adopted the resolution, the situation on the ground remained unchanged, with upper-caste Hindus still not allowing lower castes to access public water sources.
What happened at the Satyagraha?
- Ramchandra Babaji More, a Mahad-based Dalit political leader, approached Ambedkar to preside over a conference of the Untouchables in Konkan, and Ambedkar agreed.
- Around 2,500 delegates, workers, and leaders of Depressed Classes attended the conference, including boys of fifteen to old men of seventy.
- On the first day of the conference, progressive non-Dalit leaders addressed the attendees and promised to help them in their struggle.
- Ambedkar stressed creating “a wave of awakening” among the lower caste people of Konkan.
- After the day’s proceedings, Ambedkar and the other organizers and attendees marched to the nearby Chavadar tank the next morning, where people from untouchable communities were not allowed to draw water from.
- They implemented the resolution by picking up water with their cupped hands and drank it.
Key event: Burning of Manusmriti
- Despite the court injunction prohibiting Babasaheb and other Dalits from going to the tank or taking water from it until further orders, the Satyagraha was held on a much larger scale on December 26, 1927.
- Although most people wanted to go ahead, the Satyagraha was suspended on the advice of Ambedkar, and unlike the last time, no water was drawn from the Chavadar tank.
- Ambedkar and his followers burnt the Manusmriti, a powerful rejection of the caste system, for the first time in symbolic action.
Significance of the Satyagraha
- The Mahad Satyagraha is considered to be the “foundational event” of the Dalit movement.
- The community collectively displayed its resolve to reject the caste system and assert their human rights for the first time.
- It became the blueprint for organizing future movements against the caste system and its practices.
- It marked an important point in Ambedkar’s political journey, catapulting him to the leadership of the downtrodden and oppressed classes in the country.
Try this PYQ:
Which of the following parties were established by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar?
- The Peasants and Workers Party of India
- All India Scheduled Castes Federation
- The Independent Labour Party
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
India’s Philosophy Stand Out As A Beacon To The World
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India's philosophy and fundamentals
Mains level: India's philosophical heritage
Central Idea
- The philosophical underpinnings of India’s civilization are unique and powerful, and they empower India to withstand waves of invasions, natural calamities, and societal challenges. India’s worldview and approach towards human life make India stand out as a beacon to the world. However, many Indians remain ignorant of their own philosophical heritage, and building on these foundational values can serve as building blocks for India’s soft power.
The Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy
- Indian philosophy cannot be ascribed to any particular scripture.
- The fundamentals of the perceived philosophy of India have come from many scriptures, and the Indian approach is to let a thousand flowers bloom.
The Five Tenets that Make India Stand Out
India’s philosophy has at least five fundamental tenets that make it stand out: 1. Spiritual democracy, 2. Unity in diversity, 3. Confluence with nature, 4, antyodaya, and 5. vasudhaiva kutumbakam. These tenets reflect the teachings of sages and philosophers such as Gautama Buddha, Adi Shankara, and Guru Nanak.
- Spiritual Democracy: India rejects any monopolistic approach to ways of worship, and it welcomes diversity in ways of worship. This approach reflects the fundamental unity of all that exists, and sages call it by various names.
- Unity in Diversity: India’s unity is inherent in its diversity, and this diversity is our innate unity that manifests in myriad ways. India not only accommodates but also celebrates the pervasive diversity.
- Confluence with Nature: India does not aspire to conquer nature, but instead, it has a tradition of sincere and deepest gratitude towards nature. Many Indian traditions and rituals reflect this approach, and sustainability is a part of our philosophy of human life.
- Antyodaya: India’s unique concept of antyodaya puts the last man first. The most deprived are the most deserving when it comes to the distribution of the fruits of development. Antyodaya encompasses both social and economic justice and takes us beyond the binary of capitalism and socialism.
- Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: India has imagined the entire world as one family, where values like mutuality, sharing, and collectivism are given primacy. This approach nips in the bud all the uncalled-for apprehensions about ultra-nationalistic or jingoistic approaches.
India’s Philosophical Heritage Can Build on Its Soft Power
- India can build on its unique philosophical heritage, which can serve as building blocks of India’s soft power.
- India’s foundational values are needed now more than ever, as the global community faces conflicts and wars emanating from weird ideas of supremacy, oneupmanship, and monopolistic spirituality.
Conclusion
- India’s philosophy and approach towards human life and worldly concerns are unique and powerful, and they make India stand out as a beacon to the world. India’s soft power can build on its unique philosophical heritage, and India can use this to assert itself even in the most complex and unpredictable future. The key challenge is to establish that India is capable of walking the talk and using its philosophy to deal with societal challenges. Indian philosophy empowers us to handle the contemporary challenges, and it has gained India huge goodwill among the global community.
Mains Question
Q. India’s philosophy and approach towards human life and worldly concerns are unique and powerful, and they make India stand out as a beacon to the world. Discuss
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Vision Continues to Inspire Present Day Governance
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Check the knowledge box
Mains level: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's legacy and present day governance
Central idea
- The 132nd birth anniversary of B.R. Ambedkar is an occasion to recognize his ideas and actions which continue to inspire and guide the present and future generations.
B.R. Ambedkar’s Legacy
- R. Ambedkar was more than an individual, and his ideas and actions continue to illuminate the present and are a guiding light for the future.
- He epitomised the spirit of justice and stressed establishing institutions for a just society.
Ambedkar’s contribution to nation-building
- Multidimensional contribution: The centenary of Ambedkar’s work, The Problem of Rupee: Its Origin and its Solution, paved the foundation of the Reserve Bank of India in 1934. During that time, the country was trying to come out of the clutches of colonialism, and Ambedkar vigorously advocated for significant nation-building measures in a multidimensional manner.
- Tirelessly work to safeguarding the interests of the people: From his work on the Simon Commission to representing the Depressed Classes in the Round Table conferences and chairing the Constitution’s drafting committee, Ambedkar tirelessly worked towards safeguarding the interests of the people.
Quick knowledge box from civilsdaily: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s literary work
|
Literary Works |
Description |
| Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development | A paper presented by Ambedkar to an anthropology seminar at Columbia University, which discusses the caste system in India and its origins |
| The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution | A work that proposed a solution to the problem of currency fluctuations in India and paved the way for the establishment of the Reserve Bank of India |
| Annihilation of Caste | A speech delivered by Ambedkar that strongly criticized the caste system in Hindu society and advocated for its annihilation |
| What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables | A book that criticized the Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi for their treatment of the untouchables in India |
| States and Minorities | A book that analyzes the relationship between the majority and minority communities in India and argues for the protection of minority rights |
| The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables? | A book that traces the history of the untouchables in India and argues for their social and economic upliftment |
| Buddha and His Dhamma | A book that describes the life and teachings of the Buddha and how they can be applied to contemporary society |
| Who Were the Shudras? | A book that examines the origins and history of the Shudra caste in Hindu society |
Present government’s commitment to Ambedkar’s vision
- Ambedkar’s vision in planning and implementation: The present-day government led by PM Modi has been committed to adhering to Ambedkar’s vision from planning to implementation.
- People-centric policy measures: The government has taken steps towards the ease of life of citizens, such as the implementation of pro-poor and people-centric policy measures.
- For instance: Schemes such as Stand-Up India, Start-Up India, PM Awas Scheme, BHIM, Mudra, and JAM trinity, which show that the government is leaving no stone unturned to fulfill the assigned targets and ensure saturation-level implementation.
- Government’s efforts to preserve Ambedkar’s legacy: Government’s has adopted a sensitive approach towards preserving Ambedkar’s legacy. The National Research for Conservation of Cultural Property has preserved Ambedkar’s belongings for posterity, which will be showcased at the upcoming Dr B R Ambedkar Socio-Economic & Culture Centre. The Centre will serve as a sacred place highlighting glimpses of Ambedkar’s contribution to building the nation.
Ambedkar’s relevance to present-day India
- Panch Pran mantra: There are parallels between Ambedkar’s ideas and the Prime Minister’s Panch Pran mantra for making a developed India.
- Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav: Ambedkar believed that the constitutional ideals and social philosophy of liberty, equality, and fraternity have Indian cultural roots, and the government’s initiatives, such as Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, reflect this belief.
Conclusion
- India’s commitment to Ambedkar’s vision would have resulted in greater public welfare if earlier governments had accepted him in this manner. On Ambedkar’s 132nd birth anniversary, it is essential to recognize his legacy and commitment to establishing institutions for a just society. The legacy of B.R. Ambedkar is a guiding light for India, and his ideas and actions continue to inspire and provide a moral force for justice.
Mains Question
Q. Discuss the relevance of B.R. Ambedkar’s ideas to present-day India. How has the present government committed to adhering to Ambedkar’s vision in planning and implementation of policies?
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Teja Singh Sutantar: Remembering the revolutionary leader
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Teja Singh Sutantar
Mains level: NA
Punjab Chief Minister unveiled a statue of Teja Singh Sutantar, a former MP and revolutionary leader.
Teja Singh Sutantar
- Teja Singh was born as Samund Singh in 1901 in Aluna village of Gurdaspur district.
- After completing his schooling, he joined Khalsa College in Amritsar.
- Following the Jallianwala Bagh massacre in 1919, he joined the Akali Dal to participate in the movement to liberate gurdwaras from degenerate mahants.
- However, in September 1921, he formed his own squad called the Sutantar Jatha, which successfully liberated a gurdwara in a village called Teja in Gurdaspur district from the mahants.
- He later freed another gurdwara in Othian village from mahants.
Early life and revolutionary activities
- In early 1923, Teja Singh went to Kabul as a Sikh missionary and there he came into contact with a few leaders of the Ghadar Party, who were preparing for their second attempt to overthrow the British government.
- They persuaded Teja Singh to undergo military training, so he joined the Turkish military academy in 1925 under the pseudonym Azad Beg.
- He later moved to Berlin and then to Canada and the United States, where he addressed congregations of Indians, mainly Punjabi Sikh immigrants.
Political Career
- After visiting several countries, Teja Singh returned to India and became a prominent leader of the communist party (CPI).
- He contributed revolutionary articles to the party journal, the Kirti, frequently writing about issues that plagued peasants.
- In May 1937, he was elected unopposed to the Punjab Legislative Assembly as a nominee of the Indian National Congress while he was still in prison.
- He continued to remain a member of the Punjab Legislative Assembly till 1945.
- He was also the secretary of the Communist Party (Punjab) from 1944 to 1947.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
The Legend of Guru Tegh Bahadur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Tegh Bahadur
Mains level: Not Much
The Parkash Purab (birth anniversary) of Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs, was celebrated on April 11.
Who was Guru Tegh Bahadur?
- Guru Tegh Bahadur was born on April 1, 1621, in Amritsar, Punjab.
- He was the ninth Guru of the Sikhs and the son of Guru Hargobind, the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, and Mata Nanaki.
- His birth name was Tyag Mal, which means “master of renunciation.”
- He spent his early years in Amritsar and was trained in religious studies, martial arts, and horse riding.
- He was also trained in music and poetry, and he became a skilled poet and musician.
His teachings and beliefs
- Guru Tegh Bahadur’s teachings were based on the importance of meditation, self-discipline, and living a moral and ethical life.
- He believed in the idea of one God and the unity of all religions.
- His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- He emphasized the importance of serving others and treating everyone with respect and dignity, regardless of their religion or social status.
- He also believed in the principle of selfless service and encouraged his followers to help those in need.
Significance in Indian History
- Guru Tegh Bahadur played a crucial role in Sikh history by defending the religious freedom of Hindus against the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
- Aurangzeb was known for his intolerance towards non-Muslims and had imposed a tax on Hindu pilgrims visiting the holy city of Varanasi.
- When a group of Kashmiri Pandits approached Guru Tegh Bahadur for help, he decided to defend their right to practice their religion freely.
- He refused to convert to Islam despite facing torture and persecution, and was eventually executed by Aurangzeb in 1675.
- His martyrdom is remembered as a significant event in Indian history, and he is considered a hero and a martyr by Sikhs around the world.
His legacy
- His legacy continues to inspire Sikhs and people of all religions and backgrounds.
- His teachings and beliefs are an essential part of Sikhism today and are embodied in the Sikh scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib.
- He is remembered as a saint, scholar, and warrior who sacrificed his life to defend the rights of others.
- Many Gurudwaras (Sikh temples) around the world are dedicated to him, including the Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib in Delhi, where he was martyred.
- His martyrdom is commemorated each year on the occasion of Guru Tegh Bahadur’s Martyrdom Day, which is observed on December 19.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Formation story of Rajasthan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: States reorganization in India
Mains level: Post-independence consolidation
Rajasthan Day is celebrated on March 30, marking the day the state was created by unifying 22 princely states and chiefships. Rajasthan’s story of foundation is intriguing.
Formation of Rajasthan
- At the time of Independence, Rajasthan was almost wholly contained in the Rajputana Agency, a political office of the British Indian Empire.
- The Rajputana Agency consisted of 22 princely states and estates.
- Less than 22 months after Independence, all 22 had assimilated to form what would become India’s largest state.
- However, modifications were made to the boundaries after the State Reorganisation Act (1956), giving Rajasthan its present shape.
Challenges of Princely States
(1) Rajputana Agency
- The Rajputana Agency spanned roughly 330,330 sq. km, with an agent under the Governor-General in charge, residing at Mount Abu.
- All the princely states and estates in the agency (22 in total) were ruled by Hindu rulers with the exception of Tonk (which had a Muslim ruler).
(2) The Matsya Union
- The States Ministry believed that four princely states – Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, and Karauli – at the eastern edge of the erstwhile Rajputana Agency had “natural, racial and economic affinities” with each other.
- Thus, the Matsya Union was inaugurated on March 18, 1948.
(3) Rajasthan Union in South-East Rajputana
- Ten princely states, with Udaipur (also known as Mewar) being the largest, wanted to form a union.
- An idea to merge these into Madhya Bharat was also floated but did not go through.
- Another idea to merge these states into the much larger Udaipur was proposed by the Maharana of Udaipur, Bhupal Singh Bahadur.
- However, this was not agreeable to the other princely states. Hence, on March 25, 1948, the nine other states came together to form the Rajasthan Union.
- Within three days after its formation, Udaipur decided to join this union.
(4) Greater Rajasthan
- The four largest princely states – Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer – still remained independent.
- The alternative, backed by Patel, was to merge all four states into the newly formed Rajasthan Union.
- Greater Rajasthan was officially inaugurated by Patel on March 30, 1949 – the date still celebrated as Rajasthan Day.
Modifications by the State Reorganisation Commission
- The State Reorganisation Commission (SRC) was formed in 1953 to recommend new state boundaries to the government, in response to demands for states based on linguistic lines.
- The SRC’s recommendations, with some modifications, were implemented in the State Reorganisation Act of November 1, 1956.
- For Rajasthan, this brought some minor changes, including the integration of Ajmer as a district within Rajasthan, given its linguistic, cultural, and geographical links to the state.
- Abu Road Taluk, a taluk of the Sirohi district of southern Rajasthan, was also integrated into Rajasthan after being sliced and included in the Bombay State.
- The enclave of Sunel in Rajasthan’s southeastern edge was received from Madhya Pradesh in exchange for the enclave of Sironj, due to administrative reasons.
Conclusion
- Overall, the state of Rajasthan was created through a complex process of merger and integration of various princely states and chiefships.
- Today, Rajasthan is the largest state in India in terms of land area, covering 342,239 square kilometers, and is known for its rich cultural heritage, majestic forts and palaces, vibrant festivals, and diverse cuisine that attract visitors from all over the world.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Vaikom: A Symbol of Social Justice and Eradication of Caste Barriers
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vaikom Satyagraha
Mains level: Vaikom Movement, Periyar's significant role and legacy of the movement
Central Idea
- Vaikom is a town in Kerala, India, that became a symbol of social justice due to the temple entry movement launched in 1924, aiming to end the prohibition imposed on backward communities in using the roads around the Vaikom Mahadeva temple. The Kerala government has organized various cultural events to commemorate the movement and its significance in the state’s history. Tamil Nadu also observes the occasion, as announced by Chief Minister M.K. Stalin, recognizing the role of Tamil leaders like Periyar E.V. Ramasamy in the movement’s success.
All you need to know about Vaikom Satyagraha
- Objective:
- The primary goal was to end the prohibition on backward communities from using the roads surrounding the Vaikom Mahadeva temple, which symbolized the caste-based discrimination prevalent in society.
- The movement sought to create a more inclusive society where people from all castes could access public spaces and religious sites without discrimination.
- Leaders:
- Kerala:K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon, and George Joseph were prominent leaders from Kerala who initiated and guided the movement.
- Tamilnadu: Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, then president of the Tamil Nadu Congress, played a crucial role in sustaining the movement and leading it to success.
- Mahatma Gandhi: Mahatma Gandhi advised the movement leaders and helped in negotiating between the government, protesters, and orthodox Hindus.
- Significance:
- Social equality and justice: The Vaikom Satyagraha was a groundbreaking non-violent protest that fought for social equality and justice, challenging the caste system in India.
- Temple entry: The movement’s success paved the way for the temple entry proclamation of Kerala in 1936, which granted lower caste individuals the right to enter temples.
- Fight against caste barriers: The Vaikom Satyagraha remains a symbol of the fight against caste barriers in India and the struggle for social justice.
- Challenges and Hurdles:
- The movement faced repressive action from the government and the administration, with many protesters and leaders arrested during the course of the protest.
- Orthodox Hindu traditionalists organized counter rallies marked by violence, aiming to suppress the movement and maintain the status quo.
- Outcome and Legacy:
- The movement spanned 603 days, witnessing many significant events.
- The Travancore princely state government eventually granted access to three of the four streets around the Vaikom temple, signaling the end of the protest.
- The Vaikom Satyagraha continues to inspire the fight for equality and justice in India, serving as a reminder of the importance of challenging caste-based discrimination.
Periyar’s Role and the Movement’s Progress
- Periyar E.V. Ramasamy played a significant role in leading the protest, earning him the title Vaikom Veerar (Hero of Vaikom).
- The movement was marked by day-to-day protests, arrests, inquiries, jail terms, and agitations.
- People from various communities participated in the movement, including the Akalis from Punjab, who traveled to Vaikom to supply food to the protesters.
Facts for prelims: Vaikom Satyagraha
| Aspect | Details |
| Time Period | March 30, 1924 – November 23, 1925 |
| Objective | End caste-based discrimination; Allow backward communities access to roads around Vaikom Mahadeva temple |
| Key Leaders | T.K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon, George Joseph, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, Mahatma Gandhi |
| Significance | Paved the way for temple entry proclamation of Kerala in 1936; Symbol of fight against caste barriers |
| Challenges and Hurdles | Repressive action from government and administration; Opposition from orthodox Hindu traditionalists |
| Outcome and Legacy | Access granted to three of the four streets around the Vaikom temple; Inspired continued fight for equality |
| Commemoration | Cultural events organized by the Kerala government; Observations in Tamil Nadu to recognize Tamil leaders’ role |
Conclusion
- Vaikom is not just a name of a town but a symbol of social justice and the eradication of caste barriers. It is a significant part of the history of the social justice movement in India and continues to inspire the fight for equality and justice.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Dalai Lama’s Succession and Chinese Intervention
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dalai Lama
Mains level: Not Much
The Dalai Lama has named a US-born Mongolian boy as the tenth Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa, the head of the Janang tradition of Tibetan Buddhism and the Buddhist spiritual head of Mongolia.
Do you know?
“Rinpoche” is a title used in Tibetan Buddhism, which is given to a highly respected teacher or lama. It literally means “precious one” and is used to indicate respect and reverence for the person. The title is often given to senior lamas or to those who are considered to be reincarnations of past masters.
Who is the Dalai Lama?
- The Dalai Lama (a title) is the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism.
- He is believed to be the reincarnation of the previous Dalai Lama and is regarded as an important figure not only in Tibet but also around the world.
- The Dalai Lama is traditionally both the political and spiritual leader of Tibet, but after China’s occupation of Tibet in 1950, he went into exile in India and since then has been primarily a spiritual leader.
- The current and 14th Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, who was born in Tibet in 1935 and has been in exile in India since 1959.
Brief Outline of Tibetan Buddhism
- Tibetan Buddhism became the predominant religion in Tibet by the 9th century AD, evolving from the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism and incorporating many tantric and shamanic practices.
- It has four major schools: Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug, with the Janang school being one of the smaller schools that grew as an offshoot of the Sakya School.
- Since 1640, the Gelug School has been the predominant school of Tibetan Buddhism, and the Dalai Lama belongs to this school.
Hierarchy and Reincarnation in the Tibetan Buddhist Tradition
- The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is one of Buddhism’s key beliefs.
- Tibet’s hierarchical system seemingly emerged in the 13th century, and it was around this time that the first instances of “formally recognizing the reincarnations of lamas” can be found.
- The Gelug School developed a strong hierarchy and instituted the tradition of succession through reincarnation, with the fifth Grand Lama of the school being conferred the title of Dalai Lama.
- Several procedures/tests are followed to recognize Tulkus (recognized reincarnations).
Key issue: Chinese interference
- The announcement of the boy’s reincarnation has brought attention back to the larger question of the 14th Dalai Lama’s own reincarnation.
- The issue of his reincarnation has deep ramifications on international politics, with China seeking to control the succession and take control over Tibet in the cultural sphere.
What lies ahead?
- The question of the Dalai Lama’s reincarnation is set to continue for the foreseeable future.
- The Dalai Lama himself has not provided a definitive answer regarding what will happen, although he has suggested that there may be no Dalai Lama after him.
- The question of his reincarnation continues to hold great political implications due to his symbolic authority and importance to millions of Tibetans across the world.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
The Contested Legacy of Tipu Sultan and the Politicization of Historical Scholarship
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tipu Sultan
Mains level: Historical significance of Tipu Sultan
Central Idea
- Tipu Sultan, a historical figure who continues to fascinate people even today, had a powerful hold on the imaginations of the British during his reign. His afterlife in India has been more mixed, with conflicting views and interpretations from different communities and stakeholders. However, in the currently overheated State of Karnataka, the province of the historian has severely shrunk, yielding place to politicians and religious heads who now adjudicate historical truth.
Who was Tipu Sultan?
- Tipu was the son of Haider Ali, a professional soldier who climbed the ranks in the army of the Wodeyar king of Mysore, and ultimately took power in 1761.
- Tipu was born in 1750 and, as a 17-year-old, fought in the first Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) and subsequently, against the Marathas and in the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84).
- Haider died while this war was on, and Tipu succeeded him in 1782
Tipu Sultan’s portrayal in England
- During his reign, Tipu Sultan was feared and envied by the British, who portrayed him as a formidable foe and used him as a metaphor in multiple art objects, skits, and plays.
- The pictorial versions of his defeat and death satisfied a very British need, asserting a badly dented British valour following decades of Mysore opposition to easy conquest.
Tipu Sultan’s afterlife in India
- Contested legacy: In 19th century Mysore, Tipu was admired for his firm stand against the British and for his efforts to prohibit the use of alcohol and drugs. However, in Karnataka today, the only story that can be told about Tipu is of his villainy and his opposition to Kannada and Hindus (and some Christians) alike.
- Politicization and suppression of viewpoints: The politicization of historical scholarship has resulted in conflicting interpretations and the suppression of certain viewpoints.
Admiration for Tipu Sultan
- Resistance against British colonialism: Tipu Sultan was known for his resistance against British colonialism and fought against the British East India Company in four Anglo-Mysore wars. He refused to accept British supremacy and formed alliances with the French to fight against them. His bravery and military tactics are admired by many.
- Agricultural and economic reforms: Tipu implemented several agricultural and economic reforms in his kingdom, including the introduction of new crops, irrigation systems, and the construction of roads and canals. These reforms helped to improve the agricultural productivity and the overall economic condition of his kingdom.
- Support for the arts and culture: He was a patron of the arts and culture and supported the development of literature, music, and architecture. He was known for his love for poetry and encouraged the development of the Urdu language.
- Use of new military tactics: Tipu Sultan is credited with pioneering new military tactics, including the use of rockets and iron-cased warships. His use of rockets in particular gave him an advantage over the British, who were initially unprepared for his tactics.
- Promotion of religious tolerance: Tipu Sultan abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted interfaith dialogue and understanding. He had a diverse court that included Hindus, Muslims, and Christians, and he was known for his tolerance towards other religions.
Criticism of Tipu Sultan
- Religious policies: Tipu Sultan’s religious policies have been a subject of criticism, with some accusing him of being intolerant towards non-Muslims. He was known for his forced conversions of Hindus and Christians to Islam and the destruction of temples and churches. The destruction of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangapatna, which is said to be carried out on Tipu Sultan’s orders.
- Treatment of prisoners of war: Tipu Sultan has been criticized for his treatment of prisoners of war, especially during the Third Anglo-Mysore war when he ordered the execution of several British prisoners.
- Oppression of certain communities: Tipu Sultan’s oppression of certain communities, including the Kodava people of Coorg and the Nairs of Kerala, has been a subject of criticism. He imposed heavy taxes on these communities and forced them to convert to Islam.
- Suppression of dissent: Tipu Sultan is known to have punished those who spoke out against his rule, including writers and poets. One example of this is the punishment of the poet Diwan Kurnool Srinivas, who was imprisoned and tortured for writing a satirical poem about Tipu Sultan’s rule.
|
Facts for Prelims
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Conclusion
- The contested legacy of Tipu Sultan highlights the importance of protecting historical scholarship from politicization and using it to promote understanding and dialogue instead of being weaponized for narrow political gains. The conflicting views and interpretations of Tipu Sultan’s legacy demonstrate the need for a nuanced and multi-perspective approach to history.
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Places in news: Sharda Peeth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sharda Peeth
Mains level: Not Much
Home Minister said that the government will move forward to open Sharda Peeth on the lines of the Kartarpur corridor.
Why in news?
- Activists request that the Sharda Peeth corridor should be made operational on the lines of Nankana Sahib Gurudwaras and the Kartarpur corridor in Pakistan.
Sharda Peeth
- Sharda Peeth is a Hindu temple located in the Neelam Valley in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
- It is considered one of the 18 Maha Shakti Peethas, or major shrines, of the Hindu goddess Shakti.
- The temple is an important pilgrimage site for Hindus, particularly those from the Kashmir Valley.
History and Significance
- The temple is believed to have been established in the 6th century CE by Adi Shankaracharya, a famous Hindu philosopher and saint.
- Sharda Peeth became an important center of learning and scholarship during the medieval period, attracting scholars from all over India and even from as far as Central Asia.
- The temple was destroyed several times by invading armies and underwent major renovations and restorations under various rulers over the centuries.
- The temple’s importance declined during the colonial period and it fell into disrepair in the years following India’s partition in 1947.
Current rundown state and Controversy
- Sharda Peeth is now located in a remote and inaccessible part of Pakistan-administered Kashmir and has become a subject of political and religious controversy.
- The Indian government has long sought to open a pilgrimage corridor to Sharda Peeth for Hindu devotees, but this has been complicated by the ongoing conflict and tension between India and Pakistan over Kashmir.
- In recent years, there have been calls for the temple to be handed over to India or for it to be converted into a museum that can be visited by people from both sides of the border.
Significance in Kashmiri Identity
- Sharda Peeth is an important part of Kashmiri Hindu identity and culture, and its restoration and revival have been a longstanding demand of the community.
- Some Kashmiri Pandits view the temple as a symbol of their lost homeland and argue that its restoration would be a step towards reclaiming their cultural and religious heritage.
- Others, however, caution against politicizing the temple and argue that it should be seen as a shared heritage of all Kashmiris, regardless of their religious or political affiliations.
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The Decolonization Drive: Monuments of National Importance Reflects Bharat’s history
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Monuments of National Importance
Mains level: Monuments of National Importance, Shedding the colonial legacy, Promoting India's rich heritage rationally
Central Idea
- The decolonization drive started by the present government in India to change the British mindset of those responsible for writing history books, which led to the neglect of important monuments and archaeological sites. The Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance, which he sees as a significant step in the right direction for the preservation and designation of monuments that reflect Bharat’s history. There are some anomalies in the list of monuments of national importance and suggests changes in the way India looks at the preservation of monuments.
What are the recommendations given by the report?
- Rationalise and evolve criteria for India’s list of monuments: The report underlined the urgent need to rationalise India’s list of monuments of national importance and recommended that the ASI should evolve substantive criteria and a detailed procedure for declaring monuments to be of national importance.
- Book of detailed information: ASI should publish a book of notifications with detailed information about each MNI’s provenance, hand over protection and upkeep of monuments of local importance to respective states and denotify to the extent possible, all standalone antiquities like cannons and statues.
- Funds: Allocation of funds for the preservation of MNI should be increased and ASI should retain the proceeds generated from revenue streams like tickets, events, fees and other sources.
Neglect of Monuments and Archaeological Sites in Post-Independence India
- Inadequate efforts: After India’s independence, little effort was made to correct the British mindset of those responsible for writing history books, which resulted in the neglect of monuments and archaeological sites.
- British view of India: History books continued to teach the history of India’s defeats and its enemies’ victories, which perpetuated the British view of India.
The Decolonization Drive under the present Government
- National Heroes: The present government led by PM Modi started the decolonisation drive to bring out the sagas of King Suheldev, Rani Durgavati, and Lachit Barphukan, among others.
- For example: The government highlighted the story of the founder-king of Delhi, Anangpal Tomar, and declared the neglected Anang Tal as a monument of national importance.
- Names, sites, insignia of national importance: The government also held national and international events at the Sindhu-Saraswati site of Dholavira and unveiled a new Shivaji-era inspired naval insignia.
Significance of this Report
- The Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance is a significant step in the right direction.
- The report will bring a whiff of fresh thinking in the direction of preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history.
- All the recommendations made by the report can be implemented without amending the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act and need only executive orders.
Anomalies in the List of Monuments of National Importance
- There are some anomalies in the list of monuments of national importance.
- There is not a single monument connected with the struggles of Dalits and B R Ambedkar’s life that has been declared a national monument.
- Some monuments, like Tota-Maina ki Qabar and Dadi Poti ka Gumbad, have no history, and nobody knows whether they should be declared as Monuments of National Importance.
- Therefore, all agencies working on monuments be unshackled from the British slave mindset and given into the hands of those who know their subject.
Conclusion
- There is hope that the Bibek Debroy-Sanjeev Sanyal report will bring a whiff of fresh thinking in the direction of preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history. There is the need for an Archaeological Foundation to preserve the civilizational and revolutionary monuments of India.
Mains Question
Q. Discuss the recommendations given by the Economic Advisory Council’s report on Monuments of National Importance and its significance in preserving and designating monuments that reflect Bharat’s history.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who were Alluri Sitharama Raju and Komaram Bheem?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Alluri Sitharama Raju and Komaram Bheem
Mains level: Not Much
A Telugu movie with its story and characters rooted in the lives of Indian freedom fighters Alluri Sitharama Raju and Komaram Bheem is garnering attention on the global stage.
Who was Alluri Sitharama Raju?
- Raju is believed to have been born in Andhra Pradesh in 1897 or 1898.
- He is said to have become a sanyasi at the age of 18 and gained a mystical aura among the hill and tribal peoples with his austerity, knowledge of astrology and medicine, and his ability to tame wild animals.
- At a very young age, Raju channelled the discontent of the hill people in Ganjam, Visakhapatnam, and Godavari into an effective guerrilla resistance against the British.
Advent into revolutionary activities
- Colonial rule threatened the tribals’ traditional podu (shifting) cultivation, as the government sought to secure forest lands.
- The Forest Act of 1882 banned the collection of minor forest produce such as roots and leaves, and tribal people were forced into labour by the colonial government.
- While the tribals were subjected to exploitation by muttadars, village headmen commissioned by the colonial government to extract rent, the new laws and systems threatened their way of life itself.
- Strong anti-government sentiment, shared by the muttadars who were aggrieved by the curtailment of their powers by the British, exploded into armed resistance in August 1922.
Contribution to freedom struggle
- The Rampa or Manyam Rebellion continued in the form of a guerrilla war until May 1924, when Raju, the charismatic ‘Manyam Veerudu’ or Hero of Jungle, was finally captured and executed.
- The Rampa Rebellion coincided with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Raju often talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
- But at the same time, he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.
Who was Alluri Sitharama Raju?
- Raju is believed to have been born in Andhra Pradesh in 1897 or 1898.
- He is said to have become a sanyasi at the age of 18 and gained a mystical aura among the hill and tribal peoples with his austerity, knowledge of astrology and medicine, and his ability to tame wild animals.
- At a very young age, Raju channelled the discontent of the hill people in Ganjam, Visakhapatnam, and Godavari into an effective guerrilla resistance against the British.
Advent into revolutionary activities
- Colonial rule threatened the tribals’ traditional podu (shifting) cultivation, as the government sought to secure forest lands.
- The Forest Act of 1882 banned the collection of minor forest produce such as roots and leaves, and tribal people were forced into labour by the colonial government.
- While the tribals were subjected to exploitation by muttadars, village headmen commissioned by the colonial government to extract rent, the new laws and systems threatened their way of life itself.
- Strong anti-government sentiment, shared by the muttadars who were aggrieved by the curtailment of their powers by the British, exploded into armed resistance in August 1922.
Contribution to freedom struggle
- The Rampa or Manyam Rebellion continued in the form of a guerrilla war until May 1924, when Raju, the charismatic ‘Manyam Veerudu’ or Hero of Jungle, was finally captured and executed.
- The Rampa Rebellion coincided with Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Raju often talked of the greatness of Mahatma Gandhi, said he was inspired by the Non-Cooperation Movement, and persuaded people to wear khadi and give up drinking.
- But at the same time, he asserted that India could be liberated only by the use of force, not non-violence.
And who was Komaram Bheem?
- Komram Bheem was born in the Gond tribal community at Sankepally village in Komarambheem District, which was renamed after him in 2016.
- Bheem’s family’s land was occupied by a jagirdar who was an informer of the Nizam, which led to him killing the jagirdar in a fit of rage.
- To avoid authorities, he went to Assam and worked as a labourer in coffee and tea plantations for five years.
- Despite being illiterate, Bheem learned to read and write and became aware of movements like Birsa Munda’s.
Resistance against the Nizam government
- The Nizam government collected taxes in the name of “Bambram” and “Dupapetti” from people grazing cattle and collecting firewood for cooking.
- Bheem spread the message of “Jal, Jangal, Zameen” among tribal people in opposition to this tax collection.
- He trained tribal people to fight with weapons, and villages in Adilabad were ready with the help of a guerrilla army composed of Gond and Koya communities’ men.
Death and legacy
- Despite their efforts, Nizam’s army overwhelmed the tribal resistance.
- Bheem died at their hands in the Jodeghat forest.
- Bheem’s message of “Jal, Jangal, Zameen” has become a clarion call for indigenous people’s rights to natural resources, used in many parts of India to date.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Women’s Role In Constitution Building
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Constituent assembly
Mains level: Women participation in constituent assembly
Central idea
- The process of drafting our Constitution during Partition and after a long period of colonization was a magnificent and dynamic process. Despite being part of the Assembly, voices and contributions of women have been neglected and overshadowed. The riveting work by Achyut Chetan,” The Founding Mothers of the Republic” published by Cambridge University Press in 2022 serves as a means of rectifying this historical omission and giving due credit to the women who played a crucial role in shaping India’s democracy.
Women In constitutional Assembly
- When the Constitution was completed, there were 11 women members of the Constituent Assembly who signed onto it.
- These drafters were G Durgabai, Ammu Swaminathan, Amrit Kaur, Dakshayani Velayudhan, Hansa Mehta, Renuka Ray, Sucheta Kripalani, Purnima Banerjee, Begum Qudsiya Aizaz Rasul, Kamala Chaudhri and Annie Mascarene.
- The Constituent Assembly first met on December 11, 1946 and had 169 sessions before all its members signed the document on January 24, 1950
How do we know what happened in the Constituent Assembly?
- Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD) is the only source: A rich but by no means the only source is the 12 volumes of the Constituent Assembly Debates (CAD), consisting of speeches made by members and the amendments to the draft articles.
- CAD misses no. of reports and notes pf various committes: However, what the CAD does not have are the reports and notes of the various committees of the CA.
- For instance: Much groundbreaking work was done in the Advisory Committee (chaired by Vallabhbhai Patel), which in turn had two sub-committees the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and the Minorities Sub-Committee.
Role of Women in the constituent assembly
- Hansa Mehta and Amrit kaur: Hansa Mehta and Amrit Kaur were on the Advisory Committee, with both being members of the Fundamental Rights Sub Committee and Kaur serving also on the Minorities Sub-Committee.
- G Durgabai: G Durgabai occupied effective positions on two important committees on procedural affairs The Steering Committee and the Rules Committee.
- Women were highly active: Women members were present and highly active on almost all significant committees and subcommittees.
- Women members often faced disrespect and discrimination: For instance, Renuka Ray opposed the clause on the Right to Property which put the compensation given within the purview of courts. During the debates on the floor of the Assembly too she was constantly interrupted and heckled even by the men of the eminence and tried to deride their amendments
- Women members made their opinions known and stood firm: In the settings of the committees they wrote notes of dissent, Amrit Kaur and Hansa Mehta wrote notes of dissent against decisions that relegated the uniform civil code to the non-justiciable rights, allowed the state to impose conscription for compulsory military service, at each stage when the committees made their official recommendations to the higher bodies of the Assembly
For Instance: Views of Dakshayani Velayudhan on reservation
- Dakshayani Velayudhan, the only woman member from the Scheduled Castes communities, argued against reservations.
- She refused by saying “to believe that 70 million Harijans are to be considered as a minority and argued that reservations would not be in the best interests of them.
- She also argued that “the working of the Constitution will depend upon how the people will conduct themselves in the future, not on the actual execution of the law. When this Constitution is put into practice, what we want is not to punish the people for acting against the law, but for the state to take on the task of educating citizens for a transformation.”
The present status of Women representation in politics worldwide
- Representative governments increased but women count remains low: According to UN Women, as of September 2022, there were 30 women serving as elected heads of state and/or of government in 28 countries (out of a total of 193 UN member states).
- Dichotomy in active participation: There is the dichotomy between the rapid increase of women’s participation as voters in elections and other political activities, and the slow rise of female representation in Parliament.
- Global average women representation: As of May 2022, the global average of female representation in national parliaments was 26.2 percent.
- Above average representation: The Americas, Europe, and Sub-Saharan Africa have women’s representation above the global average;
- Below average representation: Asia, the Pacific region, and the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) region, are below average.
- Varied representation within Asian countries:
- The South Asian countries faring worse than the others.
- IPU data of May 2022 showed that women’s representation in Nepal, for example, was 34 percent, in Bangladesh 21 percent, in Pakistan 20 percent, in Bhutan 17 percent and in Sri Lanka 5 percent.
- For India, women’s representation in the Lok Sabha (the Lower House) has remained slightly below 15 percent.
- The study does not include Afghanistan, but World Bank data of 2021 stated that female representation in the country’s last parliament was 27 percent.
Conclusion
- As we approach 75 years of our Constitution, it’s time for scholars, teachers, students, lawyers, judges and all others who engage with our constitution-making efforts to look to sources that tell a more complete story of our drafters. The quiet women and the more visible men should both be recalled, for their roles and their contributions. That would be an accurate telling of how our founding document came to be.
Mains Question
Q. The role of women in constitution making has often been neglected. In light of this illustrate the participation of women during India’s constitution making process.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Tipu Sultan’s Contested Legacy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tipu Sultan
Mains level: His legacy
Central idea: The article examines the controversial nature of Tipu Sultan’s legacy and the differing opinions about his reign and his place in Indian history. It discusses the contrasting views of Tipu Sultan as a hero and patriot who fought against British colonialism, or as a tyrant who persecuted Hindus and Christians.
Rise of Tipu Sultan
- Tipu Sultan was born on November 10, 1750, in Devanahalli, present-day Bangalore.
- His father was Hyder Ali, who rose through the ranks of the army of the Wodeyars, the Hindu rulers of Mysore.
Rise to power
- Hyder Ali seized power from the Wodeyars in 1761 and ruled for 20 years, a period in which the kingdom of Mysore had slowly expanded by capturing disputed areas at its borders.
- During this time, Tipu was educated in both matters of statecraft and warcraft, participating in his first battle at the age of only 15.
- When Hyder Ali died in 1782, Tipu’s primary motivation was to consolidate the territory he had inherited from his father.
- Specifically, the rebellious provinces of Malabar, Kodagu, and Bednur, were crucial to Mysore’s strategic and economic interests.
- His rule in these areas is what is often cited as proof of his bigotry and authoritarianism.
Contribution to freedom struggle
- In the course of India’s freedom struggle, Tipu Sultan became a symbol of resistance against British rule.
- His death while defending his fortress of Srirangaptna against British armies in 1799 was valorised as the ultimate sacrifice for the motherland.
Reforms carried out by Tipu
Administrative reforms
- Tipu Sultan also pioneered administrative and economic reforms.
- He introduced new coins, started a new land revenue system in Mysore, as well as introduced sericulture or silkworm cultivation, which continues to employ many Kannadigas to date.
- Furthermore, some claim that upon hearing of the plight of lower caste women who were not allowed to wear blouses, Tipu personally supplied them with cloth.
Modernization of weaponry: Advent of Rockets
- Tipu is credited for the introduction of iron-cased rockets in warfare.
- While rocket-like weapons had previously been used in War, Tipu’s army used what can be termed as the first modern war rockets in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
- These rockets were used to devastating effects against much larger British armies, driving them to panic and disarray.
- The British used Tipu’s models for their own rockets, which would go on to play an important role in the Napoleonic Wars.
Scientific temper
- Tipu’s fascination with European culture was a result of what he saw while fighting Europeans.
- Tipu wanted Mysore to be a modern rival of the European powers and made investments in technology accordingly.
Why is Tipu branded as a tyrant?
- Warfare in Tipu’s time was brutal and those who rebelled were dealt with an iron fist. It was common practice to set strong examples to forestall future opposition.
- The punishments Tipu applied to rebels or conspirators included forced conversion and the transfer of people from their home territories to Mysore.
- The forced removals occurred from both Kodagu and Malabar, the former as a response to continued resistance against Mysore rule– as a result of their resistance and perceived treachery in the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
- The right’s narrative of Tipu’s bigotry emphasizes Tipu’s militarism as well as his perceived attacks on “Hindu” rulers and subjects.
Historian’s justification of Tipu’s actions
- Tipu’s actions are questionable by today’s standards, they were commonplace in the 18th century among rulers of all faiths.
- He was a tyrant, but his motivations were not necessarily religious zealotry.
- Rather, he was a pragmatist who ruled within the accepted conventions of kingship and warfare at the time.
- He undoubtedly ordered forced conversions in areas he annexed, Tipu also patronized various temples and Hindu shrines, including the Sri Ranganatha temple at Srirangapatna and the Math in Sringeri.
- Both these actions were to solidify his position as a ruler — the former to crush dissidents and the latter to gain legitimacy among his largely Hindu subjects.
Tipu’s legacy: looking at the past from the prism of the present
- Today, there has been an increased spotlight on his autocratic tendencies and brutal repression in annexed territories, with an increased emphasis on his religion.
- Both portrayals fall short, missing the complexity of Tipu’s character and material circumstances.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Anti-encroachment drive in historic city of Mehrauli
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mehrauli
Mains level: History of Delhi
The Delhi Development Authority (DDA) carried out an anti-encroachment drive in the nearby villages of Mehrauli and Ladha Sarai leaving hundreds of families in uncertainty about their future.
History of Delhi
- Purani Dilli, commonly referred to as Old Delhi, is a misnomer as the city’s history dates back to before the establishment of Shahjahanabad.
- The oldest evidence of habitation in Delhi, dating back to the Iron Age (around 1100-800 BC), is the painted grey ware fragments found in Purana Quila.
- Historians recognize seven cities of Delhi, from the 11th century onwards, namely Lalkot/Quila Rai Pithora/Mehrauli, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Firozabad, Shergarh (Old Fort), Shahjahanabad, and New Delhi.
- However, depending on what is considered a city, this number can be as high as 11.
In focus: City of Mehrauli
- Mehrauli is widely considered to be the oldest ‘city’ of Delhi and is the oldest area of the metropolis to be continuously inhabited.
- It was first built by a ruler called Anangpal II in the 11th century, and it was called Lalkot.
- Later, it was known as ‘Quila Rai Pithora’ and was fortified by the Chauhans.
- The Mamluk dynasty took control of the city in 1192, and Qutubudin Aibak, the first ruler of the dynasty, built the Qutub Minar and the Quwwat-al-Islam mosque (oldest mosque in North India).
- In the following century, more buildings like tombs, step wells, palaces, and fortifications were constructed during the reigns of Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, and Alauddin Khilji.
Continued relevance and inhabitation
- Even as the newer cities came up and the seat of power shifted northwards, Mehrauli witnessed building activity as late as the Mughal and British periods.
- Due to its location on the lap of the Aravallis hills, the area was preferred as a summer retreat.
- Two Mughal summer palaces (Zafar Mahal and Jahaz Mahal) and a summer abode of Sir Thomas Metcalfe (Dilkhusha) are situated here.
- Mehrauli lay on a historic trade route, as the number of sarais (Ladho Sarai, Ber Sarai, Neb Sarai) around the area would suggest. A sarai was a resthouse for weary travellers.
Cultural significance of Mehrauli
- Mehrauli is also a spiritual centre. Sufi saint Hazrat Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (1173 -1235 AD) was buried in the city and his dargah remains popular till date, across religious lines.
- Some historians cite the dargah as a reason for the city surviving the test of time – despite power shifting elsewhere, the dargah remained a revered destination for pilgrims far and wide.
- Another spiritual centre for the community is the Yogmaya mandir, believed to be one of the oldest in the city.
- Yoginis (semi-divine deities) have been an integral part of Indian folklore and this temple dedicated to them is believed to have been constructed by the Pandavas.
How it ended up in encroachments?
- Like much of the rest of Delhi, the Partition brought many changes to Mehrauli too.
- Many refugees from the West found sanctuary here. The city has also seen sectarian tensions.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
India’s first Law Minister Dr. Ambedkar’s resignation letter missing from records
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: Social reforms stipulated by Dr. Ambedkar
Dr. BR Ambedkar was India’s first Law Minister after independence. The letter of his resignation is now missing from official records.
Dr Ambedkar as Law Minister
- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as Independent India’s first law minister.
- He was an Indian jurist, economist, politician, and social reforme, who was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1990.
- It is believed that Sardar Patel and Mahatma Gandhi proposed Dr. Ambedkar’s name for the post of Law Minister in the Nehru Cabinet.
Why was he selected for the post?
- Being father of our Constitution: Sardar Patel, then deputy PM, had a high regard for Dr. Ambedkar’s intellectual abilities and his contributions to the drafting of India’s Constitution.
- Political urge for inclusivity: Additionally, Dr. Ambedkar’s role in the Dalit movement and his fight against caste discrimination also made him a significant political figure.
- Representation of the marginalized: His appointment as the Law Minister was seen as a symbol of inclusivity and representation of marginalized communities in the government.
Why did Dr. Ambedkar resign?
- Political differences with Nehru: He resigned as Law Minister, due to differences with the then PM, Jawaharlal Nehru, over the Hindu Code Bill. He specifically wanted to reform Hindu Personal Laws and not every personal laws in India.
- Row over reforming Personal Laws: The bill aimed to reform Hindu personal laws related to marriage, divorce, and inheritance, but Dr. Ambedkar believed that it did not go far enough in granting women’s rights and wanted more radical changes.
- Injustice to women: Ambedkar had proposed a more comprehensive set of reforms that would have given women greater rights in matters such as property ownership and inheritance, but his proposals were met with resistance from Nehru and other members of the government.
Efforts to locate his resignation letter
- The letter was not found in the National Archives of India and the Ministry of Home Affairs.
- The Maharashtra government has also been unable to locate the letter in its archives.
- RTI (Right to Information) requests were also unsuccessful.
Significance of his letter
- The missing letter is a matter of concern as it is an important historical document.
- Ambedkar’s resignation was a significant event in India’s political history and the reasons behind it are still relevant today.
- The letter could shed light on the differences between the visionary Dr. Ambedkar and then mainstream politicians.
India’s first Provisional Government (Constitutionally)
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Note: Azad Hind was not India’s first provisional government. The credit for establishing that – formally known as the ”Hukumat-i-Moktar-i-Hind” – in Kabul on 1st Dec, 1915, goes to Raja Mahendra Pratap and Maulana Barkatullah.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati
Mains level: Not Much
PM inaugurated celebrations commemorating Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati’s 200th birth anniversary.
Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883)
- Dayanand Saraswati (born Mool Shankar Tiwari) was a religious leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a reform movement in the nineteenth century.
- He was a profound scholar of the Vedic lore and Sanskrit language.
- Dayanand was a great scholar, and was well-versed in the Vedas and the Upanishads.
- He was also proficient in Sanskrit grammar, philosophy, religion, politics and other sciences.
Notable works
(1) Literary works
- He wrote several books, including the Satyarth Prakash, which became the moral and spiritual foundation of the Arya Samaj.
- This book was translated into many languages, including Hindi, English and Urdu.
(2) Freedom movement
- He was the first to give the call for Swaraj as “Indian for India” – in 1876, a call later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak.
- Subsequently, the philosopher and President of India, S. Radhakrishnan, called him one of the “makers of Modern India”, as did Sri Aurobindo.
(3) Religious reform
- Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism at the time, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies.
- He believed that the Vedas should be interpreted in the light of reason and not of blind faith.
- He also campaigned against animal sacrifice and the worship of idols.
(4) Social reform
- Dayanand was a staunch advocate of women’s rights.
- He believed in the equality of all human beings and advocated the abolition of the caste system.
(5) Education
- Dayanand was an ardent believer in the power of knowledge and education.
- He established the Gurukul system of education, which provided free education to all, irrespective of caste or gender.
- Based on his teachings, in 1885 the first DAV School was established at Lahore which was subsequently upgraded to become the first DAV College.
- In 1886 the DAV College Trust and Management Society was established and registered.
Try this PYQ:
Which among the following event happened earliest?
(a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj
(b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan
(c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandmath
(d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first India to succeed in the Indian Civil Services Examination.
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Today in History: Treaty of Alinagar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Treaty of Alinagar
Mains level: Not Much
Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar between the Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company raised the curtains for British colonial expansion in India.
Treaty of Alinagar, 1757
- Signed on February 9, 1757, the Treaty of Alinagar was signed between Robert Clive of the East India Company and Mirza Muhammad Siraj Ud Daula, then Nawab of Bengal.
- It is said to be one of the key events leading up to the Battle of Plassey later that year.
- Plassey was where the English laid a significant blow, defeating the nawab. It paved the way for the East India Company’s takeover of Bengal.
- The name Alinagar was a short-lived reference to modern-day Kolkata, and the treaty came about after the nawab was faced with both the British and Afghan forces.
- He compromised with the former; however, the peace was short-lived.
British advent in India: A quick backgrounder
- After the Anglo-Mughal War which took place between 1686 and 1690, the British began consolidating their presence in the subcontinent.
- It had established the Fort St. George in what was Madras, Fort William in then Calcutta and Bombay Castle by the beginning of the 18th century.
- The British initially helped local princes and nawabs quell uprisings or revolts and they, in turn, gave them concessions.
Course of the treaty
- In January 1757, the British attacked the town of Hooghly, close to then Calcutta, with over 700 men.
- The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, who had just come to power a year earlier in his early 20s, mobilised forces.
- His troops would overpower the British and reach Calcutta on January 10, 1757, having lost over 600 men.
- However, the losses sustained in the war had resulted in the nawab losing confidence.
- He signed what came to be known as the Treaty of Alinagar with Robert Clive – who became the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency – on February 9, 1757.
- Siraj-ud-daulah agreed to the restoration of the company’s factories and allowed for the fortification of Calcutta.
Aftermath of the battle
- The British then moved on to wrest the remaining territories in Bengal from the French, laying siege to Chandannagar.
- However, the move did not go down well with the nawab.
- But, Daulah was also wary of Afghan forces under Ahmad Shah Durrani and the Marathas.
- Traders in his kingdom were already wary of him and there was a conspiracy led by the likes of his military general, Mir Jafar.
- Events would later culminate in the Battle of Plassey on June 23, 1757.
- It resulted in the East India Company gaining hold of Bengal and was a significant event in its rise to power in the subcontinent.
Try this question.
Q.For most Indians, the history of British colonial rule in India begins in Plassey. However, the roots of it were sown long back. Discuss. (250W)
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Kingdom of Vijayanagara
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vijayanagar Empire, Krishna Deva Raya I
Mains level: Read the attached story
A British author has published a book telling of the fictionalised story of the Vijayanagara Kingdom. He took accounts of the poet named Pampa Kampana, who witnessed Vijayanagara’s many victories and defeats.
Who was Pampa Kampana?
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About Vijayanagara Kingdom
- The Vijayanagara kingdom has long been a subject of historical and political interest.
- From their capital, now known as Hampi, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, the kings of Vijayanagara at the peak of their power ruled over a territory of more than 360,000 sq. km.
- Founded in 1336, the kingdom of Vijayanagara lasted for more than three centuries, a period in which it withstood multiple political stresses, and saw significant advances in art and economy.
- It was one of the most powerful kingdoms in the sub-continent.
Its foundation
- Over the course of its existence from 1336 to 1646, the kingdom saw various ups and downs.
- Founded by Harihara I of the Sangama dynasty, Vijayanagara expanded from a strategic position on the banks of the Tungabhadra River.
- By the 15th century, it had become a force to reckon with.
Rise under Krishna Deva Raya I
- The kingdom reached its peak under Krishna Deva Raya (reign 1509-1529).
- It is a period in which Vijayanagara enjoyed military superiority to its rival kingdoms such as the Bahmani Sultanate, the Golconda Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha.
- At its peak, the kingdom stretched from Goa in the Konkan coast to parts of southern Odisha in the east and all the way to the very tip of the subcontinent in the south.
Why the Vijayanagara history is so much celebrated?
Ans. Economic Prosperity
- Monetized economy: Coins were minted by the state as well as by merchant guilds using gold, silver, copper and brass, and their value depended on material weight.
- Control over key commodities: The Empire’s principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula, precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain.
- Maritime trade: While the economy of the kingdom was largely dependent on agriculture, trade thrived in its many ports on either coast. Traveller Abd al-Razzaq Samarqandi chronicled how the ports of Mangalore, Honavar, Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam, and Dharmadam saw traders from Africa, Arabia, Aden, the Red sea, China and Bengal and also served as ship building centres.
Vijayanagara’s contributions to culture and architecture
(1) Literary development
- The Vijayanagar Empire was also known for its flourishing culture and literature.
- The court was home to many poets and scholars, who wrote in both Sanskrit and Kannada.
- The emperor Krishnadevaraya was himself a noted poet, authoring works such as the Amuktamalyada and the Jambavati Kalyanam.
- The Vijayanagar Empire also patronized the arts, which led to a flourishing of music, dance, and painting.
(2) Architectural development
- Vijayanagara’s capital Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site today, known for its sophisticated fortifications as well as innumerable temples and other architectural marvels.
- From accounts of foreign travellers, by the beginning of the 16th century, Hampi-Vijayanagara was probably the second largest urban settlement on the planet (after Beijing) and among the most prosperous.
- The most impressive architectural feat of the Vijayanagar Empire was the iconic Vitthala temple complex in Hampi.
- This complex consists of a temple dedicated to the god Vitthala, a large audience hall, and a stone chariot shrine.
- The Prasanna Virupaksha temple of Bukka I and the Hazara Rama temple of Krishna Deva Raya are striking examples of Vijayanagara’s characteristic style and intricate artistry.
Causes of its decline
- Military defeats: The first major defeat for the empire was the Battle of Talikota in 1565, in which the Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates. This major defeat drastically weakened the Vijayanagara Empire and led to a period of political instability and civil war.
- Economic disruption: This was further worsened by the Deccan Sultanates’ policy of destroying Vijayanagara’s economy and trade networks. This ultimately resulted in the loss of the empire’s political power and reduced its ability to defend itself from further attacks.
- Internal conflict: Other contributing factors included internal divisions between the ruling families and the rise of local governors who declared their independence.
Various travellers details of Vijayanagara kingdom
- Vasco da Gama: The first encounter with the Vijayanagara Empire by a European traveller was by the Portuguese explorer, Vasco da Gama, who visited the kingdom in 1498, and was the first to recognize its wealth and power. After this, Krishnadevaraya in 1510 signed a treaty with the Portuguese to permit Albuquerque to construct forts in Bhatkal.
- Nicolo Conti: The Italian traveller Nicolo Conti visited the kingdom in 1420 and documented his journey in a book titled “Viaggio in India”. He wrote about the grandeur of the cities and the wealth of the kingdom.
- Jan Huyghen van Linschoten: The Dutch traveller Jan Huyghen van Linschoten visited the kingdom in 1583 and wrote a book describing his journey titled “Itinerario”. He wrote about the impressive forts, the magnificent temples, the thriving markets and the grand palaces.
- Jean-Baptiste Tavernier: The French traveller Jean-Baptiste Tavernier visited the kingdom in 1665 and wrote a book about his journey titled “Les Six Voyages de Jean-Baptiste Tavernier”. He wrote about the fine architecture, the grandeur of the palaces, and the wealth and prosperity of the kingdom.
- Robert Orme: The English traveller Robert Orme visited the kingdom in 1770 and wrote a book about his journey titled “Military Transactions in India”. He wrote about the size and scope of the empire, the grandeur of its cities and the advanced military technology used by the kingdom.
Try this PYQ:
Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Mughal Gardens will now be called as Amrit Udyan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mughal Garden/ Amrit Udyan
Mains level: Charbagh gardening style
The Rashtrapati Bhavan gardens — popularly known as the Mughal Gardens was renamed as Amrit Udyan.
The Amrit Udyan
- Edwin Lutyens had finalized the designs of the Mughal Gardens in 1917, but it was only during the year 1928-1929 that planting was done.
- It is spread across 15 acres and it incorporates both Mughal and English landscaping styles.
- The main garden has two channels intersecting at right angles dividing the garden into a grid of squares- a Charbagh (a four-cornered garden)- a typical characteristic of Mughal landscaping.
- There are six lotus-shaped fountains at the crossings of these channels rising to a height of 12 feet.
- The gardens house nearly 2500 varieties of Dahlias and 120 varieties of roses.
Why was it earlier named as Mughal Gardens?
- The garden is designed in Persian style of landscaping or what we call as ‘‘Mughal Gardens”.
- In fact, Edward Lutyens who designed the Viceroy’s House, what we call today as Rashtrapati Bhavan had deliberately used Mughal architectural details as part of the British appeasement plan.
- We see Chajja (dripstone), the Chattri (domed kiosk), the Jali (pierced screen) and many other Indian architectural features liberally used there.
- Mughal canals, terraces and flowering shrubs are beautifully blended with European flowerbeds, lawns and private hedges.
Back2Basics: Mughal Gardening in India- The Charbagh Style
- The Mughals were known to appreciate gardens. In Babur Nama, Babur says that his favourite kind of garden is the Persian charbagh style (literally, four quadrants garden).
- The charbagh structure was intended to create a representation of an earthly utopia – ‘jannat’ – in which humans co-exist in perfect harmony with all elements of nature.
- Defined by its rectilinear layouts, divided in four equal sections, these gardens can be found across lands previously ruled by the Mughals.
- From the gardens surrounding Humanyun’s Tomb in Delhi to the Nishat Bagh in Srinagar, all are built in this style – giving them the moniker of Mughal Gardens.
- A defining feature of these gardens is the use of waterways, often to demarcate the various quadrants of the garden.
- Fountains were often built, symbolising the “cycle of life.”
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Who was Goswami Tulsidas (1511–1623)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramchatrimanas, Tulsidas
Mains level: Bhakti Movement
Tulsidas has come into controversy due to some of its verses (Chaupai) mentioned in the Ramcharitmanas.
Who was Tulsidas?
- Tulsidas, a Brahmin whose original name was Ram Bola Dubey, is believed to have been born in Rajapur by the Yamuna in today’s Banda district.
- He composed the Ramcharitmanas on the bank of the Ganga in Varanasi — he is said to have begun writing on Ram Navami day in 1574, and completed the poem over the next few years.
- Tulsidas lived in the time of Emperor Akbar, and some believe that he was in touch with Abdurrahim Khan-e-Khanan, the son of Akbar’s commander Bairam Khan.
The Ramcharitmanas
- The poem was written in the 16th century in the Awadhi dialect that is mainly spoken in the areas that are today’s Lucknow, Prayagraj, and Ayodhya districts.
- It was written in the Avdhi dialect. The sacred chant ‘Hanuman Chalisa’ is a part of it.
- It is divided into seven chapters (Kand) that tell the story of Lord Ram from birth to his becoming King of Ayodhya.
Why is Ramcharitmanas so famous?
- The Ramcharitmanas is based on the Ramayana, sage Valmiki’s great epic.
- It is the holiest book of the Indo-Gangetic region, and among the world’s most read holy books — by one estimate, Geeta Press (Gorakhpur) has sold almost 7 crore copies.
- Across the Hindi heartland, a reference to “Ramayan” often actually means Ramcharitmanas.
- Tulsidas made the story of Lord Ram popular among the masses because he wrote in the regional dialect that most people understood.
Tulisdas and political controversies
- While in the Ramcharitmanas, Lord Ram is maryada purushottam, the epitome of righteousness, his conduct has been criticised by leaders of anti-Brahmin movements like E V Ramasamy Periyar.
- One of the 22 pledges that Dr B R Ambedkar administered to his followers while embracing Buddhism in October 1956 was: “I shall have no faith in Rama and Krishna, who are believed to be incarnation of God, nor shall I worship them.”
- Non-upper caste assertion in politics has sometimes been manifested in criticism of the Ramcharitmanas.
- Critics have used these parts of the poem to accuse Tulsidas of being against the non-upper castes and women, and a flagbearer of the idea of Brahminical superiority.
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Places in news: Jagannath Puri Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jagannath Temple and its architecture
Mains level: Not Much
Odisha Governor’s suggestion that foreigners and non-Hindus should be allowed to enter Puri’s famed Jagannath temple has not gone down well with traditionalists and political leaders alike.
Why in news?
- It has been the practice for centuries — even though there is no clearly articulated reason for it.
- Some historians believe that multiple attacks on the Temple by foreign invaders might have led the servitors to impose restrictions on the entry of non-Hindus.
- Others have said that this was the practice from the time the Temple was built.
- In 1984, the servitors famously opposed the entry of Indira Gandhi inside the Temple, saying she had married a non-Hindu.
About Jagannath Temple
- The Jagannath Temple is an important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna in Puri in Odisha.
- The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the site of an earlier temple, and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
- The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars.
Its architecture
- With its sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture, it is one of the most magnificent monuments of India.
- The huge temple complex covers an area of over 400,000 square feet and is surrounded by a high fortified wall.
- This 20 feet high wall is known as Meghanada Pacheri.
- Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple.
The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely:
- Deula, Vimana or Garba griha (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls). In Rekha Deula style;
- Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
- Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
- Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall)
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Who was Fatima Sheikh (1831-1900)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fatima Sheikh
Mains level: Pioneers of girl child education in India
Teaching pioneer Fatima Shaikh was recently honoured with a Google Doodle on her birthday.
Fatima Sheikh
- Fatima Sheikh was an educator and social reformer, who was a colleague of the social reformers Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule.
- She is widely considered to be India’s first Muslim woman teacher.
- Fatima Sheikh was the sister of Mian Usman Sheikh, in whose house Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule took up residence.
- One of the first Muslim women teachers of modern India, she started educating Bahujan children in Phules’ school.
Association with Phules
- Under pressure from upper castes, Jyotirao’s father evicted Savitribai and Jyotirao from the family home in the late 1840s.
- With nowhere else to go, the Phules would find shelter at the house of Mian Usman Sheikh, where they would live till 1856.
- As many from their own community abandoned them, Fatima Sheikh and her brother stood strongly with the Phules and the mission to educate girls and bahujans.
- Sheikh met Savitribai Phule while both were enrolled at a teacher training institution run by Cynthia Farrar, an American missionary.
- She taught at all five schools that the Phules went on to establish and she taught children of all religions and castes.
- Sheikh took part in the founding of two schools in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1851.
Determined amidst opposition
- In Pune, a conservative bastion of culture and tradition, the very act of trying to educate the underprivileged caused uproar.
- It is said that the two women would often have stones and pieces of dung thrown at them while walking in the streets.
- Fatima specifically is said to have borne the wrath of both upper-castes and radical orthodox sections.
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Who was Savitribai Phule?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Savitribhai Phule
Mains level: Not Much
Recently, 192nd birth anniversary of Savitribai Phule, w/o Jyotiba Phule (the pioneer of Satyashodhak Samaj) was celebrated.
Who was Savitribai Phule?
- A Dalit woman from the Mali community, Savitribai was born on January 3, 1831, in Maharashtra’s Naigaon village.
- Married off at the age of 10, her husband Jyotirao Phule is said to have educated her at home.
- Later, Jyotirao admitted Savitribai to a teachers’ training institution in Pune.
- Throughout their life, the couple supported each other and in doing so, broke many social barriers.
Pioneering first school for girls in India
- At a time when it was considered unacceptable for women to even attain education, the couple went on to open a school for girls in Bhidewada, Pune, in 1848.
- This became the country’s first girls’ school.
Opposition to Phules’ schools
- The Phules opened more such schools for girls, Shudras and Ati-Shudras (the backward castes and Dalits, respectively) in Pune.
- This led to discontent among Indian nationalists like Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
- They opposed the setting up of schools for girls and non-Brahmins, citing a “loss of nationality”, and believing not following the caste rules would mean a loss of nationality itself.
- Savitribai herself faced great animosity from the upper castes, including instances of physical violence.
- When serving as the headmistress of the first school in Bhide Wada, upper-caste men often pelted stones and threw mud and cow dung on her.
Phule’s role as a social reformer, beyond education
- Infanticide prevention: Along with Jyotirao, Savitribai started the Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (‘Home for the Prevention of Infanticide’) for pregnant widows facing discrimination.
- Child adoption: The Phules also adopted Yashwantrao, the child of a widow, whom they educated to become a doctor.
- Reforms in marriages: Savitribai Phule also advocated inter-caste marriages, widow remarriage, and eradication of child marriage, sati and dowry systems, among other social issues.
- Denouncing Brahmanical ritualism: As an extension, they started ‘Satyashodhak Marriage’ – a rejection of Brahmanical rituals where the marrying couple takes a pledge to promote education and equality.
- Bubonic plague mitigation: Savitribai became involved in relief work during the 1896 famine in Maharashtra and the 1897 Bubonic plague. She herself contracted the disease while taking a sick child to the hospital, and breathed her last on March 10, 1897.
Savitribai’s literary works
- Savitribai Phule published her first collection of poems, called Kavya Phule (‘Poetry’s Blossoms’), at the age of 23 in 1854.
- She published Bavan Kashi Subodh Ratnakar (‘The Ocean of Pure Gems’), in 1892.
- Besides these works, Matushri Savitribai Phulenchi Bhashane va Gaani (Savitribai Phule’s speeches and songs’), and her letters to her husband have also been published.
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In news: Bhima-Koregaon Battle
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Bhima Koregaon
Mains level: Not Much
The 205th anniversary of the Bhima-Koregaon battle was recently celebrated in all harmony at the Ranstambh (victory pillar) in Perne village in Pune.
Battle of Bhima-Koregaon
- The 1818 battle of Bhima-Koregaon, one of the last battles of the Third Anglo-Maratha War culminated in the Peshwa’s defeat.
- It was fought on 1 January 1818 between the British East India Company (BEIC) and the Peshwa faction of the Maratha Confederacy, at Koregaon at the banks of River Bhima.
- A 28,000-strong force led by Peshwa Baji Rao II while on their way to attack the company-held Pune were unexpectedly met by an 800-strong Company force of which 500 belonged to the Dalit community.
- The battle was part of the Third Anglo Maratha war, a series of battles that culminated in the defeat of the Peshwa rule and subsequent rule of the BEIC in nearly all of Western, Central, and Southern India.
Role of Mahar Community
- Back in the seventeenth century, the community was particularly valued by the ruler Shivaji, under whom Maratha caste identities were far more fluid.
- The value of the Mahars for military recruitment under Shivaji was noted by the social reformer Jyotirao Phule.
- The Mahars were not only beneficiaries of the attempt at caste unity under Shivaji but were in fact valued for their martial skills, bravery, and loyalty.
Mahars during Maratha Empire
- The position occupied by the Mahars under Shivaji, however, was short-lived and under later Peshwa rulers, their status deteriorated.
- The Peshwas were infamous for their Brahmin orthodoxy and their persecution of the untouchables.
- The Mahars were forbidden to move about in public spaces and punished atrociously for disrespecting caste regulations.
- Stories of Peshwa atrocities against the Mahars suggest that they were made to tie brooms behind their backs to wipe out their footprints and pots on their necks to collect their spit.
Why is the battle significant?
- The battle resulted in losses to the Maratha Empire, then under Peshwa rule, and control over most of western, central, and southern India by the British East India Company.
- The battle has been seen as a symbol of Dalit pride because a large number of soldiers in the Company forces were the Mahar Dalits, the same oppressed community to which Babasaheb Ambedkar belonged.
- After centuries of inhumane treatment, this battle was the first time that Mahars had been included in a battle in which they won.
Dr. Ambedkar’s association
- It was Babasaheb Ambedkar’s visit to the site on January 1, 1927, that revitalized the memory of the battle for the Dalit community.
- He led to its commemoration in the form of a victory pillar, besides creating the discourse of Dalit valor against Peshwa ‘oppression’ of Dalits.
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Madan Mohan Malaviya and BHU
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Madan Mohan Malviya
Mains level: Not Much
An archive on the principal founder of the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), ‘Mahamana’ Madan Mohan Malaviya was recently unveiled.
Who was Madan Mohan Malaviya?
- Malaviya was born on 25th December, 1861 in Allahabad.
- He was a great Indian educationist and freedom fighter, distinguished from others for his significant role in Indian independence and his support of Hindu nationalism.
- At the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), which he founded in 1916, he served as Vice-Chancellor from 1919 to 1938.
- The University has around 12,000 students all across the field such as the arts, sciences, engineering and technology.
Political affiliations
- Malaviya rose up the ranks, and became president four times — in 1909 (Lahore), in 1918 (Delhi), in 1930 (Delhi), and in 1932 (Calcutta).
- He was part of the Congress for almost 50 years.
- He was one of the early leaders of the Hindu Mahasabha, and helped found it in 1906.
- He was a social reformer and a successful legislator, serving as a member of the Imperial Legislative Council for 11 years (1909–20).
- In the freedom struggle, he was midway between the Liberals and the Nationalists, the Moderates and the Extremists, as the followers of Gokhale and Tilak were respectively called.
- In 1930, when Mahatma Gandhi launched the Salt Satyagraha and the Civil Disobedience Movement, he participated in it and courted arrest.
Literary associations
- He remained the Hindustan Times’ Chairman from 1924 to 1946.
- He was involved with magazines including the-
- Hindi language weekly, the Abhyudaya (1907)
- English-language daily the Leader of Allahabad (1909) and
- Hindi dailies Aaj
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In news: Foundation Day of the INC
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INC
Mains level: INC and freedom struggle
A political party recently marked the 138th foundation day of Indian National Congress (INC) on December 28.
How the INC was founded?
- The INC came into being on December 28, 1885.
- The English bureaucrat Allan Octavian Hume is credited as the founder of the organisation.
- On that day, 72 social reformers, journalists and lawyers congregated for the first session of the INC at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay.
- Stated objectives of INC included-
- First, the fusion into one national whole of all the different elements that constitute the population of India.
- Second, the gradual regeneration along all lines, spiritual, moral, social, and political, of the nation thus evolved; and
- Third, the consolidation, of, the union between England and India.
Real motive behind: ‘Safety Valve’ Theory
- At that point, the aim of this group was not to demand independence from the ongoing colonial rule but to influence the policies of the British government in favour of Indians.
- Its objective is often described as providing a “safety valve” as the time, through which Indians could air out their grievances and frustration.
- As Mr. Hume explained, the: Congress organization was ‘only one outcome of the labours of a body of cultured men, mostly Indians, who hound themselves together to labour silently for the good of India.’
Transformation towards freedom movement
Ans. Famous for 3P’s: Prayers, Protest and Petitions
- The party’s work continued, to shift the colonial administrators’ attitudes and policies on the rights and powers allowed to Indians.
- The members frequently protested issues of British colonialism, such as the Bengal famine and the drain of wealth from India.
- However, these protests were at this point usually limited to prayers, petitions and protests, including writing letters to the authorities.
- As the British rule continued, there grew differences in what the party’s functioning should be like.
Strength of INC
- Diverse participation: One of the biggest strengths of the party, which helped it appeal to a broad section of Indian society, was having members who held different ideological positions.
- Pan-India organization: Its popularity grew across every corner of India.
Early criticism of INC
- Non-effective: Hume and the party were criticised, by the British for attempting to change the existing systems that favoured them and by some Indians for not achieving significant results.
- Elite-organization: The party largely consisted of educated, upper-class people who were likely to have studied abroad.
Splits and reconvening
- In Surat in 1906, the divisions between the ‘moderates’ led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Surendranath Banerjea, and the ‘extremists’ led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak came to the fore and there was a split.
- While Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai wanted the Congress to boycott the visit of the Prince of Wales in protest against the Bengal Partition a year prior, the moderates opposed any such move.
- But by 1915, the Bombay session saw these two groups coming together again as one.
- The pattern of splits and eventual cohesion continued well after Indian independence, even after the party came to completely dominate successive general elections under PM Jawaharlal Nehru.
Important sessions of INC
| Year | Session | President | Importance | |||||
| 1885 | Bombay | W C Banerjee | First session | |||||
| 1888 | Allahabad | George Yule | First English President of INC | |||||
| 1896 | Calcutta | Rahimtullah M. Sayani | National song ‘Vande Mataram’ sung for the first time | |||||
| 1906 | Calcutta | Dadabhai Naoroji | Dadabhai Naoroji coined the term Swaraj. | |||||
| 1907 | Surat | Rash Behari Ghosh | Party splits into extremists and moderates | |||||
| 1911 | Calcutta | Bishan Narayan Dar | National Anthem ‘Jana Gana Mana’ sung for the first time | |||||
| 1916 | Lucknow | Ambica Charan Mazumdar | Reunion of Congress and Lucknow Pact, Joint session with the Muslim league | |||||
| 1917 | Calcutta | Annie Besant | First Woman President of the INC | |||||
| 1919 | Amritsar | Motilal Nehru | Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre took place | |||||
| 1924 | Belgaum | M K Gandhi | Only session where MK Gandhi was the President | |||||
| 1925 | Kanpur | Sarojini Naidu | First Indian Woman President of INC | |||||
| 1927 | Madras | M A Ansari | Independence Resolution was put forward | |||||
| 1928 | Calcutta Session, | Motilal Nehru | All India Youth Congress formed | |||||
| 1929 | Lahore | Jawaharlal Nehru | Poorna Swaraj Resolution @ 26th January, Civil Disobedience Movement launched | |||||
| 1931
|
Karachi | Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel | A resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Progress was passed. Gandhi-Irwin pact was endorsed and Gandhiji was nominated to represent INC in the second round table conference | |||||
| 1936 | Lucknow | Jawaharlal Nehru | Idea of Socialism was imbibed | |||||
| 1938 | Haripura | Subhas Chandra Bose | National Planning Committee set up under Nehru, Haripura Resolution passed, which demanded Poorna Swaraj, including the princely states as well. | |||||
| 1940 | Ramgarh | Abul Kalam Azad | He was the longest-serving President of INC during British rule.
Quit India Movement started in 1942 |
|||||
| 1946 | Meerut | J.B. Kripalani | Last session before Indian independence |
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following statements
- The first woman President of the Indian National Congress was Sarojini Naidu.
- The first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress was Badruddin Tyabji.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here.
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In news: Ahilyabai Holkar (1725 –1795)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ahilyabai Holkar
Mains level: Read the attached story
There has been a proposal from the district administration to rename the Western Maharashtra city of Ahmednagar as ‘Punyashlok Ahilyadevi Nagar’, after the 18th century Malwa queen, Ahilyabai Holkar.
History of Ahmednagar
- Ahmednagar lies in the Western region of Maharashtra.
- It has been a part of some prominent kingdoms, starting from 240 B.C. when the vicinity is mentioned in the reference to the Mauryan Emperor Ashok.
- The Rashtrakuta Dynasty, the Western Chalukyas, and then the Delhi Sultanate ruled over the region in the Medieval period.
- In the last case, the rule was not direct, and a revolt by Afghan soldier Alladin Hasan Gangu led to the establishment of the Bahmani kingdom in the Deccan.
- After some time, Ahmednagar (then known as Nizamshahi) became one of the five independent kingdoms to emerge from that empire.
How did the city of Ahmednagar first get its name?
- In 1486, Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah became the Bahmani Sultanate’s Prime Minister.
- He fought back an attempt by the king to dislodge him from power, and defeated the army of the Bahamani kingdom near Ahmednagar in May 1490.
- Finally, in 1494 he laid the foundation of a city close to where he defeated the army, on the left bank of Sina river, and named it after himself: Ahmednagar.
Who was Ahilyabai Holkar?
- Born in Chondi village of Ahmednagar to the village head Mankoji Shinde, on May 31, 1725, Ahilyabai was one of the few women rulers of Medieval India.
- While the education of girls and women was rare at that time, Mankoji insisted on it for his daughter.
- When she was eight years old, Malhar Rao Holkar, the army commander to Peshwa Bajirao, is believed to have spotted her at a temple service in Chondi.
- Impressed by her devotion and character, he decided to get his son, Khande Rao, married to her.
- Ahilyabai took control of Malwa after her husband’s death in the Battle of Kumbher against the king of Bharatpur in 1754.
Her Administration
- She brought about two important changes in the administration, both divergences from the traditions of her era.
- She vested the military power in Tukoji Holkar, a confidante of her father-in-law though not related.
- She separated the state’s revenue from the personal use of the ruling family. Her personal expenses were met from inherited wealth and the land holdings she had.
Role in demolished temple re-construction
- From Gangotri to Rameshwaram, and from Dwarka to Gaya, she spent money on rebuilding temples destroyed under the Mughal rule.
- The most significant one, however, is the current Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi.
- Destroyed by the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb to build the Gyaanvapi mosque, the temple was restored in its current form by Ahilyabai in the year 1780, 111 years after its destruction.
- The Somnath temple, witness to the regular destruction by a host of aggressors over the centuries, was restored in 1783 by all the Maratha confederates, with a significant contributions from Ahilyabai.
- With temples and rest areas in Kedarnath, Srisailam, Omkareshwar and Ujjain, Ahilyabai contributed to the improvement of facilities at other holy sites hosting Jyotirlingas too.
Conclusion
- Ahilyabai died in the year 1795 at the age of 70.
- Her legacy is not documented in a structured way in history textbooks or popular references either.
- Part of the problem is the general absence of any non-Mughal, non-British narratives in contemporary Indian history books.
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3 more sites added to UNESCO’s tentative list of World Heritage Sites
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Heritage Cites
Mains level: Not Much
Gujarat’s Vadnagar town, the iconic Sun Temple at Modhera, and the rock cut sculptures of Unakoti in Tripura have been added to the tentative list of UNCESO World Heritage Sites.
What is UNESCO tentative list?
- The UNESCO tentative list is an inventory of those properties which each State Party intends to consider for nomination.
- With these 3 sites, India now has 52 sites on UNESCO Tentative List.
About the sites
(1) Sun Temple, Modhera
- The Sun Temple at Modhera is located on the left bank of the river Pushpavati, a tributary of river Rupan in Becharaji taluka of Mehsana district.
- The temple description states that it is built in Maru-gurjara architectural style, consists of the main temple shrine (garbhagriha), a hall (gadhamandapa), an outer hall or assembly hall (Sabhamandapa or rangamandapa) and a sacred pool (Kunda), which is now called Ramakunda.
- This east-facing temple is built with bright yellow sandstone.
- It is the earliest of such temples which set trends in architectural and decorative details, representing the Solanki style at its best.
(2) Vadnagar
- Vadnagar is a historic town, which had continuous habitation for more than 2,700 years.
- A multi-layered historic town, the history of Vadnagar stretches back to nearly 8th century BCE.
- The town still retains a large number of historic buildings that are primarily religious and residential in nature.
- It has evolved with time and has an early historic fortified settlement, hinterland port, centre for industries of shells and beads, late medieval town, religious centre/temple town, a significant junction on trade routes and mercantile town.
- Rampart datable to second century BCE, fortification along the lake from third-fourth century CE, findings of Indo-Pacific glass beads and marine shells, palaeo-seismic evidence evidently point towards historical authenticity of the town.
(3) Unakoti
- Located in the northeastern region of Tripura, Unakoti is known as an ancient holy place associated with Shaiva worship.
- It is famously known as the ‘Angkor Wat of the North-East’
- The structures of the rock-cut sculptures are gigantic and have distinct mongoloid features and display almost the same mystical charm as the spellbinding figures in the Angkor Wat temple of Cambodia.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
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In news: Goa Liberation Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Goa Liberation Day
Mains level: Decolonization in India
The President of India tweeted her greetings to the nation on December 19, marking Goa Liberation Day, which is celebrated annually to mark the success of ‘Operation Vijay’ undertaken by the Indian armed forces to defeat Portuguese colonial forces and liberate Goa in 1961.
What is the news?
- Goa was liberated 15 years after India attained freedom.
- Last year PM Modi accused Nehru as guilty of leaving satyagrahis in the dismay, refusing to send the Indian Army to liberate Goa, even after 25 of them were shot dead by the Portuguese Army.
Goa’s Colonization: A backgrounder
- Goa became a Portuguese colony in 1510, when Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the forces of the sultan of Bjiapur, Yusuf Adil Shah.
- The next four and a half centuries saw one of Asia’s longest colonial encounters — Goa found itself at the intersection of competing regional and global powers.
- It received a religious and cultural ferment that lead eventually to the germination of a distinct Goan identity that continues to be a source of contestation even today.
- By the turn of the twentieth century, Goa had started to witness an upsurge of nationalist sentiment opposed to Portugal’s colonial rule, in sync with the anti-British nationalist movement.
Beginning of freedom movement
- Tristao de Braganza Cunha, celebrated as the father of Goan nationalism, founded the Goa National Congress at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress in 1928.
- In 1946, the socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia led a historic rally in Goa that gave a call for civil liberties and freedom, and eventual integration with India.
- This event became a watershed moment in Goa’s freedom struggle.
- At the same time, there was a thinking that civil liberties could not be won by peaceful methods, and a more aggressive armed struggle was needed.
- This was the view of the Azad Gomantak Dal (AGD), whose co-founder Prabhakar Sinari is one of the few freedom fighters still living today.
- Finally, Goa was liberated on December 19, 1961 by swift Indian military action that lasted less than two days.
Recognition of Goa
- The Supreme Court of India recognized the validity of the annexation and rejected the continued applicability of the law of occupation.
- In a treaty with retroactive effect, Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty in 1974.
- Under the jus cogens rule, forceful annexations including the annexation of Goa are held as illegal since they have taken place after the UN Charter came into force.
Why was Goa left un-colonized?
As India moved towards independence, however, it became clear that Goa would not be free any time soon, because of a variety of complex factors.
- No immediate war: Then PM Nehru felt that if he launched a military operation (like in Hyderabad) to oust the colonial rulers, his image as a global leader of peace would be impacted.
- Trauma of Partition: The trauma of Partition and the massive rupture that followed, coupled with the war with Pakistan, kept the Government of India from opening another front.
- Internationalization of the issue: This might have led the international community to get involved.
- No demand from within: It was Gandhi’s opinion that a lot of groundwork was still needed to raise the consciousness of the people, and the diverse political voices emerging within be brought under a common umbrella.
Nehruvian dilemma
- India’s global image: Nehru was headed in shaping India’s position in the comity of nations.
- Trying peaceful options: He was trying to exhaust all options available to him given the circumstances that India was emerging from.
- Portuguese obsession: Portugal had changed its constitution in 1951 to claim Goa not as a colonial possession, but as an overseas province.
- Portugal in NATO: The move was apparently aimed at making Goa a part of the newly formed North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) military alliance. Hence the collective security clause of the treaty would be triggered.
- Weak indigenous push: Nehru saw it prudent to pursue bilateral diplomatic measures with Portugal to negotiate a peaceful transfer while, at the same time, a more ‘overt’ indigenous push for liberation.
Why did Nehru wait until December 1961 to launch a full-scale military offensive?
India could no longer be seen to delay the liberation of Goa because:
- Portuguese offensive against Satyagrahis: The firing incident also provoked a sharp response from the Government of India, which snapped diplomatic and consular ties with Portugal in 1955.
- India as torchbearer of de-colonization: India got itself firmly established as a leader of the Non Aligned World and Afro-Asian Unity, with decolonization and anti-imperialism as the pillars of its policy.
- Criticisms from African nations: An Indian Council of Africa seminar on Portuguese colonies organized in 1961 heard strong views from African as this was hampering their own struggles against the ruthless regime.
- Weakening Colonialism: The delegates were certain that the Portuguese empire would collapse the day Goa was liberated.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Indian student at Cambridge decodes Panini’s Language Machine
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Panini, Language Machine
Mains level: Not Much
A grammatical problem by Panini that has defeated Sanskrit scholars since the 5th Century BC has finally been solved by an Indian Ph.D. student at the University of Cambridge.
Who was Panini?
- Panini was a Sanskrit philologist, grammarian, and revered scholar in ancient India, variously dated between the 6th and 4th century BCE.
- Since the discovery and publication of his work by European scholars in the nineteenth century, Panini has been considered the “first descriptive linguist” and even labelled as “the father of linguistics”.
- Panini’s grammar was influential on such foundational linguists as Ferdinand de Saussure and Leonard Bloomfield.
Major literary works
- Panini is known for his texts- Astadhyayi, a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit grammar, verses or rules on linguistics, syntax and semantics in “eight chapters” which is the foundational text of the Vyakarna branch of the Vedanga.
- His text attracted numerous bhashya (commentaries), of which Patanjali’s Mahabhashya is the most famous.
- His ideas influenced and attracted commentaries from scholars of other Indian religions such as Buddhism.
What is the recent breakthrough?
- Panini had an extraordinary mind and he built a language machine unrivaled in human history.
- The 2,500-year-old algorithm decoded by him makes it possible, for the first time, to accurately use Panini’s so-called “language machine”.
- This discovery makes it possible to “derive” any Sanskrit word, to construct millions of grammatically correct words, using Panini’s language machine.
- This is widely considered to be one of the greatest intellectual achievements in history.
How does this language machine works?
- Panini’s system – 4,000 rules detailed in his renowned work, the Astadhyayi, which is thought to have been written around 500 BC – is meant to work like a machine.
- Feed in the base and suffix of a word and it should turn them into grammatically correct words and sentences through a step-by-step process.
Significance of this development
- A major implication of the recent discovery is that now there is an algorithm that runs Panini’s grammar.
- We can potentially teach this grammar to computers.
- Computer scientists working on Natural Language Processing (NLP) gave up on rule-based approaches over 50 years ago.
- NLP is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning.
- So teaching computers how to combine the speaker’s intention with Panini’s rule-based grammar to produce human speech would be a major milestone in the history of human interaction with machines.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] 150th birth anniversary of Sri Aurobindo’s
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sri Aurobindo Ghosh
Mains level: NA
PM will participate in a program commemorating Sri Aurobindo’s 150th birth anniversary.
Sri Aurobindo (1872 –1950)
- Sri Aurobindo Ghose was a philosopher, yogi, maharishi, poet, and Indian nationalist.
- He was also a journalist, editing newspapers such as Vande Mataram.
- He joined the Indian movement for independence from British colonial rule, until 1910 was one of its influential leaders.
Major activities
- Aurobindo studied for the Indian Civil Service at King’s College, Cambridge, England.
- After returning to India he took up various civil service works under the Maharaja of the Princely state of Baroda.
- He became increasingly involved in nationalist politics in the Indian National Congress and the nascent revolutionary movement in Bengal with the Anushilan Samiti.
- He was arrested in the aftermath of a number of bombings linked to his organization in a public trial where he faced charges of treason for Alipore Conspiracy.
- However, Sri Aurobindo could only be convicted and imprisoned for writing articles against British colonial rule in India.
Try this PYQ:
Q. What was the main reason for the split in the Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907?
(a) Introduction of communalism into Indian politics by Lord Minto
(b) Extremists’ lack of faith in the capacity of the moderates to negotiate with the British Government
(c) Foundation of Muslim League
(d) Aurobindo Ghosh’s inability to be elected as the President of the Indian national Congress
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Is it Jawaharlal Nehru’s fault?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Integration of Princely states
Context
- Jawaharlal Nehru has recently come under criticism for declining to accept the Kashmir Maharaja’s initial offer to accede to India in September 1947, several weeks before the tribal invasion. Even great statesmen make occasional mistakes and Nehru was no exception. However, a careful examination of the historical background shows that Prime Minister Nehru cannot be faulted in this case.
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Background: Jammu and Kashmir’s Maharaja Hari Singh and his stand on accession
- Stand against accession with either India or Pakistan: Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir was one of the few princely rulers who had held out against accession to either India and Pakistan before the partition of British India.
- Lord Mountbatten visit and assurance: a couple of months prior to the partition, the Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, visited Srinagar in an attempt to persuade the Maharaja to opt for one or the other of the two states, offering him an assurance from Sardar Patel that India would raise no objection if the ruler were to opt for Pakistan.
- Maharaja evaded discussion and hopes for an independent state: The Maharaja entertained his guest in regal style but evaded any discussion on the political issue, pleading a stomach ailment. Hari Singh evidently hoped that, with the lapse of British paramountcy, he would become the ruler of an independent and sovereign state.
How Maharaja’s hope of a sovereign state got dashed?
- Uprising assisted by Pakistan: An uprising in Poonch assisted by Pakistani elements.
- Economic sanctions by Pakistan: an undeclared economic embargo imposed by the Pakistani authorities. Since Kashmir’s main trade exchanges in those days were with Pakistan, the unofficial embargo resulted in great hardship.
How Maharaja revised his position on accession?
- Decided to talk on terms of accession and a message to Nehru: Maharaja asked Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan, his prime minister-designate, to convey to Nehru the terms on which he was prepared to accede to India.
- Nehru urging Maharaja to induct Sheikh Abdullah into state government: Nehru had been urging the Maharaja to induct Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of the secular National Conference, into the state government in order to ensure popular support for the administration.
- Reluctant to have immediate administrative reforms Maharaja refused: The Maharaja was not agreeable to introducing immediate reforms in the administration of the state. The Maharaja indicated that he was not prepared to do so, at least at this stage.
- Nehru reiterated to associate Abdullah with the governance of the state: When Mahajan conveyed these terms to Nehru in the third week of September, the latter reiterated that Abdullah should be freed from prison and associated with the governance of the state.
Why did Nehru insist on bringing Sheikh Abdullah into the administration?
- He anticipated the armed intervention by Pakistan and armed rebellion: Nehru anticipated armed intervention by Pakistan in Kashmir and foresaw that this could be repulsed only by a government that enjoyed popular support.
- A letter to Sardar patel before a month before tribal invasion: He set out his views in a letter to Sardar Patel on September 27, 1947, nearly a month before the tribal invasion. This remarkable letter has not received the attention it deserves.
- Anticipating the demand of the time, he confirmed his way: Nehru, therefore, concluded that the only acceptable course was for the Maharaja to seek the cooperation of Sheikh Abdullah and the National Conference while acceding to India. This was the only effective way of countering Pakistani designs.
Interesting: Nehru’s letter to Sardar Patel a month before tribal invasion assisted by Pakistan
- “The Muslim League in the Punjab and the NWFP are making preparations to enter Kashmir in considerable numbers. The approach of winter is going to cut off Kashmir from the rest of India,” he wrote. “I understand that the Pakistan strategy is to infiltrate into Kashmir now and to take some major action as soon as Kashmir is more or less isolated because of the coming winter. I rather doubt if the Maharaja and the State forces can meet the situation by themselves without some popular help… Obviously the only major group that can side with them is the National Conference under Sheikh Abdullah’s leadership.”
Rest is the story of accession
- Nehru’s assessment confirmed and Maharaja agreed to his advice: Nehru’s assessment of Pakistan’s plans to invade Kashmir were confirmed within three weeks. It was only at this stage that the Maharaja heeded Nehru’s advice. He inducted Sheikh Abdullah into the government and acceded to India. This had momentous consequences for the defence of Kashmir against the invaders.
- Resistance against Pakistani invaders: The normal administrative machinery had broken down and responsibility for maintaining law and order had been taken over by National Conference volunteers. Abdullah and his followers organised the popular resistance against the Pakistani invaders.
- Advance of raiders and then Indian troops were airlifted to assist and protect the state: With the advance of the raiders towards Srinagar, the Maharaja’s administration had virtually collapsed. By the time Indian troops were airlifted to Srinagar on October 27, 1947, the Maharaja had departed to Jammu for safety. The first batches of Indian troops who had been airlifted to Srinagar had arrived without transport vehicles.
Conclusion
- Far from being a blunder, Jawaharlal Nehru’s insistence on linking accession to the installation of a popular government in Jammu and Kashmir bears testimony to his foresight and statesmanship.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What Ambedkar said about Buddhism ‘being better than Marxism’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maoism, Leninism and Marxism
Mains level: Not Much
While his views on Buddhism being superior to other religions are well-known, Ambedkar also believed the Buddha’s path to be superior to the popular religion-rejecting philosophy, Marxism.
Marxist view of religion
- Marx saw religion as a conservative force that prevented social change by creating false consciousness.
- Marx once said- “Religion is the opium of the people. It is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of our soulless conditions.”
- The end goal of Marxism is to achieve a classless society throughout the world.
How Dr. Ambedkar compared Buddhism to Marxism?
- Ambedkar has compared Buddhism with Marxism, saying that while both strive for the same end of a just and happy society.
- The means propounded by Buddha are superior to those of Marx.
- It is just simple that Marx was modern and Buddha ancient.
- If the Marxists keep back their prejudices and study the Buddha and understand what he stood for I feel sure that they will change their attitude, Ambedkar writes.
Similarities between the two
- In showing the similarities between Buddhism and Marxism, Ambedkar first condenses the basic philosophy of both into neat bullet points.
- For Buddhism, Dr. Ambedkar lists key points:
- The function of Religion is to reconstruct the world and to make it happy and not to explain its origin or its end;
- That private ownership of property brings power to one class and sorrow to another;
- That it is necessary for the good of Society that this sorrow be removed by removing its cause; and
- All human beings are equal.
- Of Marx, he says all that is left “is a residue of fire”:
- The function of philosophy is to reconstruct the world and not to waste its time in explaining the origin of the world;
- That private ownership of property brings power to one class and sorrow to another through exploitation;
- That it is necessary for the good of society that the sorrow be removed by the abolition of private property.”
How abolition of private property works under Buddhism?
- Dr Ambedkar says Buddhism’s commitment to abolishment of private property is apparent in how its ‘Bhikshus’ give up all worldly goods.
- He says the rules for Bhikhshus owning property or possessions are “far more rigorous than are to be found in communism in Russia.”
- To establish a happy and fair society, the Buddha had laid down a path for believers.
- The means adopted by the Buddha were to convert a man by changing his moral disposition to follow the path voluntarily.
Key difference: Violent means
- The means adopted by the Communists are equally clear, short and swift. They are (1) Violence and (2) Dictatorship of the Proletariat.
- It is now clear what are the similarities and differences between Buddha and Karl Marx.
- The differences are about the means. The end is common to both.
- The driving force of India’s Constitution also says Buddha was a democrat.
- As to Dictatorship, the Buddha would have none of it. He was born a democrat and he died a democrat, Ambedkar writes.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Karl Marx explained the process of class struggle with the help of which one of the following theories?
(a) Empirical liberalism.
(b) Existentialism.
(c) Darwin’s theory of evolution.
(d) Dialectical materialism.
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Shivaji Maharaj and the Agra escape
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National heroes
Mains level: Medieval history, Maratha kingdom and the important persons
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Context
- Recently, Maharashtra Tourism Minister Mangal Lodha triggered a controversy by equating Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s legendary Agra escape to Chief Minister Eknath Shinde’s defection from the Uddhav Thackeray-led camp in Maharashtra. His comments drew sharp criticism from political parties and other organisations that venerate Shivaji as a Maratha icon, with no parallel in the past or present.
Brief Political background of the issue
- Eknath Shinde’s “revolt” against party leadership and CM Uddhav Thackeray in June this year led to the fall of the coalition government of the Shiv Sena, NCP, and the Congress. He has since taken the reins of Maharashtra as its CM.
Who was Chhattrapati Shivaji Maharaj?
- Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680): He was born on 19th February, 1630 at Shivneri Fort in District Pune in the present-day state of Maharashtra. He was born to a general Shahaji raje who served different Deccan Sultans over the course of his life and Jijabai, as known to be an influential and determined woman who was an embodiment of self-respect and virtue.
- Founder of an Independent Maratha kingdom: Shivaji Maharaj was keen on expanding his father’s fiefdom of modern-day Pune into an independent Maratha state. He carved out an independent Maratha kingdom from various Deccan states in the 17th century. At the time of his death, he held around 300 forts over an area that stretched across the Konkan coast, from Surat to near Goa, and was overlooked by the strategic Western Ghats.
- Contemporary kingdoms and power struggle: At this point of time, several Sultanates (mainly Bijapur, Golkonda and Ahmadnagar) and the Mughals were vying for the control of the Deccan. As Mughal power grew, these Sultanates would become tributaries to the Mughal Empire (while often continuing to bicker among themselves) with the rulers and ruling clans being given positions in the Mughal court.
- Lifetime conflicts and fights for Swaraj: His conflict with the Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur began when he was only 16. He would spend the rest of his life fighting various opponents, and in the process, laying the foundation for the Maratha Empire which would stretch across large parts of the Indian subcontinent and rule till the 19th Century.
- Importance of forts in his times: Early in his life, he realised that the key to holding power in the Deccan (or for that matter, many places in India in that era) was to capture and hold important forts. Thus, his strategies would be centred around taking control of forts in strategic locations, often on hilltops. He also repaired and built new forts as his sphere of control increased.
How is Shivaji Maharaj remembered?
- An inspiration to fight against the colonial rule: Shivaji remained a Maratha folk legend until two centuries after his death. It was the British Raj and the subsequent anti-colonial movement that marked his increasing stature in history and as a pan Indian hero.
- From a folk hero to a Pan India hero: Nationalist historians saw him as an example of an local Indian ruler who was able to successfully resist and defeat the powerful and oppressive “outsiders” (Muslim rulers, including both Mughals and the Deccan Sultans). Thus, Shivaji rose from being a folk hero to a nationalist icon, seen as a proto-nationalist himself.
- Tales of his bravery and just rule used to infuse motivation: Tales of his bravery were told to galvanise a population that was enduring emasculation and injustices under its British overlords. Over the 19th and 20th centuries, the narrative around Shivaji Maharaj emphasised on both his military heroism and his just rule.
Shivaji Maharaj and the Mughals
- Meteoric rise: Shivaji Maharaj’s meteoric rise posed challenges to the suzerainty of the Mughals. His first direct encounter with the Mughals was during Aurangzeb’s Deccan campaigns of the 1650s. As Aurangzeb went North to fight for the Mughal throne, Shivaji Maharaj was able to seize further territory.
- Swift and smart warfare tactics beyond understanding of the Mughals: His tactics against the Mughals were adapted to the specific nature of his force and the flabby Mughal armies. Using swift cavalry attacks, he would raid and pillage Mughal strongholds. While on the rare occasion he would engage in battle to actually capture and hold Mughal positions, most often, he would simply cause much menace, raid the treasury, and leave with the Mughals in terror and disarray.
- Well know Seize of Surat: Famously, in 1664, he attacked the port of Surat (now in Gujarat) and plundered one of the richest and busiest commercial towns of Mughal India while the local governor hid in a nearby fort.
- Posed a greatest challenge to Aurangzeb and subsequent treaty of Purandar: As the legend of Shivaji and the physical sphere of his influence grew, Aurangzeb sent a 100,000-strong, well-equipped army under Raja Jai Singh I to subdue him in 1665. After putting up a valiant fight, Shivaji was besieged in the Purandar hill fort.
The chronology of the great escape
- Taken to Agra after purandar treaty: He was taken to Aurangzeb’s court in Agra in 1666. He presented Aurangzeb with various gifts, but he felt slighted at the treatment he received in return, and made his displeasure clear in open court.
- Kept under strict House arrest: Aurangzeb put him under house arrest in Agra. Far away from home and help, Shivaji realised he needed to escape to save himself and his territories. He began to plot a plan to return home and keep up his fight against the Mughals.
- The perfect plan of escape: The story of Shivaji’s subsequent escape is now part of common lore. The popularly told story involves an elaborate plan, under which he began daily distribution of alms to brahmans. The alms would be sent from his home in Agra in large, covered baskets.
- The final escape right under the nose of Mughals: After some time, the Mughal guards became lax about checking the contents of the baskets that daily left his house. One day, Shivaji slipped into one of the baskets, and put his young son, Sambhaji, in another basket. It was in these covered baskets that Shivaji and his son left Agra, right under the noses of the Mughals.
- Smart and swift movement in disguise from the Mughal territory: From there, he would traverse across Mughal territory, living incognito until he reached the safer lands closer to home. Some versions of this story say that he took the disguise of a wandering ascetic while others say he had a number of different disguises. His exact path is not known, though folktales and songs memorialising Shivaji often mention different towns and places he crossed.
- Embarrassed Aurangzeb regarded him as a king: Aurangzeb was livid and embarrassed. But he chose not to start an immediate conflict with Shivaji again. Instead, he offered Shivaji the title of Raja and guaranteed his authority in the Maratha lands as long as he acknowledged the supremacy of the Mughals and maintained truce.
Coronation of Shivaji Maharaj to Chhatrapati and the ideal rule
- By 1669, Shivaji had regrouped and raised an effective army. Using his old guerilla tactics, he would swiftly descend into static Mughal and Bijapuri strongholds, looting and pillaging the shocked Mughals.
- During this time, Aurangzeb was occupied with Pathan revolts in the North-West corner of his Empire. Shivaji deftly regained his lost positions in the Konkan coast. In 1674, he crowned himself Chhatrapati, officially creating an independent Maratha kingdom.
- The next six years were spent expanding his rule and forging new political norms, replacing the prevailing Indo-Persian court culture. He promoted the use of Marathi and Sanskrit in his courts and created an elaborate administrative system with a council of ministers known as “Ashta Pradhan.”
Conclusion
- Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is not just a name or a person but to many he is an idea, a life and inspiration for today and tomorrow, which has no parallel in the past or the present.
- Protection of the Swarajya and welfare of his subjects were the motives that pushed Shivaji Maharaj to escape from Agra. Comparing his love for his subjects with the political exigencies and manoeuvers of present-day politicians will be an injustice to the astuteness of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
Mains question
Q. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is considered as the king of the people; Discuss how he is remembered today and what qualities make him stand tall and different from those of the past and present?
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Notable women in the making of Constitution of India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: Making of Indian Constitution
PM highlighted the contribution of women in the Constituent Assembly which drafted the Constitution was hardly discussed and efforts should be made to educate future generations about their work.
These are the 15 invisible architects of the Indian republic cited by the PM-
Note: This newscard has some invincible set of facts that no one can remember in one go. However, we advise you to take some notes and have it on your desk. Be it sticky notes or something. Revise them for some days.
(1) Ammu Swaminathan
- She was born into an upper-caste Nair family in the Palghat district of Kerala.
- She was a social worker and politician who along with Annie Besant, Margaret Cousins, Malathi Patwardhan, Mrs. Dadabhoy, and Mrs. Ambujammal, formed the Women’s India Association in 1917 in Madras.
- One of the first associations to demand adult franchise and constitutional rights for women.
- She strongly opposed discriminatory caste practices although, she belonged to an upper-caste and strongly advocated equal status, adult franchise, and the removal of untouchability.
- Ammu became a part of the Constituent Assembly in 1946 from the Madras constituency.
- She felt that the Constitution was too long and that it had gone into unnecessary detail and wanted a constitution that could fit easily into a pocket or purse.
(2) Annie Mascarene
- Annie Mascarene was born into a Latin Catholic family belonging to Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.
- She was one of the first women to join the Travancore State Congress and became the first woman to be part of the Travancore State Congress Working Committee.
- She was one of the leaders of the movements for independence and integration with the Indian nation in the Travancore State.
- She was elected to the First Lok Sabha in the Indian general election, 1951.
- She was the first woman MP from Kerala and one of only ten elected to Parliament in the elections.
- Before her election to Parliament, she had served briefly as Minister in Charge of Health and Power during 1949-1950.
(3) Begum Aizaz Rasul
- She was born into the princely family of Malerkotla, Punjab.
- She was the only Muslim woman in the Constituent Assembly.
- She, together with her husband joined the Muslim League after the enactment of the GOI Act 1935.
- In 1950, after the dissolution of the Muslim League in India, she joined Congress.
- She was elected to the Constituent Assembly as a member of the Muslim League representing the United Provinces.
- Although she was not a part of any committee in the Assembly, she advocated for National language, reservation and property rights, and minority rights.
- She was against making ‘Sanskritised Hindi’ the National language, as only very few understood it and instead advocated for Hindustani.
(4) Dakshayani Velayudhan
- She was born into an agrestic slave caste, Pulayas, on a small island of Bolgatty on the coast of Cochin.
- She was the only Dalit women member of the Constituent Assembly and also the youngest at 34 years.
- She was the first Dalit woman to graduate in India, and was the only female student pursuing a course in the sciences.
- She was inspired into politics through her family’s fight against discriminatory caste practices.
- She was the first generation Kerala woman to be able to cover their upper-body.
- She was nominated to the Assembly in 1945 from Madras.
- In the Assembly, she advocated on issues of untouchability, forced labour, reservations, and against separate electorates for Dalits.
- She believed that the best way to address untouchability was through sustained state propaganda and not through punishment.
- In 1977 she set up a women’s rights organization Mahila Jagriti Parishad in Delhi.
(5) Durgabai Deshmukh
- Durgabai, from the ripe age of twelve, was a part of the Indian freedom movement.
- She quit school to protest the imposition of English as a medium of education, part of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- She volunteered at a conference held by the Indian National Congress in Kakinada at the age of 14.
- She participated in the Salt Satyagraha from Madras in May of 1930.
- While she was in prison, she studied English and completed her master’s degree from Andhra University.
- She then studied law at Madras University and practiced at the bar for a few years.
- She established Andhra Mahila Sabha to coach young Telugu girls in Madras for their Matriculation examination conducted by the Banaras Hindu University in 1936.
- She was elected to the Constituent Assembly from Madras and was part of the Committee on Rules and Procedure and the Steering Committee.
- She also advocated for judicial-independence and human trafficking.
- She also felt that Hindustani should be adopted as a national language instead of Sanskritised Hindi but, she later argued against adopting Hindi as the national language.
(6) Hansa Jivraj Mehta
- She was a writer, social reformer, social activist, and educator.
- In 1937, she contested in the Bombay Legislative Council elections from the general category; she not only won but remained on the council till 1949.
- She became President of the All India Women’s Conference in 1946.
- During the presidency, she drafted the Indian Women’s Charter of Rights and Duties, which called for gender equality and civil rights for women.
- She is 1946 also served as a member of the UN sub-committee on the status of women.
- She along with Eleanor Roosevelt, vice-chaired the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights Committee.
- She was part of the Advisory Committee, Sub-Committee on Fundamental Rights, Provincial Constitution Committee.
- She strongly advocated for a uniform civil code and believed that purdah was an evil practice. She also rejected quotas, reserved seats, and separate electorates for women.
(7) Kamla Chaudhary
- She was a feminist, fictional writer, and political activist.
- Her political career began in 1930 when she joined the Indian National Congress and was an active participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
- At the 54th session of the All India Congress Committee, she was the vice-president.
- She was elected to the Constituent Assembly.
(8) Leela Roy
- She was a great social reformer, a staunch feminist and a social and political activist, and a close associate of Subash Chandra Bose.
- In 1923 she received her M.A from Dhaka University and was the first woman to obtain it from the University.
- She was an advocate for women’s education and established Dipali Sangh, an association for women, in 1923.
- She founded a school named Dipali School and twelve other free primary schools with the help of the Dipali Sangha.
- Subsequently, in 1928, she established two other schools known as Nari Shiksa Mandir (Temple of Women’s Education) and Shiksa Bhaban (House of Education).
- Another important contribution was made b her to Muslim women’s education by setting up one of her schools as Qamrunnessa Girl’s School in Dhaka.
- She was the only woman to be elected from Bengal to the Constituent Assembly on 9th December 1946.
- However, she resigned from her post a few months later to protest against the partition of India.
(9) Malati Choudhury
- She hailed from East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
- At the age of 16, in 1929, she was sent to Santiniketan where she got admitted to Viswa-Bharati.
- Along with her husband, during the Salt Satyagrah joined the Indian National Congress.
- In 1933, she formed Utkal Congress Samajvadi Karmi Sangh along with, her husband and later came to be known as the Orissa Provincial Branch of the All India Congress Socialist Party.
- She joined Gandhiji in his famous padayatra in Orissa in 1934.
- For the upliftment of vulnerable communities in Odisha, she set-up several organizations such as the Bajiraut Chhatravas.
(10) Purnima Banerjee
- She was a part of the individual Satyagraha and Quit India movement.
- She was a member of the Congress Socialist Party and the Indian National Congress.
- She held the post as the Secretary of the Allahabad City Congress Committee, working towards creating rural engagement.
- She was appointed to the Constituent Assembly from United Provinces.
- She argued that the preventative detention clause in Draft Article 15A (Article 22 of the Constitution of India) must prescribe time limits beyond which a person cannot be detained.
- During the discussion of the Preamble, she expressly stated that ‘sovereignty’ is derived from the people of India.
- During the discussion around the qualifications of Rajya Sabha members, Banerjee believed that the age limit should be reduced from 35 to 30 years.
(11) Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
- Inspired by Gandhi’s fight for Independence, she gave up her Sherborne and Oxford education to be his Secretary for 16 years.
- In 1927 she along with Margaret cousins co-founded the All-India Women’s Conference.
- She held the position of Secretary in 1930 and President in 1933.
- She played a vital part in India’s establishment of constitutional equality of genders guaranteed under Articles 14, 15, and 16.
- She was also played a pivotal part in the inclusion of the Uniform Civil Code as part of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
- She was the first Health Minister of independent India and held office for ten years.
- She was the first female and first Asian President of the world health Assembly.
(12) Renuka Ray
- Renuka Rai is a celebrated women’s rights and inheritance rights in parent a property activist.
- She, like Kaur, was inspired by Gandhi’s call for the independence struggle, joined Gandhi’s Ashram accompanying him in protests.
- In 1934 while working as a secretary of the AIWC, she authored ‘legal disability is Women in India; A Plea for A Commission of Inquiry’.
- She worked for the prevention of women trafficking and the improvement of conditions of female labourers.
- Ray contributed to numerous women’s rights issues, minority rights, and bicameral legislature provisions. She fought for Uniform Personal Law Code.
- In 1949 represented India in the UN General assembly.
(13) Sarojini Naidu
- The first woman president of the Indian National Congress was popularly known as the Nightingale of India.
- When in England, she had gained some experience in suffragist campaigns and was drawn to India’s Congress movement and Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-cooperation Movement.
- Besides being a suffragette, she was also a women rights activist, and she advocated for reforms to improve the conditions of widows in the Indian National Social Conference in Madras, 1908.
- In 1917 she headed the All-India Women’s Deputation and championed women’s suffrage before E. S. Montagu (Secretary of State for India).
- In the same year, she together with Annie Besant, set up the Women’s India Association.
- In 1931 she accompanied Gandhi to London for the inconclusive second session of the Round Table Conference.
- She was appointed to the Constituent Assembly from Bihar as part of the ad-hoc committee on the national flag.
(14) Sucheta Kriplani
- The first elected female chief minister of an Indian state was born in Ambala.
- A graduate from Indraprastha College for Women, Delhi University, taught Constitutional History at Banaras Hindu University until 1939.
- She became a member of the Congress Party in 1938, served as the Secretary to the Foreign Department and Women’s Section for a year and a half.
- Under her leadership, the women’s wing of the Congress Party was established in 1940.
- She held an active role in India’s struggle for independence during the 1940s and was remembered especially for her role in the 1942 Quit India Movement for which she was arrested in 1944 and detained for a year.
- She was elected to the Constituent Assembly from the United Provinces in 1946 as a member of the Flag Presentation Committee.
- This committee presented the first Indian flag before the Constituent Assembly.
- Kriplani served as a Secretary to the Relief and Rehabilitation Committee established by the Congress Party, playing a pivotal role in rehabilitating the Bengali refugees during the partition.
- She had a colourful political career. She was also a part of various delegations to international organizations and countries.
(15) Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
- Born, Swarup Kumari Nehru was a diplomat and politician. She changed her name after her marriage in 1921.
- As an enthusiastic participant of the independence struggle, she was imprisoned on three different occasions.
- After the Indian Independence, she became an eminent diplomat representing India in the United Nations between 1946- 48 and 1952-53.
- She was an Ambassador to Moscow, Mexico, and Washington and later to England and Ireland concurrently.
- She is the first woman to become President of the UN General Assembly.
- She was appointed as the governor of Maharashtra after her return to India.
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Untitled
November 24, is commemorated as the Shaheedi Divas of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs, who stood up against forcible conversions by the Mughals, and was executed on the orders of Aurangzeb in 1675.
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)
- Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He was born at Amritsar in 1621 and was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
- His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- There are several accounts explaining the motive behind the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur on Aurangzeb’s orders.
- He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
- He was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for himself refusing Mughal rulers and defying them.
- Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of his body.
Impact of his martyrdom
- The execution hardened the resolve of Sikhs against religious oppression and persecution.
- His martyrdom helped all Sikh Panths consolidate to make the protection of human rights central to its Sikh identity.
- Inspired by him, his nine-year-old son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, eventually organized the Sikh group into a distinct, formal, symbol-patterned community that came to be known as Khalsa (Martial) identity.
- In the words of Noel King of the University of California, “Guru Teg Bahadur’s martyrdom was the first-ever martyrdom for human rights in the world.
- He is fondly remembered as ‘Hind di Chaadar’.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Post your answers here.
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Buddhist Nyingma Sect finds ‘reincarnation’ of famous Rinpoche
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nyingma school of buddhism
Mains level: Not Much
In a significant development in Tibetan Buddhist circles, the Nyingma sect has identified a boy from Spiti in Himachal Pradesh as the reincarnation of the late Taklung Setrung Rinpoche, a scholar known for his knowledge of Tibetan Tantric school.
About the Nyingma Sect
- Nyingma (literally ‘old school’) is the oldest of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
- It is founded on the first lineages and translations of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan in the eighth century, during the reign of King Trisong Detsen (r. 710–755).
- Nyingma traditional histories consider their teachings to trace back to the first Buddha Samantabhadra (Güntu Sangpo) and Indian mahasiddhas such as Garab Dorjé, Śrī Siṃha and Jñānasūtra.
- Traditional sources trace the origin of the Nyingma order in Tibet to figures associated with the initial introduction of Buddhism in the 8th century, such as Padmasambhava, Yeshe Tsogyal, Vimalamitra, Vairotsana, Buddhaguhya and Shantaraksita.
Who is a Rinpoche?
- Rinpoche is an honorific term used in the Tibetan language.
- It literally means “precious one”, and may refer to a person, place, or thing—like the words “gem” or “jewel”.
- The word consists of rin (value), po (nominalizing suffix) and chen (big).
- The word is used in the context of Tibetan Buddhism as a way of showing respect when addressing those recognized as reincarnated, older, respected or an accomplished Lamas or teachers of the Dharma.
- It is also used as an honorific for abbots of Buddhist monasteries.
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Who was Guru Tegh Bahadur?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Tegh Bahadur
Mains level: Not Much
November 24, is commemorated as the Shaheedi Divas of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru of the Sikhs, who stood up against forcible conversions by the Mughals, and was executed on the orders of Aurangzeb in 1675.
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)
- Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He was born at Amritsar in 1621 and was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
- His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- There are several accounts explaining the motive behind the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur on Aurangzeb’s orders.
- He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
- He was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for himself refusing Mughal rulers and defying them.
- Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of his body.
Impact of his martyrdom
- The execution hardened the resolve of Sikhs against religious oppression and persecution.
- His martyrdom helped all Sikh Panths consolidate to make the protection of human rights central to its Sikh identity.
- Inspired by him, his nine-year-old son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, eventually organized the Sikh group into a distinct, formal, symbol-patterned community that came to be known as Khalsa (Martial) identity.
- In the words of Noel King of the University of California, “Guru Teg Bahadur’s martyrdom was the first-ever martyrdom for human rights in the world.
- He is fondly remembered as ‘Hind di Chaadar’.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Post your answers here.
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400th birth anniversary of legendary hero Lachit Borphukan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan
Mains level: NA
The three-day-long celebration of the 400th birth anniversary of Ahom General Lachit Barphukan has begun.
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- The year was 1671 and the decisive Battle of Saraighat was fought on the raging waters of the Brahmaputra.
- On one side was Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s army headed by Ram Singh of Amer (Jaipur) and on the other was the Ahom General Lachit Borphukan.
- He was a commander in the Ahom kingdom, located in present-day Assam.
- Ram Singh failed to make any advance against the Assamese army during the first phase of the war.
- Lachit Borphukan emerged victorious in the war and the Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
Lachit Divas
- On 24 November each year, Lachit Divas is celebrated state-wide in Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan.
- On this day, Borphukan has defeated the Mughal army on the banks of the Brahmaputra in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
- The best passing out cadet of National Defence Academy has been conferred the Lachit gold medal every year since 1999 commemorating his valour.
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Uda Devi: A Dalit freedom fighter
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Uda Devi
Mains level: Not Much
On November 16, events to commemorate the martyrdom of Uda Devi, a freedom fighter from the Pasi community, were held at various places in Uttar Pradesh.
Who was Uda Devi?
- Uda Devi is remembered not only for her stories of valour but also for her skill as a leader who managed to mobilise people — especially Dalit women — to take up arms against the British.
- Born in Ujirao, Lucknow, she was part of the royal guard of Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh.
- Her husband, Makka Pasi, worked as a foot soldier in the army of Awadh’s Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah.
- Hazrat Mahal’s palace had several women belonging to marginalised communities, and their occupation was mostly to take care of the needs of the royalty.
- Some of them, who showed promise, were also trained as warriors. Uda Devi was one of them.
Her legend
- Amid the revolt of 1857, on June 10, at Chinhat near Ismailganj, a battle was fought between the army of Lucknow and the British troops led by Henry Lawrence, in which Makka Pasi lost his life.
- The death of her husband spurred Uda Devi on to take up a more active role in the mutiny.
- On November 16, 1857, Uda Devi was among the soldiers who clashed with the British regiment stationed near the Gomti River.
- Although not much of the fight has been documented in history, it is said that Uda Devi killed at least three dozen British soldiers from atop a tree before she could be spotted.
Can you recall the Eka Movement of 1921 from your modern history references? If not, take your time to revise. Read about the contribution of Madari Pasi in this movement.
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Birth anniversary of Birsa Munda: The leader, his contributions
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Birsa Munda
Mains level: Not Much
On the occasion of the birth anniversary of tribal leader Birsa Munda, the Centre marked the second Janjatiya Gaurav Divas on November 15 to celebrate the contributions of tribal communities to Indian culture.
Who was Birsa Munda (1875-1900)?
- Birsa Munda was a tribal freedom fighter, religious leader, and folk hero who belonged to the Munda tribe.
- He spearheaded a tribal religious millenarian movement that arose in the Bengal Presidency (now Jharkhand) in the late 19th century, during the British Raj.
His legacy
(A) Birth and early childhood
- Born on November 15, 1875, Birsa spent much of his childhood moving from one village to another with his parents.
- He belonged to the Munda tribe in the Chhotanagpur Plateau area.
- He received his early education at Salga under the guidance of his teacher Jaipal Nag.
- On the recommendation of Jaipal Nag, Birsa converted to Christianity in order to join the German Mission school.
- He, however, opted out of the school after a few years.
(B) New faith ‘Birsait’ against religious conversion
- The impact of Christianity was felt in the way he came to relate to religion later.
- Having gained awareness of the British colonial ruler and the efforts of the missionaries to convert tribals to Christianity, Birsa started the faith of ‘Birsait’.
- Soon members of the Munda and Oraon community started joining the Birsait sect and it turned into a challenge to British conversion activities.
- The Mundas called him Dharati Aaba, the father of earth.
(C) The Ulgulan
- The Great Tumult or Ulgulan was a movement started by Birsa Munda against the exploitation and discrimination against tribals by the local authorities.
- Although the movement failed, it did result in the Chotanagpur Tenancy Act which forbade tribal lands passing to non-tribals, protecting their land rights for the foreseeable future.
(D) Death
- On March 3, 1900, Birsa Munda was arrested by the British police while he was sleeping with his tribal guerilla army at Jamkopai forest in Chakradharpur.
- He died in Ranchi jail on June 9, 1900, at the young age of 25.
(E) Creation of Jharkhand
- Birsa Munda’s achievements are known to be even more remarkable by virtue of the fact that he came to acquire them before he was 25.
- In recognition of his impact on the national movement, the state of Jharkhand was created on his birth anniversary in 2000.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2020
With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following event?
(a) The Revolt of 1857
(b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
(c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
(d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Post your answers here.
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Who was Nadaprabhu Kempegowda?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nadaprabhu Kempegowda
Mains level: Not Much
PM unveiled a 108-feet tall bronze statue of ‘Nadaprabhu’ Kempegowda in Bengaluru, credited to be the city’s founder.
Who was Nadaprabhu Kempegowda?
- Nadaprabhu Kempegowda, a 16th century chieftain of the Vijayanagara empire, is credited as the founder of Bengaluru.
- It is said that he conceived the idea of a new city while hunting with his minister, and later marked its territory by erecting towers in four corners of the proposed city.
- Kempegowda is also known to have developed around 1,000 lakes in the city to cater to drinking and agricultural needs.
- He was from the dominant agricultural Vokkaliga community in south Karnataka.
Political motives behind
- Kempegowda is an iconic figure among Karnataka’s second most dominant Vokkaliga community after Lingayats.
- Political parties plan to woo the Vokkaliga community by honoring Kempegowda.
- The statue would be known as the ‘Statue of Prosperity’.
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Forgotten Heroes: Indian Soldiers in World War-II
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: World wars and Indian Soldiers in World wars
Context
- On the eleventh hour of the 11th day of the 11th month of 1918, the guns fell silent over Europe, bringing an end to a brutal first world war that drew in soldiers and contributions from around the world. Indian soldiers and their contribution are not widely recognized in India.
Background of Indian involvement World War II
- Fight against Fascism: Two conflicts and a reticence Indian reticence over these two conflicts arises from the uneasy relationship between the Indian contribution to fighting fascism on a global stage and the nationalist movement for freedom at home.
- Betrayal of nationalistic expectation: The success of the first is seen to have come at the cost of the second. It began with the betrayal of nationalist expectations of greater autonomy for India in return for support during the Great War.
- No consultation with Indian leaders: This was compounded by the bitterness of Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declaring war on Germany on India’s behalf in 1939 without consulting Indian leaders, and further roiled by the pitting of Indian against Indian when Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army sided with the Axis Powers in the hope that this might bring freedom.
- Fighting for India and for World: But the failure of Indian independence to follow automatically from India’s participation in the wars does not mean that the war efforts extended colonial rule, or were all about protecting Britain: there was fighting on Indian soil to defend India.
What is Indian soldiers role in World War II
- Support of nationalist leaders: Almost 1.5 million men volunteered to fight in the Great War. Indians mobilized four days after Britain declared war on Germany, with the support of nationalist leaders, including Mahatma Gandhi.
- War in Europe, Asia and Africa: Indians fought with valor and distinction in the trenches of Europe, West Asia and North Africa, earning 11 Victoria Crosses along the way. Of those men, about 74,000 never came home.
- Largest volunteer for war: India raised the largest ever volunteer army, of 2.5 million, for the Second World War. More than 87,000 of those men are cremated or buried in war cemeteries around the world and in India.
- Thirty-one Victoria Crosses: 15 % of the total Victoria crosses went to soldiers from undivided India. Without Indian soldiers, non-combatant labourers, material and money, the course of both conflicts would have been very different as acknowledged by Field Marshal Auchinleck, Britain’s last Commander-in-Chief of the Indian.
The issue of Non-recognition of India’s contribution
- Indian soldiers are honored by Britain: In Britain, the contribution of the Commonwealth including the Indian subcontinent is memorialized in the Commonwealth Memorial Gates that lead up to Buckingham Palace. The Gates commemorate the campaigns where Commonwealth soldiers served with distinction; there is also a canopy inscribed with the names of the Commonwealth recipients of the George and Victoria Crosses.
- Indian soldiers fought the Britain’s war: Much of India’s recent history is encapsulated in these gates, in a spirit of gratitude and equality. Britain, after all, has much to be grateful for, but Indians seem less keen to acknowledge this. British perfidy, however, does not in any way reduce the sacrifices of those who fought for freedom. Those who went abroad to fight alongside white British soldiers returned with the knowledge that they were equal to their colonial masters. In not recognizing and honoring this, we push those men back into colonial subjugation.
- Britain betrayed the hopes of freedom: Some of this ambivalence owes itself to the atrocities of colonial history, which must be acknowledged too. Britain may have handed out 11 Victoria Crosses over the course of the First World War, but it betrayed the hopes of nationalists with the imposition of martial law after the war ended, culminating in the horror of Jallianwala Bagh in April 1919.
Does India fought the war for its own sake?
- Indian fought the Japanese: These were not just European wars to defend foreign lands. India was threatened in the Second World War by advancing Japanese forces who got as far as Burma/Myanmar. They were repulsed in the battles of Imphal and Kohima between March and July 1944. These were brutal battles. In Kohima, the two sides were at one point separated by the width of a tennis court. A Commonwealth cemetery on Garrison Hill, Kohima, contains this epitaph (by John Maxwell Edmonds): ‘When You Go Home, Tell Them of Us, and Say/For Your Tomorrow, We Gave Our Today’.
- Ultimate sacrifice for India’s freedom: The memory of the almost 10 million battlefield deaths in the First World War and the 15 million or more who were killed fighting the Second World War is now honored in countries around the world on November 11, with nationwide silences and the laying of wreaths. Not so much in India apart from in Army cantonments and at the British Consulate in Kolkata even though over 1,61,000 men made the ultimate sacrifice for India’s freedom.
Conclusion
- Seventy-five years after Independence, it is time to honor India’s immense contribution to the world wars and move it from a footnote in another country’s history to the main stage, where it belongs. These were India’s wars too.
Mains Question
Q. What role the Indian soldier played in Second world War? What are the issues regarding non recognition of contribution of Indian soldiers in world wars?
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Person in news: Dadabhai Naoroji
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dadabhai Naoroji
Mains level: Not Much
This year, 2022, marks the 130th anniversary of the election, in 1892, of the first person of Indian origin, Dadabhai Naoroji to the House of Commons.
Why in news?
- Election of Rishi Sunak as British PM with a narrow majority has brought to focus Naoroji.
- He too had won Finsbury seat as a MP with a three vote’s majority.
Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917)
- Dadabhai Naoroji is well known as the “Grand Old Man of India” and “Unofficial Ambassador of India”.
- He was a Liberal Party Member of Parliament in the British House of Commons, represnting Finsbury Central between 1892 and 1895.
- He was the second person of Asian descent to be a British MP, the first being Anglo-Indian MP David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre.
- He was an Indian political leader, merchant, scholar and writer who was served as 2nd, 9th, and 22nd President of the Indian National Congress from 1886 to 1887, 1893 to 1894 & 1906 to 1907.
- His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India brought attention to his theory of the Indian “wealth drain” into Britain.
- He was also a member of the Second Communist International (1889).
Other works
- Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854.
- The manners and customs of the Parsees (Bombay, 1864)
- The European and Asiatic races (London, 1866)
- Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868)
- The wants and means of India (London, 1876)
- Condition of India (Madras, 1882)
Influence on Gandhi and Jinnah
- Before his Finsbury win, Naoroji met a young student of law in Inner Temple, 23-year-old Mohandas K Gandhi, and left an everlasting impact on the future leader.
- He also met another aspiring lawyer then enrolled at Lincoln’s Inn — 16-year-old Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who was to serve for a while as Naoroji’s secretary.
- Jinnah had the distinction of hearing Naoroji’s maiden speech in the House of Commons from the Visitors’ Gallery.
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Person in news: Jayaprakash Narayan (JP)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jaiprakash Narayan-JP
Mains level: Not Much
Union Home Minister unveiled a 15-foot statue of Jayaprakash Narayan or JP on his 120th birth anniversary at the socialist icon’s birthplace, Sitab Diara village in Bihar’s Saran district.
Who was Jayaprakash Narayan?
- JP was born in 1902 in Bihar’s Sitab Diara, a village prone to frequent-flooding, after which his family moved to a village in Uttar Pradesh’s Balia district.
- He quit college to join the non-cooperation movement, before going to study at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx.
Political affiliations
- JP returned to India in 1929 and joined the freedom struggle and the Indian National Congress, upon the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru and drawn by a speech by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
- He went on to become the founding members of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP).
- However after independence took it out of the Congress and formed the Socialist Party, which was merged with J B Kripalani’s Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party to form the Praja Socialist Party.
Dissociation from active politics
- While Nehru was keen on JP joining the Union government, JP sought to distance himself from electoral politics, opting to focus on social causes instead.
- He was disillusioned with political parties and called for communitarian democracy.
- Parties, he believed, were centralized and susceptible to moral and financial corruption.
The JP movement
- Students in Gujarat began demonstrating in late 1973, in response to mounting mess bills.
- The protests became widespread in the state, with workers, teachers and several other groups joining in the movement, calling for a change in government.
- JP saw the youth of Gujarat that had been able to bring about political change as an alternative route from electoral.
- The protests against corruption grew widespread, and students of Bihar began their movement in March 1974.
- The students approached JP, who left his self-imposed political exile and led the movement. At a rally in Patna he called for Sampoorna Kranti (Total Revolution).
Opposition to the Emergency
- When Indira Gandhi imposed an Emergency on June 25, 1975, JP shifted his focus to opposing the authoritarian rule and opposition parties looked to him for leadership.
- The Socialists were naturally drawn to him ideologically, while the RSS and its political front the Jana Sangh sought to return to the mainstream, and were happy to be dissolved into the Janata Party that JP had formed.
- JP is celebrated for launching a popular, mass movement against the Indira Gandhi government, which led to the formation of the Janata Party government in the 1977 general election.
- This was the first non-Congress government in the country.
Try this PYQ:
Who among the following were the founders of the “Hind Mazdoor Sabha” established in 1948?
(a) B. Krishna Pillai, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and K.C. George
(b) Jayaprakash Narayan, Deen Dayal Upadhyay and M.N. Roy
(c) C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, K. Kamaraj and Veeresalingam Pantulu
(d) Ashok Mehata, T.S. Ramanujan and G.G. Mehta
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Places in news: Ram Setu
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ram Setu
Mains level: NA
A movie has once again generated buzz around the chain of shoals off the southeast coast of India that many believe is the Ram Setu or the bridge to Lanka mentioned in the Ramayana.
The Ram Setu
- The Ram Setu, also known as Adam’s Bridge, is a 48-km chain of limestone shoals between Rameswaram on India’s southeast coast and Mannar Island near Sri Lanka’s northwest coast.
- The structure has significance in both Hindu and Muslim mythology – while Hindus believe this is the bridge (Setu) built by Lord Ram and his army to cross to Lanka and fight Ravan.
- As per Islamic legend, Adam used this bridge to reach Adam’s Peak in Sri Lanka, where he stood on one foot for 1,000 years in repentance.
Factual details of the bridge
- Scientists believe Ram Setu is a natural structure formed due to tectonic movements and sand getting trapped in corals.
- However, over the years, evidence has been offered to claim that the bridge is man-made.
- The bridge is not entirely natural, Hindu right wing outfits argue, which proves that it was indeed built by Lord Ram.
When was the structure came into highlights?
- The Ram Setu issue snowballed into a major controversy when the Sethusamudram Project, flagged off during the UPA I government.
- The project aimed to reduce travel time between the eastern and western coasts of India, as ships would no longer have to circle Sri Lanka to travel between the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
- The project was perceived as an attack on Hindu sentiments.
- Various studies have been proposed on the Ram Setu, with the most recent being in 2021, when the government approved an underwater research project to ascertain its origins.
Ecological arguments against the project
- The Sethusamudram project has been opposed on environmental grounds.
- Some claims that it will harm marine life, and that dredging of the line of shoals will make India’s coast more vulnerable to tsunamis.
- In March 2018, the Centre told the Supreme Court that the Ram Setu will not be affected in the execution of the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal project.
NASA images, and other proofs
- Images of the Ram Setu clicked by NASA have been used over and over again to claim that this proves the existence of a man-made bridge.
- NASA has repeatedly clarified that it does not agree with these claims.
- Remote sensing images or photographs from orbit cannot provide direct information about the origin or age of a chain of islands.
- It certainly cannot be determined whether humans were involved in producing any of the patterns seen.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Private: Who was activist-author Annabhau Sathe?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Annabhau Sathe
Mains level: Not Much
Maharashtra’s Deputy Chief Minister and other leaders are in Moscow to unveil the statue of Lok Shahir (balladeer) Annabhau Sathe at the All-Russia State Library for Foreign Literature.
Why in news?
- Sathe’s work was immensely inspired by the Russian revolution and the Communist ideology.
- He was a member of the Communist Party of India (CPI), and featured among the selected authors from India whose work was translated in Russian.
Who was Anna bhau Sathe?
- Tukaram Bhaurao Sathe, who later came to be known as Annabhau Sathe, was born in a Dalit family on August 1, 1920 in Maharashtra’s Wategaon village in Satara district.
- In 1930, his family left the village and came to Mumbai. Here, he worked as a porter, a hawker and even a cotton mill helper.
- In 1934, Mumbai witnessed a workers’ strike under the leadership of Lal Bawta Mill Workers Union in which he participated.
- During his days at the Matunga Labour Camp, he got to know R B More, an associate of Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar in the famous ‘Chavdar Lake’ satyagraha at Mahad, and joined the labour study circle.
- Being a Dalit, he was denied schooling in his village. It was during these study circles that he learned to read and write.
How did Anna start writing songs, ballads and books?
- Sathe wrote his first poem on the menace of mosquitoes in the labour camp.
- He formed Dalit Yuvak Sangh, a cultural group and started writing poems on workers’ protests, agitations.
- The group used to perform in front of the mill gates.
- Progressive Writers Association was formed at the national level at the same time with the likes of Premchand, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Manto, Ismat Chugtai, Rahul Sankrutyayan, Mulkraj Anand as its members.
- The group would translate the Russian work of Maxim Gorky, Anton Chekhov, Leo Tolstoy, Ivan Turgenev into Marathi, which Sathe got hooked on.
- It not only had an ideological impact on him, but inspired him to write street plays, stories, novels etc. In 1939, he wrote his first ballad ‘Spanish Povada’.
How popular was his work?
- Sathe and his group travelled across Mumbai campaigning for workers’ rights.
- Out of the 49 years that he lived, Sathe, who began writing only after the age of 20, churned out 32 novels, 13 collections of short stories, four plays, a travelogue and 11 povadas (ballads).
- Several of his works like ‘Aklechi Goshta,’ ‘Stalingradacha Povada,’ ‘Mazi Maina Gavavar Rahili,’ ‘Jag Badal Ghaluni Ghav’ were popular across the state.
- Almost six of his novels were turned into films and many translated into other languages, including Russian.
- His ‘Bangalchi Hak’ (Bengal’s Call) on the Bengal famine was translated into Bengali and later presented at London’s Royal Theatre.
- His literature depicted the caste and class reality of Indian society of that time.
Left leanings
- Sathe’s work was influenced by Marxism, but at the same time he brought out the harsh realities of the caste system.
- In 1943, he formed the Lal Bawta Kala Pathak.
- The group toured across Maharashtra presenting programmes on caste atrocities, class conflict, and workers’ rights.
- He dedicated his most famous novel Fakira to Dr Ambedkar.
What was his Russian connection?
- He was once called the Maxim Gorky of Maharashtra.
- He was immensely inspired by Gorky’s ‘The Mother’ and the Russian revolution, which was reflected in his writings.
- He travelled to Russia in 1961 along with a group of other Indians.
Is there a reason behind the statue being unveiled now?
- Sathe belonged to the Matang community among Dalits.
- With the Left failing to claim his artistic legacy, Sathe is now restricted as a symbol of a particular community.
- The right wing is angling to claim the credit for making Sathe a global icon.
- Installing Sathe’s oil painting at the Indian consulate at Moscow also shows that the central government is using this occasion to increase cultural dialogue between two countries.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
How India adopted its military flags and badges based on Lord Mountbatten’s suggestions?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flags and defence insignia
Mains level: Not Much
The new Naval Ensign (flag), which will be unveiled by PM in Kochi, has brought into focus the flags and ranks adopted by the Indian military after Independence.
Do you know?
The octagonal shape with twin golden borders draws inspiration from the seal of the great Indian emperor, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, whose visionary maritime outlook established a credible naval fleet
Why in news?
- Documents accessed from National Archives of India show that Lord Mountbatten, former Viceroy and Governor General of India, played a major role in suggesting new flags and rank badges.
- This was when India was about to become a Republic on January 26, 1950.
When did India switch from British-era flags and ranks?
- The switch from British-era flags and ranks took place when India became a Republic (26th Jan, 1950).
- Prior to that the flags and badges of ranks of the military were of the British pattern.
- The new, Indian pattern of flags of Army, Navy and Air Force, and also the Regimental Flags of the Army and badges of ranks of all three services were adopted on January 26, 1950.
- The ‘Kings Commission’ granted to Indian military officers was also changed to ‘Indian Commission’ on the same date.
- And at a subsequent date the King’s Colours of the various Regiments were laid to rest in Indian Military Academy (IMA), Dehradun.
When did Lord Mountbatten come into the picture?
- The national archives have files, dated 1949, that include a detailed note from Lord Mountbatten regarding names, flags and ranks of the armed forces, and then PM Nehru’s letter to the then Defence Minister Baldev Singh regarding Mountbatten’s suggestions.
- The note, archives reveal, was given to Nehru by Lord Mountbatten when the two met in London.
- The note was forwarded from the PM’s office to the office of then Governor General C Rajagopalachari on May 24, 1949, stating that it is on the issue of ‘Names and Insignia of Indian Armed Forces’ after India becomes a Republic.
- The letter also stated that the note should be placed before the Governor General.
What did Lord Mountbatten say in the note?
- The note begins by saying that consequent to becoming a Republic the word ‘Royal’ shall be dropped from India’s Army, Navy and Air Force.
- Mountbatten strongly recommended that no other word like ‘State’ of ‘Republican’ should replace the word ‘Royal’.
- This was because it would have the effect of separating the forces of India psychologically from the other services in the Commonwealth.
- He further suggested in the letter that the Crown should be replaced from the insignias and replaced by the “three lions of Ashoka”.
- Regarding the Naval Ensign, he said that all Commonwealth navies fly the same flag which consists of a large white flag with a red-cross and Union Jack in the upper corner nearer the staff and is known as the ‘White Ensign’.
- The new Ensign, the note suggested, should continue to have the red-cross but the Indian national flag should replace the Union Jack.
- He suggested this to maintain commonality with the Commonwealth flags.
What changes did Mountbatten suggest for uniforms?
- He strongly urged that existing uniforms should be changed as little as possible.
- He added that the Crown worn on badges of ranks of Majors and above should be replaced by the “three lions of Ashoka”.
- The Star of the Order of the Bath should be replaced by Star of India or another form of star.
- He also suggested that the crossed sword and baton on the badges of ranks of Generals should be retained.
- The former Viceroy advocated retaining the stripes of rank in Navy and Air Force saying these were internationally almost the same.
How did the Indian government react to Mountbatten’s suggestions?
- Nehru wrote to the then defence minister in September 1949 saying that he agreed with the suggestions made by the former Governor General that there should be as little change as possible.
- The then PM particularly mentioned the changes suggested by Mountbatten for the Navy.
- Then Governor General C Rajagopalachari also wrote back to Nehru in May 1949 itself agreeing to Mountbatten’s suggestions.
- In the end, Mountbatten’s suggestions were virtually all accepted and implemented with effect from January 26, 1950.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Sittanavasal Rock Cave Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sittanavasal
Mains level: NA
The Sittanavasal Rock Cave Temple, a major centre of Jain influence for 1,000 years just before the Christian era, is in need of better upkeep.
Sittanavasal
- Sittanavasal is a small hamlet in Pudukkottai district of Tamil Nadu, India.
- It is known for the Sittanavasal Cave, a 2nd-century Jain cave complex. From the 7th to the 9th century A.D., the village flourished as a Jain centre.
- Sittanavasal is the name used synonymously for the hamlet and the hillock that houses the:
- Arivar Kovil (temple of Arihants — Jains who conquered their senses)
- Ezhadipattam (a cavern with 17 polished rock beds), megalithic burial sites and the
- Navachunai tarn (small mountain lake) with a submerged shrine
What makes it special?
- The artwork on the ceiling of the sanctum and the ardha mandapam of Arivar Kovil is an early example of post-Ajanta cave paintings of the fourth to sixth centuries.
- It was also done using the fresco-secco technique (a process that dispenses with preparation of the wall with wet plaster).
Features of the cave paintings
- The ceiling paintings show ‘bhavyas’ (exalted souls who work to achieve moksha or spiritual liberation) enjoying themselves in a pool, full of lotuses; today much of it is obscured by patchy plastering.
- Faint outlines linger of dancing girls on the ‘ardha mandapam’ pillars.
- The colours are a mixture of plant dyes and mineral elements such as lime, lamp black, and clay pigments such as ochre for yellow and terre verte for the greyish-green tints.
Why in news now?
- Unrestricted public access and general exposure to the elements have led to a gradual fading away of these paintings.
- At the Ezhadipattam, inscriptions have been vandalised beyond recognition.
Also try this PYQ:
Q.There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
How Hyderabad became a part of India?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hyderabad's accession into India
Mains level: Post-independence consolidation
The Government of India began its year-long celebrations for the ‘Telangana Liberation Day’ on September 17, marking how on the same day in 1948, the state of Hyderabad got its independence from Nizam’s rule, as said in a press release.
Why in news?
- From 1911 to 1948, Nizam Mir Usman Ali, the last Nizam of Hyderabad, ruled the state composed of Telangana and parts of present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra (Marathwada).
- While these states mark the Liberation Day officially, Telangana has never done so.
Hyderabad’s accession into India: A backgrounder
(1) Reluctance of Nizam
- At the time of India’s independence, British India was a mix of independent kingdoms and provinces that were given the options of joining India, Pakistan, or remaining independent.
- One among those who took a long time to make a decision was the Nizam of Hyderabad.
- Believed to be one of the richest people in the world at the time, the Nizam was not ready to let go of his kingdom.
(2) Sufferings for the people
- Meanwhile, the majority population of Hyderabad state was far from enjoying the same kind of wealth as the Nizam did.
- The feudal nature of the state at the time caused the peasant population to suffer high taxes, indignities of forced labour, and various other kinds of exploitation at the hands of powerful landlords.
(3) Lingual friction
- There was also a demand by the Andhra Jan Sangham for Telugu to be given primacy over Urdu.
- By the mid-1930s, apart from a reduction in land revenue rates and the abolition of forced labour, introducing Telugu in local courts became another important issue.
(4) Mass movement
- Soon after the organisation became the Andhra Mahasabha (AMS), and Communists became associated with it.
- Together, the two groups built a peasant movement against the Nizam that found local support.
Who were the Razakars and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen?
- By October 1946, the Nizam banned the AMS.
- A close aide of the Nizam, Qasim Razvi, leader of the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, became closely involved in securing the Nizam’s position.
- The Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen was a political outfit that sought a greater role for Muslims in the early 20th century, but after Razvi took over the organisation, it became extremist in its ideology.
- It was under him that a militia of the ‘Razakars’ was formed to suppress the peasant and communist movement, launching a brutal attack.
- Around this time, the Standstill Agreement was also signed between the Nizam and the Indian government in November 1947, declaring a status quo.
- This meant that until November 1948, the Nizam could let things be as they were and not finalise a decision as negotiations with the Indian union continued.
How did the situation escalate to military action?
- In the first half of 1948, tensions grew as the razakar leaders and the government in Hyderabad began to speak of war with India and began border raids with Madras and Bombay Presidencies.
- As a response, India stationed troops around Hyderabad and began to ready itself for military intervention.
India commences Operation Polo
- With the Nizam importing more arms and the violence of the Razakars approaching dangerous proportions, India officially launched ‘Operation Polo’ on September 9 and deployed its troops in Hyderabad four days later.
- On September 17, three days after the deployment, the Nizam surrendered and acceded to the Indian Union in November.
- India has decided to be generous and not punish the Nizam.
- He was retained as the official ruler of the state and given a privy purse of five million rupees.
The legacy of Operation Polo
- It has also been said that the army’s march into Hyderabad did not just target the razakars and the radical extremist forces.
- A four-member goodwill mission led by Pandit Sunderlal was constituted by the then Prime Minister.
- At the request of then PM Nehru, a month was spent in Hyderabad in November 1948 where evidence was gathered and at the end, a report was filed.
- Estimated thousands of people died in communal violence during the military action.
Why debate now?
- The debate about whether the day of independence was about integration into the Indian union after months of negotiations, or liberation from an autocratic monarch has continued.
- Hyderabad’s history continues to affect today’s politics.
- After Qasim Rizvi left India for Pakistan, the organisation was handed over to Abdul Wahed Owaisi, the grandfather of a present day Parliamentarian.
- And communal-sectarian politics is storming up the city of Hyderabad leading to religious tensions.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
100 years of periyar because of whom tamil nadu became modern and progressive
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vaikom satyagraha
Mains level: Social reform movement in tamil nadu
Context
- We celebrate Periyar E.V. Ramasamy’s birth anniversary (September 17) as Social Justice Day.
Who is periyar?
- Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy, revered as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is known as the ‘Father of the Dravidian movement’. He rebelled against Brahminical dominance and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu.
Who started self-respect movement?
- The self-respect movement was founded by V.Ramaswamy Naicker, commonly known as Periyar. It was a dynamic social movement aimed at destroying the contemporary Hindu social order in its totality and creating a new, rational society without caste, religion and god.
Why Periyar is called as vaikom hero?
- V. Ramasamy Periyar led the famous Vaikom Sathya Graha in 1924, where the people of down trodden community were prohibited to enter into the temple. Finally the Travancore government relaxed such segregation and allowed the people to enter into the temple. Hence periyar was given the title of ‘Vaikom Hero’.
Leadership at a critical juncture
- The satyagraha began with the active support of the Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee.
- Within a week all its leaders were behind bars. George Joseph sought directions from Gandhi and C. Rajagopalachari. He also wrote to Periyar pleading with him to lead the satyagraha.
- Periyar was in the midst of political work. As he was then the president of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, Periyar handed over temporary charge to Rajaji before reaching Vaikom in 1924.
- From that date to the day of the victory celebrations in 1925, he was in the struggle giving it leadership at a critical juncture.
Periyar’s role
- Against violence – Periyar presided over the satyagraha in the face of violence and indignity inflicted by the orthodox and the repression of the police.
- Mobilising – To mobilise support, he visited villages in and around Vaikom and delivered public speeches in several towns.
- Gandhi – When the Kerala leaders asked for Gandhi’s permission to make the satyagraha an all-India affair, Gandhi refused saying that volunteers from Tamil Nadu would keep it alive.
- In reports – the British Resident said in his report to the government of Madras: “In fact, the movement would have collapsed long ago but for the support it has received from outside Travancore…”
- Historian T.K. Ravindran — observes that Periyar’s arrival gave “a new life to the movement”.
His Vision for the future
- Ideas on rationality: When he presented his thoughts, there was nuance, honesty, and an explicitness, which prompted even people practising different faiths to discuss and debate his ideas on rationality and religion.
- Freedom of expression: Periyar himself said, “Everyone has the right to refute any opinion. But no one has the right to prevent its expression.”
- Eradication of social evils: Periyar is often referred to as an iconoclast, for the rebellious nature of his ideas and the vigour with which he acted. His vision for the future was a part of all his actions. He did not merely aim at the eradication of social evils; he also wanted to put an end to activities that do not collectively raise standards of society.
Foundation of rationalism
- He understood the evolution of political thought: Periyar’s vision was about inclusive growth and freedom of individuals. He was an important ideologue of his day because of the clarity in his political stand. More importantly, he understood the evolution of political thought and was able to glide through time with this.
- He presented rationalism as a solid foundation: For thinking along these lines. He said, “Wisdom lies in thinking. The spearhead of thinking is rationalism.” Periyar was way ahead of his time.
- Concern towards poor: “Whomsoever I love and hate, my principle is the same. That is, the educated, the rich and the administrators should not suck the blood of the poor.”
- Periyar proclaimed that he would always stand with the oppressed: In the fight against oppressors and that his enemy was oppression. There have been several social reformers in Tamil Nadu who shared their revolutionary thoughts with the people in the past century. In that spectrum, Periyar occupies a unique place because he made interactions of multiple worlds possible.
Periyar said, “Any opposition not based on rationalism or science or experience, will one day or other, reveal the fraud, selfishness, lies, and conspiracies.”
Conclusion
- His works against the Bhraminical dominance, oppression of women in Tamil Nadu, caste prevalence are exemplary. Periyar promoted the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of caste. He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.
Mains question
Q.Discuss the future vision of periyar by discussing his role in vaikom satyagraha. Do you think he has placed foundation of rationalism in Tamil Nadu?
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker
Mains level: NA
A recently-released Malayalam film Pathonpatham Noottandu (‘Nineteenth Century’) is based on the life of Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, a social reformer from the Ezhava community in Kerala who lived in the 19th century.
Who was Arattupuzha Velayudha Panicker?
- Born into a well-off family of merchants in Kerala’s Alappuzha district, Panicker was one of the most influential figures in the reformation movement in the state.
- He challenged the domination of upper castes or ‘Savarnas’ and brought about changes in the lives of both men and women.
- The social reform movement in Kerala in the 19th century led to the large-scale subversion of the existing caste hierarchy and social order in the state.
- Panicker was murdered by a group of upper-caste men in 1874 at the age of 49. This makes him the ‘first martyr’ of the Kerala renaissance.
What was Panicker’s role in initiating social reforms?
- Panicker is credited with building two temples dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, in which members of all castes and religions were allowed entry.
- One was built in his own village Arattupuzha in 1852, and one in Thanneermukkom in 1854, another village in the Alappuzha district.
- Some of his most significant contributions were in protesting for the rights of women belonging to Kerala’s backward communities.
- In 1858, he led the Achippudava Samaram strike at Kayamkulam in Alappuzha.
- This strike aimed to earn women belonging to oppressed groups the right to wear a lower garment that extended beyond the knees.
- In 1859, this was extended into the Ethappu Samaram, the struggle for the right to wear an upper body cloth by women belonging to backward castes.
- In 1860, he led the Mukkuthi Samaram at Pandalam in the Pathanamthitta district, for the rights of lower-caste women to wear ‘mukkuthi’ or nose-ring, and other gold ornaments.
- These struggles played an important role in challenging the social order and in raising the dignity of women belonging to the lower strata of society in public life.
Other work
- Apart from issues related to women, Panicker also led the first-ever strike by agricultural labourers in Kerala, the Karshaka Thozhilali Samaram, which was successful.
- He also established the first Kathakali Yogam for the Ezhava community in 1861, which led to a Kathakali performance by Ezhavas and other backward communities, another first for them.
Try this PYQ:
Q. The Shri Narayan Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) Movement(1902-03) was related to which of the following community?
a) Mopilla Community
b) South Indian Tea Planters
c) Ezhava Community in Kerala
d) North Eastern Tea Planters
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Dara Shikoh?
The Vice President has released the Arabic Version of “Majma Ul-Bahrain” of Mughal Prince Dara Shikoh.
The course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians. Critically analyse.
Who was Dara Shikoh?
- Dara Shikoh, who was Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s son and expected heir, was killed on the orders of his brother Aurangzeb in 1659 after losing the war of succession.
- He was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
- Dara was designated with the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba (Prince of High Rank) and was favored as a successor by his father and his older sister, Princess Jahanara Begum.
- In the war of succession which ensued after Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657, Dara was defeated by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin (Aurangzeb).
- He was executed in 1659 on Aurangzeb’s orders in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne.
His legacy
- Dara was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim as opposed to the orthodox Aurangzeb.
- He authored the work Majma Ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of the Two Seas), which argues for the harmony of Sufi philosophy in Islam and Vedanta philosophy in Hinduism.
- It was Dara Shikoh who was responsible for making the Upanishads available to the West as he had them translated.
- He had commissioned a translation of Yoga Vasistha.
- A great patron of the arts, he was also more inclined towards philosophy and mysticism rather than military pursuits.
- He translated the Upanishads and other important works from Sanskrit to Persian. He was convinced that the Upanishads are what the Qur’an calls ‘Al-Kitab Al-Maknoun’ (The Hidden book).
Try this PYQ:
Q.Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?
(a) Humayun
(b) Akbar
(c) Jahangir
(d) Shah Jahan
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Subash Chandra Bose
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian national army particuars
Mains level: Modern Indian history developments
Context
- In the year of ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’, the nation pays tribute to Subhas Bose on September 8 as his statue rises tall next to India Gate.
Crux of this article in simple words
- The transfer of power to India took place on August 15, 1947. Had Bose and his Indian National Army (INA) succeeded, India would have attained freedom, not inherited it through a transfer of power.
Brief of historical account of his career
- Bose was the ninth child in 14 and the sixth son to Janakinath Bose, a lawyer from the Kayasth caste.
- He passed matriculation in 1913 from Cuttack and joined the Presidency College in Kolkata (then Calcutta).
- The teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Paramhansa led to a spiritual awakening in Bose at the young age of 15.
- Subhash Chandra Bose reached Singapore on July 2, 1943, at the invitation of Rash Behari Bose. He took charge as the President of the Indian Independence League and took over as the leader for East Asia.
- On October 23 1943, with the help of the Japanese Army, Netaji declared war on the United States and Britain.
- He was fondly called Netaji and was arrested 11 times in his freedom struggle and died under mysterious circumstances in an air crash over Taipei.
His vision for INA march in India
- Creating revolutionary conditions: Bose had hoped to capture Imphal. That would give the INA a large number of Indian soldiers. Once this was achieved, fighting in India would create revolutionary conditions.
- Organization of INA divisions at border: When the fighting commenced, the INA had only one division stationed on India’s borders. Another was on the move towards Burma. And the third was in the process of formation. All three divisions were expected to be in Burma by the time Imphal fell.
- Rapid invasion from north east: Bose was confident of raising three more divisions from among the Indian troops that would fall to him after the capture of Imphal. With six divisions, the INA would be the single largest force in the region. The rapid advance into India would create the right conditions for the Indian army to switch sides along with the people of the Northeast.
His famous quotes for value addition
“It is our duty to pay for our liberty with our own blood.”
“No great change in history has ever been achieved by discussions”
Azad Hind Radio
- This radio station was created to encourage countrymen to fight for freedom under the leadership of Subhas Chandra Bose.
- The radio station used to broadcast news at weekly intervals in various languages like English, Hindi, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, etc.
- The main aim for the formation of the Azad Hind Radio was to counter the broadcast of allied radio stations and to fill Indian nationals with pride and motivation to fight for freedom.
The Rani Jhansi Regiment
- Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was a firm believer of women’s power and women were also greatly inspired by his words.
- He had always wanted to form an only women’s regiment and his dream came to fruition with the formation of the Rani Jhansi Regiment on 12th July 1943.
- About 170 women cadets joined the force and their training camp was set in Singapore.
- They were given ranks according to their educational background.
- By November of 1943, this unit had more than 300 cadets as camps were also established in Rangoon and Bangkok.
- The women cadets were given military and combat training, weapons training, and route marches. Some of them were also chosen for advanced training and some were also chosen for training as a nurse.
- The Rani Jhansi Regiment mainly worked as care and relief givers.
- The unit later disbanded after the fall of Rangoon and the withdrawal of the Azad Hind Government.
Conclusion
- Bose maintained that the Congress leaders wanted freedom in their lifetime. He believed that no revolutionary leader had the right to expect that. A movement, a fight, had to be passed on. Expecting freedom in one’s lifetime was bound to lead to compromises.
Mains question
Q. Netaji Subhas Bose was an exceptional leader who turned his vision into action. Critically analyse.
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Martand Temple in Kashmir
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Martand Sun Temple
Mains level: Not Much
In May this year, some pilgrims offered prayers inside the Martand Temple, an Archaeological Survey of India-protected (ASI) monument
About Martand Sun Temple
- The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley.
- It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity.
- The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a bid to undertake mass conversion and execution of Hindus in the valley.
- According to Kalhana, the Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD.
- The temple is built on top of a plateau from where one can view whole of the Kashmir Valley.
- From the ruins the visible architecture seems to be blended with the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.
Why in news now?
- According to ASI, prayers are allowed at its protected sites only if they were “functioning places of worship” at the time it took charge of them.
- No religious rituals can be conducted at non-living monuments where there has been no continuity of worship when it became an ASI-protected site.
What are the living/non-living monument?
- If some activity, like any kind of worship, has been going on for years in the structure, then it is taken over as a living monument.
- But where no activity has taken place, say an abandoned building, then it is declared a dead monument.
- The latter is difficult to restore because it is generally covered by a lot of overgrowth.
- The best-known example of a living ASI monument is the Taj Mahal in Agra, where namaz is held every Friday.
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Pandurang Khankhoje: Ghadarite revolutionary and a hero of Mexico
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pandurang Khankhoje
Mains level: Ghadr party
Lok Sabha Speaker, who is currently in Canada for the 65th Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference, will travel to Mexico where he will unveil statues of Swami Vivekananda and Maharashtra-born freedom fighter and agriculturalist Pandurang Khankhoje.
Who was Pandurang Khankhoje (1883-1967)?
- Born in Wardha, Maharashtra, in the late 19th century, Pandurang Khankhoje came in contact with other revolutionaries early on.
- As a student, Khankhoje was an ardent admirer of the French Revolution and of the American War of Independence.
- Closer to home, the Hindu reformer Swami Dayanand and his Arya Samaj movement, which called for a spirit of reform and social change, became the hero to a young student group led by Khankhoje.
Revolutionary activities abroad
- Khankhoje decided to go abroad for further training in revolutionary methods and militaristic strategy.
- At this time, the British government’s suspicions of him were also growing due to his anti-government activities.
- Before leaving, he visited Bal Gangadhar Tilak, by whom he was inspired.
- Tilak advised him to go to Japan, which was itself a strong, anti-West Asian imperialistic force then.
- After spending time with nationalists from Japan and China, Khankhoje eventually moved to the US, where he enrolled in college as a student of agriculture.
Participation in the Indian independence movement
- Khankhoje was one of the founding members of the Ghadar Party, established by Indians living abroad in 1914, mostly belonging to Punjab.
- Its aim was to lead a revolutionary fight against the British in India.
- While in the US, Khankhoje met Lala Har Dayal, an Indian intellectual teaching at Stanford University.
- Har Dayal had begun a propaganda campaign, publishing a newspaper that featured patriotic songs and articles in the vernacular languages of India.
- This was the seed from which the Ghadar Party would emerge.
How did Khankhoje reach Mexico?
- At the military academy, Khankhoje met many people from Mexico.
- The Mexican Revolution of 1910 had led to the overthrow of the dictatorial regime, and this inspired Khankhoje.
- He also reached out to Indians working on farms in the US with the aim of discussing the idea of Indian independence with them.
- Along with the Indian workers, militant action was planned by Khankhoje in India, but the outbreak of the First World War halted these plans.
- He then reached out to Bhikaji Cama in Paris, and met with Vladimir Lenin in Russia among other leaders, seeking support for the Indian cause.
Association with Mexico
- As he was facing possible deportation from Europe and could not go to India, he sought shelter in Mexico.
- Soon, in part due to his prior friendship with Mexican revolutionaries, he was appointed a professor at the National School of Agriculture in Chapingo, near Mexico City.
- He researched corn, wheat, pulses and rubber, developing frost and drought-resistant varieties, and was part of efforts to bring in the Green Revolution in Mexico.
- Later on, the American agronomist Dr Norman Borlaug, called the Father of the Green Revolution in India, brought the Mexican wheat variety to Punjab.
- Khankhoje was revered as an agricultural scientist in Mexico.
Return to India
- Both Pandurang and Jean returned to India after 1947.
- His application for visa was initially rejected by the Indian government due to the ban by the British Indian Government, but was eventually overturned.
- He settled in Nagpur and subsequently embarked on a political career.
- Pandurang Khankhoje died on 22 January 1967.
Back2Basics: Ghadar PartyFounder: Sohan Singh Bhakna, 15 July 1913
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Tribute to women freedom fighters
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Freedom fighters in news
Mains level: Feminist contribution in freedom struggle
Context
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s Independence Day speech underlined the role of women veeranganas in our freedom movement. The initiative highlighting the brave women of our freedom struggle, under the broader celebration of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav, will mark a turning point in Indian feminist history writing from an Indic perspective.
What veerangana means?
- Veerangana means a brave female, someone who can fight for their rights. A strong woman not only protects herself, but protects others too.
Veerangana’s in freedom struggle
Rani Laxmibai
- The queen of the princely state of Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai is known for her role in the First War of India’s Independence in 1857.
- Refusing to cede her territory, the queen decided to rule on behalf of the heir, and later joined the uprising against the British in 1857.
- Cornered by the British, she escaped from Jhansi fort. She was wounded in combat near Gwalior’s Phool Bagh, where she later died.
- Sir Hugh Rose, who was commanding the British army, is known to have described her as “personable, clever…and one of the most dangerous Indian leaders”.
Jhalkari Bai
- A soldier in Rani Laxmibai’s women’s army, Durga Dal, she rose to become one of the queen’s most trusted advisers.
- She is known for putting her own life at risk to keep the queen out of harm’s way.
- Till date, the story of her valour is recalled by the people of Bundelkhand, and she is often presented as a representative of Bundeli identity.
Durga Bhabhi
- Durgawati Devi, who was popularly known as Durga Bhabhi, was a revolutionary who joined the armed struggle against colonial rule.
- A member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, she helped Bhagat Singh escape in disguise from Lahore after the 1928 killing of British police officer John P Saunders.
- Later, as revenge for the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev, she made an unsuccessful attempt to kill the former Punjab Governor, Lord Hailey.
Rani Gaidinliu
- Born in 1915 in present-day Manipur, Rani Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who fought the British.
- She joined the Heraka religious movement which later became a movement to drive out the British. She rebelled against the Empire, and refused to pay taxes, asking people to do the same.
- The British launched a manhunt, but she evaded arrest, moving from village to village.
- Gaidinliu was finally arrested in 1932 when she was just 16, and later sentenced for life. She was released in 1947.
- Then PM Nehru described Gaidinliu as the “daughter of the hills”, and gave her the title of ‘Rani’ for her courage.
Rani Chennamma
- The queen of Kittur, Rani Chennamma, was among the first rulers to lead an armed rebellion against British rule.
- Kittur was a princely state in present-day Karnataka.
- She fought back against the attempt to control her dominion in 1824 after the death of her young son. She had lost her husband, Raja Mallasarja, in 1816.
- She is seen among the few rulers of the time who understood the colonial designs of the British.
- Rani Chennamma defeated the British in her first revolt, but was captured and imprisoned during the second assault by the East India Company.
Begum Hazrat Mahal
- After her husband, Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah, was exiled after the 1857 revolt, Begum Hazrat Mahal, along with her supporters, took on the British and wrested control of Lucknow.
- She was forced into a retreat after the colonial rulers recaptured the area.
Velu Nachiyar
- Many years before the revolt of 1857, Velu Nachiyar waged a war against the British and emerged victorious. Born in Ramanathapuram in 1780, she was married to the king of Sivagangai.
- After her husband was killed in battle with the East India Company, she entered the conflict, and won with support of neighbouring kings.
- She went on to produce the first human bomb as well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers in the late 1700s.
- Her army commander Kuyili is believed to have set herself ablaze and walked into a British ammunition dump.
- She was succeeded by her daughter in 1790, and died a few years later in 1796.
Conclusion
- The veeranganas are a potent symbol of nationalism and patriotism. They can overturn oppressive attitudes towards women in society. Their role and celebration in popular culture also refutes the colonial allegations about the suppression of women throughout Indian history. But it is essential to discover, rewrite and reinterpret the role and representation of these heroic women in the liberation of the motherland.
Mains question
Q. The veerangana’s are a potent symbol of nationalism and patriotism. They can overturn oppressive attitudes towards women in society. Discuss examples of them showing how they inspire women’s today.
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Who was Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India who partitioned Bengal in 1905?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Partition of Bengal, Lord Curzon
Mains level: Partition of Bengal and its aftermath
The 119-year-old Curzon Gate in Bardhaman in West Bengal is at the centre of a political row.
Who was Lord Curzon?
- Born in 1859, Curzon was a British conservative politician who was educated at the elite institutions of Eton and Oxford.
- He served as Under-Secretary of State for India (1891-1892), and for Foreign Affairs (1895-1898), before being appointed Viceroy of India in 1899.
- As viceroy, his administration was known for intense activity and emphasis on efficiency.
- He stated in his budget speech in 1904, “Efficiency of administration is, in my view, a synonym for the contentment of the governed”.
Rise to infame
- Of all the Viceroys of India, Curzon is possibly the most criticised — he is the man who partitioned Bengal in 1905, and triggered a wave of Bengali nationalism that contributed to the wider Indian national movement.
- He was also one of the more openly imperialist of viceroys, and a man who saw Britain’s rule over India as critical to the survival of empire.
- In 1900, Curzon famously stated, “We could lose all our [white settlement] dominions and still survive, but if we lost India, our sun would sink to its setting.”
His works
- Curzon created a separate Muslim majority province of the North-West Frontier Province, sent a British expedition to Tibet and established a separate police service.
- He was instrumental in establishing the Archaeological Survey of India, in order to study and protect historical monuments.
- Early on in his career, Curzon earned some praise from his colonial subjects for taking action against Europeans in a number of high-profile racist attacks against Indians.
- In 1899, he punished white soldiers for raping a woman in Rangoon; he disciplined soldiers of the 9th Lancers for beating an Indian cook in Sialkot to death in 1902.
- He had tried unsuccessfully to get the Calcutta High Court to change the meagre punishment given to an Assam tea manager for murdering a “coolie”.
Why was he disliked then?
- Curzon was both vexed and enraged by the growing nationalist movement in India and he sought to throttle the growing aspirations of the educated Indian middle class.
- A staunch imperialist, he took a series of extremely unpopular measures, including passing, in 1899, the Calcutta Municipal Amendment Act.
- He reduced the number of elected representatives in the Calcutta Corporation.
- Among others was the Indian Universities Act (1904), that placed Calcutta University under government control, and the Indian Official Secrets Amendment Act (1904) which reduced the freedom of the press even further.
- Ironically though, it was his biggest and most reviled decision — to partition Bengal in 1905 — that led to a spurt in nationalist sentiment and revitalized the Congress.
How and why did the partition of Bengal take place?
- Calcutta was the capital of the British Raj, and Bengal Presidency was one of the largest provinces in India, populated by more than 78 million people.
- It was such a huge province encompassing present-day West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Assam.
- For long, the British had maintained that Bengal was too large to efficiently manage and administer; it was also believed that with Calcutta as the nerve centre of the educated nationalists, the resistance to colonial rule would only increase.
- Home Secretary H H Risley noted in 1904, “Bengal united is a power; Bengal divided will pull in several different ways.
Actual course of Partition
- In July 1905, Curzon announced the partition of Bengal into two provinces.
- East Bengal and Assam, with a population of 38 million, was predominately Muslim, while the western province, called Bengal, and was reduced to 55 million people, primarily Hindus.
- Protests began almost immediately after the announcement, with meetings taking place in more than 300 cities, towns, and villages across Bengal.
What were the consequences of the partition?
- In opposition to the partition, nationalist leaders organized a campaign a boycott British goods and institutions and encouraged the use of local products.
- After a formal resolution was passed at a meeting in Calcutta in August 1905, the Swadeshi movement began.
- Students were at the forefront of the movement, which was characterized by boycotts of British educational institutions and law courts, and large bonfires of imported cotton textiles.
- There was a surge in nationalist rhetoric, and the song ‘Bande Mataram’, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, became the informal anthem of the movement.
- The Swadeshi movement and boycott was not restricted to Bengal, and spread to other parts of the country, including Punjab, Maharashtra, and parts of the Madras Presidency.
- A number of secret societies, such as the Anushilan Samiti of Bengal, sought to overthrow British rule through violent means.
- Revolutionary groups used bombs, attempted to assassinate colonial officials, and engaged in armed robberies to finance their activities.
(Irreversible) Revocation of the Partition
- In 1905, Curzon resigned and returned to England after losing a power struggle with the commander-in-chief of the British Army, Lord Kitchener.
- The protests continued after his exit, and the colonial government in 1911 announced the reunification of Bengal.
- Thenceforth the capital of the Raj was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.
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Who was Kakasaheb Gadgil?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kakasaheb Gadgil
Mains level: Not Much
The Gadgil Wada of Pune was recently lighted into tricolour for the 75th anniversary of Independence.
Gadgil Wada was where plans for the reconstitution of the socialist Rashtra Seva Dal took place in early 1940s, with socialists like S.M. Joshi, N.G. Gore, Shirubhau Limaye and Kakasaheb in the lead.
Kakasaheb Gadgil
- Gadgil was an Indian freedom fighter and politician from Maharashtra, India.
- He was also a writer. He wrote in both Marathi and English.
- Gadgil graduated from Fergusson College in Pune in 1918, and obtained a degree in Law in 1920.
- In India’s pre-independence days, freedom fighters Lokmanya Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel influenced Gadgil.
- He joined the Indian National Congress in 1920, immediately after obtaining his law degree and started his active participation in the national freedom movement.
- He suffered imprisonment from the ruling British government eight times for the participation.
Notable work during freedom struggle
- In India’s pre-independence days, Gadgil served as the secretary of Poona District Congress Committee (1921–25), the president of Maharashtra Pradesh Congress Committee (1937–45).
- He was elected to the central Legislative Assembly in 1934.
- Gadgil was a pioneer in social reform movements in Maharashtra in the 1930s.
- During the Civil Disobedience Movement, which began in 1930, Gadgil was listed as a leader for the Maharashtra Civil Disobedience Committee and the Pune War Council.
- He was associated with several public associations and institutions, including Sarvajanik Sabha, Pune; Young Men’s Association, Pune; Maharashtra Youth League, Bombay; Pune Central Cooperative Bank; and Pune Municipality.
Service after India’s independence
- Between 1947 and 1952 Gadgil served as a minister in the first central cabinet of independent India.
- He held the portfolios of Public Works, and Mines and Power.
- In his first year in the central Cabinet, he initiated the project of building a military-caliber road from Pathankot to Srinagar via Jammu in Kashmir as a part of India’s activities in the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War.
- As a cabinet minister, he also initiated the important development projects pertaining to Bhakra, Koyna, and Hirakund dams.
- He was a member of the Congress Working Committee from 1952 to 1955.
- His son Vitthalrao Gadgil was a veteran congressman and MP from Pune Lok Sabha constituency, and his grandson Anant Gadgil is currently spokesman for Maharashtra Pradesh Congress Committee.
Authorship
- Gadgil wrote several books and articles on politics, economics, law, and history.
- The following are some of Gadgil’s books:
- Pathik (autobiography)
- Rajya Shastra Wichar
- Shubha Shastra
- Waktrutwa Shastra
- Gyanbache Arthashastra
- Government from Inside
- Shikhancha Itihaas (history of Sikhs)
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Women heroes of India’s freedom struggle, mentioned by PM in his I-Day speech
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Freedom fighters in news
Mains level: Not Much
In his Independence Day address to the nation the Prime Minister paid tributes to women freedom fighters for showing the world the true meaning of India’s “nari shakti”. A look at the women he named in his speech:
Rani Laxmibai
- The queen of the princely state of Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai is known for her role in the First War of India’s Independence in 1857.
- Born Manikarnika Tambe in 1835, she married the king of Jhansi.
- The couple adopted a son before the king’s death, which the British East India Company refused to accept as the legal heir and decided to annex Jhansi.
- Refusing to cede her territory, the queen decided to rule on behalf of the heir, and later joined the uprising against the British in 1857.
- Cornered by the British, she escaped from Jhansi fort. She was wounded in combat near Gwalior’s Phool Bagh, where she later died.
- Sir Hugh Rose, who was commanding the British army, is known to have described her as “personable, clever…and one of the most dangerous Indian leaders”.
Jhalkari Bai
- A soldier in Rani Laxmibai’s women’s army, Durga Dal, she rose to become one of the queen’s most trusted advisers.
- She is known for putting her own life at risk to keep the queen out of harm’s way.
- Till date, the story of her valour is recalled by the people of Bundelkhand, and she is often presented as a representative of Bundeli identity.
- According to Ministry of Culture’s Amrit Mahotsav website, “Many Dalit communities of the region look up to her as an incarnation of God and also celebrate Jhalkaribai Jayanti every year in her honour.”
Durga Bhabhi
- Durgawati Devi, who was popularly known as Durga Bhabhi, was a revolutionary who joined the armed struggle against colonial rule.
- A member of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha, she helped Bhagat Singh escape in disguise from Lahore after the 1928 killing of British police officer John P Saunders.
- During the train journey that followed, Durgawati and Bhagat Singh posed as a couple, and Rajguru as their servant.
- Later, as revenge for the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev, she made an unsuccessful attempt to kill the former Punjab Governor, Lord Hailey.
- Born in Allahabad in 1907 and married to Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) member Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Durgawati, along with other revolutionaries, also ran a bomb factory in Delhi.
Rani Gaidinliu
- Born in 1915 in present-day Manipur, Rani Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who fought the British.
- She joined the Heraka religious movement which later became a movement to drive out the British. She rebelled against the Empire, and refused to pay taxes, asking people to do the same.
- The British launched a manhunt, but she evaded arrest, moving from village to village.
- Gaidinliu was finally arrested in 1932 when she was just 16, and later sentenced for life. She was released in 1947.
- Then PM Nehru described Gaidinliu as the “daughter of the hills”, and gave her the title of ‘Rani’ for her courage.
Rani Chennamma
- The queen of Kittur, Rani Chennamma, was among the first rulers to lead an armed rebellion against British rule.
- Kittur was a princely state in present-day Karnataka.
- She fought back against the attempt to control her dominion in 1824 after the death of her young son. She had lost her husband, Raja Mallasarja, in 1816.
- She is seen among the few rulers of the time who understood the colonial designs of the British.
- Rani Chennamma defeated the British in her first revolt, but was captured and imprisoned during the second assault by the East India Company.
Begum Hazrat Mahal
- After her husband, Nawab of Awadh Wajid Ali Shah, was exiled after the 1857 revolt, Begum Hazrat Mahal, along with her supporters, took on the British and wrested control of Lucknow.
- She was forced into a retreat after the colonial rulers recaptured the area.
Velu Nachiyar
- Many years before the revolt of 1857, Velu Nachiyar waged a war against the British and emerged victorious. Born in Ramanathapuram in 1780, she was married to the king of Sivagangai.
- After her husband was killed in battle with the East India Company, she entered the conflict, and won with support of neighbouring kings.
- She went on to produce the first human bomb as well as establish the first army of trained women soldiers in the late 1700s.
- Her army commander Kuyili is believed to have set herself ablaze and walked into a British ammunition dump.
- She was succeeded by her daughter in 1790, and died a few years later in 1796.
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History of popular slogans raised during Freedom Struggle
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Famous slogans in news
Mains level: Not Much
Inspiring and controversial, this article explains the history of slogans that have endured in India’s politics.
(1) ‘Jai Hind’ by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
- Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose popularised ‘Jai Hind’ as a salutation for soldiers of his Indian National Army (INA), which fought alongside Netaji’s ally Japan in the Second World War.
- But according to some accounts, Netaji did not actually coin the slogan.
- A book says the term was coined by Zain-ul Abideen Hasan, the son of a collector from Hyderabad, who had gone to Germany to study.
- There, he met Bose and eventually left his studies to join the INA.
- Khan was tasked by Bose to look for a military greeting or salutation for the INA’s soldiers, a slogan which was not caste or community-specific, given the all-India basis of the INA.
- The idea for ‘Jai Hind’ came to Hasan when he was at the Konigsbruck camp in Germany.
(2) ‘Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe aazadi doonga’ by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose
- This slogan had origins in a speech Netaji made in Myanmar, then called Burma, on July 4, 1944.
- Underlining his core philosophy of violence being necessary to achieve independence, he said, “Friends! My comrades in the War of Liberation! Today I demand of you one thing, above all.
- He ended the speech saying “Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe aazadi doonga” (Give me blood and I promise you freedom).
(3) ‘Vande Mataram’ by Bankim Chandra Chatterji
- The term refers to a sense of respect expressed to the motherland.
- In 1870, Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote a song which would go on to assume a national stature, but would also be seen as communally divisive by some.
- Written in Bengali, the song titled ‘Vande Mataram’ was not introduced into the public sphere until the publishing of the novel Anandamath in 1882, of which the song is a part.
- Vande Mataram soon became the forefront of sentiments expressed during the freedom movement.
- The novel, set in the early 1770s came against the backdrop of the Fakir-Sannyasi Rebellion against the British in Bengal.
(4) ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ by Maulana Hasrat Mohani
- ‘Inquilab Zindabad’ (Long live the revolution) was first used by Maulana Hasrat Mohani in 1921.
- Hasrat was his pen name (takhallus) as a revolutionary Urdu poet, which also became his identity as a political leader.
- Hasrat Mohani was a labour leader, scholar, poet and also one of the founders of the Communist Party of India in 1925.
- Along with Swami Kumaranand — also involved in the Indian Communist movement — Mohani first raised the demand for complete independence or ‘Poorna Swaraj’, at the Ahmedabad session of the Congress in 1921.
- His stress on Inquilab was inspired by his urge to fight against social and economic inequality, along with colonialism.
- Before Mohani coined this slogan, the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia made the idea of revolution symbolic of the struggle for oppressed nationalities globally.
- It was from the mid-1920s that this slogan became a war cry of Bhagat Singh and his Naujawan Bharat Sabha, as well as his Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
(5) ‘Sarfaroshi ki Tamanna’ by Bismil Azimabadi
- This is the first line of a poem written by Bismil Azimabadi (and NOT Ramprasad Bismil), a freedom fighter and poet from Bihar, after the Jallianwalah Bagh Massacre of 1921 in Amritsar, Punjab.
- The lines were popularised by Ram Prasad Bismil, another revolutionary.
- He was a part of the Kakori train robbery, a successful and ambitious operation in which a train filled with British goods and money was robbed for Indian fighters to purchase arms.
(6) ‘Do or Die’ by Gandhi Ji
- In 1942, the Second World War commencing and the failure of Stafford Cripps Missions – which only promised India a ‘dominion status’ where it would still have to bear allegiance to the King of England .
- This made Gandhi Ji realise that the movement for freedom needed to be intensified.
- On August 8, 1942, the All-India Congress Committee met in Gowalia Tank Maidan (August Kranti Maidan) in Bombay.
- Gandhi addressed thousands after the meeting to spell out the way forward.
(7) ‘Quit India’ by Yusuf Meherally
- While Gandhi gave the clarion call of ‘Quit India’, the slogan was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Mumbai.
- A few years ago, in 1928, Meherally had also coined the slogan “Simon Go Back” to protest the Simon Commission – that although was meant to work on Indian constitutional reform, but lacked any Indians.
- Meherally was a Congress Socialist Party member who was actively involved in anti-government protests.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
80 years of Quit India Movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quit India Movement
Mains level: Read the attached story
On this day 80 years ago — on August 9, 1942 — the people of India launched the decisive final phase of the struggle for independence through the Quit India Movement.
Quit India Movement
- It was a mass upsurge against colonial rule on a scale not seen earlier, and it sent out the unmistakable message that the sun was about to set on the British Empire in India.
- Mahatma Gandhi, who had told the Raj to “Quit India” on the previous day (August 8) was already in jail along with the entire Congress leadership.
- So when August 9 dawned, the people were on their own — out on the street, driven by the Mahatma’s call of “Do or Die”.
- This truly people-led movement was eventually crushed violently by the British, but by then it was clear that nothing short of their final departure was acceptable to India’s masses.
The slogan ‘Quit India’
- While Gandhi gave the clarion call of Quit India, the slogan was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Bombay.
- A few years ago, in 1928, it was Meherally who had coined the slogan “Simon Go Back”.
Build-up to August 1942
- Failure of Cripps Mission: While factors leading to such a movement had been building up, matters came to a head with the failure of the Cripps Mission. With WW2 raging, the beleaguered British government needed the cooperation of its colonial subjects. With this in mind, in March 1942, a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps arrived in India to meet leaders of the Congress and the Muslim League.
- Betrayal on WW2 Promises: The idea was to secure India’s whole-hearted support in the war, and the return offer to Indians was the promise of self-governance. But things did not go that way.
- No complete freedom: Despite the promise of “the earliest possible realisation of self-government in India”, Cripps only offered dominion status, not freedom.
- Unviable partition plan: Also, there was a provision for the partition of India, which was not acceptable to the Congress.
Gandhiji’s departure from non-violent struggle
- The failure of the Cripps Mission made Gandhi realise that freedom would come only if Indians fought tooth and nail for it.
- The Congress was initially reluctant to launch a movement that could hamper Britain’s efforts to defeat the fascist forces. But it eventually decided on mass civil disobedience.
- At the Working Committee meeting in Wardha in July 1942, it was decided the time had come for the movement to move into an active phase.
Gandhi’s address: Do or Die
- On August 8, 1942, Gandhi addressed the people in the Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay (Mumbai). “Here is a mantra, a short one that I give you.
- Imprint it on your hearts, so that in every breath you give expression to it,” he said.
- “The mantra is: ‘Do or Die’. We shall either free India or die trying; we shall not live to see the perpetuation of our slavery,” Gandhi said.
- Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the Tricolour on the ground. The Quit India movement had been officially announced.
- The government cracked down immediately, and by August 9, Gandhi and all other senior Congress leaders had been jailed.
- Gandhi was taken to the Aga Khan Palace in Poona (Pune), and later to Yerwada jail. It was during this time that Kasturba Gandhi died at the Aga Khan Palace.
Course of events
(1) People vs. the Raj
- The arrest of their leaders failed to deter the masses.
- With no one to give directions, people took the movement into their own hands.
- In Bombay, Poona, and Ahmedabad, hundreds of thousands of ordinary Indians clashed with the police.
- The following day (August 10), protests erupted in Delhi, UP, and Bihar.
- There were strikes, demonstrations and people’s marches in defiance of prohibitory orders in Kanpur, Patna, Varanasi, and Allahabad.
- The protests spread rapidly into smaller towns and villages.
- Till mid-September, police stations, courts, post offices, and other symbols of government authority came under repeated attack.
(2) Working class involvement
- Railway tracks were blocked, students went on strike in schools and colleges across India, and distributed illegal nationalist literature.
- Mill and factory workers in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Ahmednagar, and Jamshedpur stayed away for weeks.
(3) Violent phase
- Bridges were blown up, telegraph wires were cut, and railway lines were taken apart.
Outcome: Brutal suppression
- The Quit India movement was violently suppressed by the British — people were shot and lathi-charged, villages were burnt, and backbreaking fines were imposed.
- In the five months up to December 1942, an estimated 60,000 people had been thrown into jail.
- However, though the movement was quelled, it changed the character of the Indian freedom struggle, with the masses rising up to demand with a passion and intensity like never before.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Quit India Movement was launched in response to:
(a) Cabinet Mission Plan
(b) Cripps Proposals
(c) Simon Commission Report
(d) Wavell Plan
Post your answers here.
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Who was Vannuramma?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vannuramma
Mains level: Not Much
The fort of legendry Vannuramma in Nallamala forest in the present day Mydukur mandal of Kadapa district is trending due to its rundown condition.
Who was Vannuramma?
- Vannuramma ruled five ‘Durgams’ (under fiefdom) between 1781 and 1796 with Sakarlapadu as the administrative headquarters.
- According to historical accounts, she was born in Pathimadugu Rekulakunta, now in Kadapa district, and got married to Veerneni Chinna Narasimha Naidu in 1764.
- The family had the practice of praying at Vannuru Swamy temple in Kalyanadurgam of Anantapur district.
- Vannuramma thus got her name as she was born, as believed, as the god’s gift.
- Though there are not many historical accounts, Kadapa-based writer Bommisetty Ramesh brought out the first book last year on her.
- Based on information culled out from the Mackenzie Kaifiyat of Kadapa, he extensively toured the region ruled by her, collected folklore and verified the same with historians.
Her legend
- The very mention of the name ‘Vannuramma’ brought chill to the spine of the Matli kings and Kadapa Nawabs.
- Of all the Polegars (local chieftains) who had ruled the regional territories of Rayalaseema before the advent of the British, the lone woman ruler remains forgotten from the pages of history.
- Under attack from fellow Polegars, Vannuramma’s family fled Thippireddypalle and took shelter in Chagalamarri fort, where they lived for eight years before her husband breathed his last in 1780.
- Vannuramma wielded the sword when the Matli king Appayya Raju and Mysore Sultan Hyder Ali’s follower Meeru Saheb waged a war, invaded Sakerlapadu Durgam and robbed the property of locals.
- Mobilising her army, she declared a war and brought the territory back into her fold in 1781.
Her death
- Even the Golconda Nawabs, through their Kadapa henchman Khadarvali Khan, tried in vain to control her.
- It was then they hatched a plan to woo her adopted son and arrested her on some flimsy charges.
- When the unsuspecting Vannuramma attended the Matli king’s court to prove her innocence, she was slapped with charges of treason.
- The Nawabs captured her and sentenced her with ‘Korthi’, an inhuman form of punishment where a person is made to sit on a sharpened tree stump and left to die.
- Vannuramma died in full public view in the year 1718 of Salivahana Saka, which translates to August 16, 1796, i.e., 226 years back.
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[pib] Anushilan Samiti
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Anushilan Samiti
Mains level: Not Much
Union Education and Skill Development Minister has urged NCERT and the Education fraternity to include enough information about Anushilan Samiti, especially in the upcoming National Curriculum Framework
Anushilan Samiti
- Anushilan Samiti was an Indian fitness club, which was actually used as an underground society for anti-British revolutionaries.
- It was founded by Satish Chandra Pramatha Mitra, Aurobindo Ghose and Sarala Devi.
- In the first quarter of the 20th century it supported revolutionary violence as the means for ending British rule in India.
- The organisation arose from a conglomeration of local youth groups and gyms (akhara) in Bengal in 1902.
- It had two prominent, somewhat independent, arms in East and West Bengal, Dhaka Anushilan Samiti (centred in Dhaka), and the Jugantar group (centred in Calcutta).
- It challenged British rule in India by engaging in militant nationalism, including bombings, assassinations, and politically motivated violence.
Revolutionary activities
- The Samiti collaborated with other revolutionary organisations in India and abroad.
- It was led by the nationalists Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barindra Ghosh, influenced by philosophies like Italian Nationalism, and the Pan-Asianism of Kakuzo Okakura.
- The Samiti was involved in a number of noted incidents of revolutionary attacks against British interests and administration in India, including early attempts to assassinate British Raj officials.
- These were followed by the 1912 attempt on the life of the Viceroy of India, and the Seditious conspiracy during World War I, led by Rash Behari Bose and Jatindranath Mukherjee respectively.
Defiance from militant nationalism
- The organisation moved away from its philosophy of violence in the 1920s due to the influence of the Indian National Congress and the Gandhian non-violent movement.
- A section of the group, notably those associated with Sachindranath Sanyal, remained active in the revolutionary movement, founding the Hindustan Republican Association in north India.
- A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by the British Government of having links with the organisation during this time.
- The Samiti’s violent and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when it was involved in the Kakori conspiracy, the Chittagong armoury raid, and other actions against the administration in British-occupied India.
Other personalities associated with Anushilan Samiti
- Legends like, Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Tagore, Jatindranath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin were associated with Anushilan Samiti.
- Dr Hedgewar who established the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was also an alumnus of the Samity.
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Who were Raja Serfoji and Sivaji?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Doctrine of Lapse
Mains level: Not Much
A 19th-century painting of Raja Serfoji and his son Sivaji, which was stolen from Saraswathi Mahal, Thanjavur, a few years ago has been traced to the Peabody Essex Museum, Massachusetts, in the US.
Who was Raja Serfoji?
- For long, the rulers of Thanjavur had been devoid of absolute power.
- Serfoji, placed by the British on the throne over his stepbrother Amar Singh, died in 1832.
- His only son Sivaji ruled until 1855.
- However, he had no male successor.
- Thanjavur became a casualty of Lord Dalhousie’s infamous ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, and it got absorbed into British-ruled Indian provinces.
- The painting, which has Raja Serfoji and his young son, according to some historians, was probably painted between 1822 and 1827 and kept in the Saraswathi Mahal.
Back2Basics: Doctrine of Lapse
- Between 1848 and 1856, Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, devised the Doctrine of Lapse as an annexation policy.
- It was an idea to annex those states which have no heir.
- They lose the right of ruling, and it will not be reverted by the adoption of a child.
- It was one of the key components that added to the 1857 revolt.
Features of the doctrine
- Any princely state or any territory under the direct influence of the British, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would inevitably be annexed if the ruler was either “manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir”.
- It ousted the age-old right of an Indian ruler without an heir to select a successor.
- Additionally, the British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough or not.
Annexations made under this policy
Annexation Year
Satara 1848
Jaitpur 1849
Sambalpur 1849
Baghat 1850
Udaipur 1852
Jhansi 1853
Nagpur 1854
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In news: National Emblem of India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ashokan Pillar
Mains level: Not Much
A day after the National Emblem cast on top of the under-construction Parliament unveiled, controversy has erupted over its aggressive posture.
National Emblem of India
- On 26 January 1950, a representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka placed above the motto, Satyameva Jayate, was adopted as the State Emblem of India.
- The emblem is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, an ancient sculpture dating back to 280 BCE during the reign of the Maurya Empire.
- It was originally made of Chunar sandstone.
- The statue is a three-dimensional emblem showing four lions.
Features of the emblem
- The actual Sarnath capital features four Asiatic lions standing back to back, symbolizing power, courage, confidence, and pride, mounted on a circular base.
- At the bottom is a horse and a bull, and at its center is a Dharma chakra.
- The abacus is girded with a frieze of sculptures in high relief of The Lion of the North,
- The Horse of the West, The Bull of the South, and The Elephant of the East, separated by intervening wheels, over a lotus in full bloom, exemplify the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration.
- Carved from a single block of sandstone, the polished capital is crowned by the Wheel of the Law.
Historical significance
- One of the Buddha’s names is ‘Shakya Simha’, meaning ‘Lion of the Shakyas’.
- The Buddha’s first sermon at Sarnath was known as the ‘Simhanada’ (Lion roar) of the Buddha.
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100 years of Rampa or Manyam Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rampa Rebellion
Mains level: Major tribal uprisings in freedom struggle
Hundred years ago, in August 1922 the “Rampa Rebellion” or “Manyam Rebellion” took place in the forests of the Godavari Agency in the Madras Presidency.
Rampa Rebellion
- The Rampa Rebellion of 1922, also known as the Manyam Rebellion, was a tribal uprising led by Alluri Sitarama Raju in Godavari Agency.
- It began in August 1922 and lasted until the capture and killing of Raju in May 1924.
- Forced labour, embargoes on collecting minor forest produce and bans on tribal agriculture practices led to severe distress among the Koyas in the area.
- Sitarama Raju did not belong to the tribal community, but understood the restrictions that the British colonial administration placed on the tribal way of life.
Background of the revolt
- The Rampa administrative area comprised around 1,800 square km and had a mostly tribal population of approximately 28,000.
- They had traditionally been able to support their food requirements through the use, in particular, of the podu system, whereby each year some areas of jungle forest were burned to clear land for cultivation.
- The British Raj authorities had wanted to improve the economic usefulness of lands in Godavari Agency, an area that was noted for the prevalence of malaria and blackwater fever.
- The traditional cultivation methods were greatly hindered when the authorities took control of the forests, mostly for commercial purposes such as produce for building railways and ships.
- This was done regardless of the needs of the tribal people.
Why did people revolt?
- The tribal people of the forested hills, who now faced starvation had long felt that the legal system favoured the muttadar (estate landowners) and merchants.
- This had also resulted in the earlier Rampa Rebellion of 1879.
- Now they objected also to the Raj laws and continued actions that hindered their economic position and meant they had to find alternate livelihood.
- They objected to attempts at that time to use them as forced labour in the construction of a road in the area.
Role of Raju
- Raju was a charismatic sanyasin, believed by many tribal people to possess magical abilities and to have an almost messianic status.
- He saw the overthrow of colonial rule in terms similar to a millenarian event and he harnessed the discontent of the tribal people to support his anti-colonial zeal.
Course of revolt
- Alluri Sitarama Raju, along with 500 tribal people, attacked the police stations of Chintapalli, Krishnadevipeta and Rajavommangi.
- They walked away with 26 police carbine rifles and 2,500 rounds of ammunition.
- Legend has it that Alluri himself would forewarn the British officers of an imminent attack and would challenge them to stop him with the superior resources that they had at hand.
- He was finally captured, tied to a tree and shot dead.
Try this PYQ:
Q. With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following event?
(a) The Revolt of 1857
(b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
(c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
(d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Post your answers here.
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Centre asks firms to arrange Tricolours
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian Tricolor
Mains level: Honor of our national flag and national anthem
The Centre has reached out to manufacturers and e-commerce sites to boost the availability of the Tricolour, according to officials aware of the programme.
Why in news?
- The Centre is set to launch a large-scale campaign to encourage Indians to fly the National Fag at their homes to mark the 75th Independence Day.
- The aim of the campaign was to inspire people, rather than carry out a distribution drive.
How is it made possible?
- In order to facilitate the campaign, the Union Home Ministry had last year amended the Flag Code, which earlier only allowed hand-woven or hand-spun flags to be made.
- It has now allowed flags to be polyester and machine-made.
Do you know?
Earlier, the display of the national flag was governed by the provisions of The Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950 and the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
What is the Flag Code of India?
- The Flag Code of India is a set of laws, practices and conventions that apply to the display of the national flag of India.
- The Code took effect from 26 January 2002 and superseded the “Flag Code-India” as it existed earlier.
- It permits the unrestricted display of the tricolour, consistent with the honour and dignity of the flag.
The Flag Code of India has been divided into three parts:-
- First Part: General Description of the National Flag.
- Second Part: Display of the National Flag by members of public, private Organisations & educational institutions etc.
- Third Part: Display of National Flag by Union or State Governments and their organisations and agencies.
Disposing of the national flag
- A/c to the Flag Code, such paper flags are not to be discarded or thrown on the ground after the event.
- Such flags are to be disposed of, in private, consistent with the dignity of the flag.
Hoisting the national flag is a fundamental right
- The bench headed by Chief Justice of India V. N. Khare said that under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution of India, citizens had the fundamental right to fly the national flag on their premises throughout the year.
- However, it provided that the premises do not undermine the dignity of the national flag.
About Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act
- The law, enacted on December 23, 1971, penalizes the desecration of or insult to Indian national symbols, such as the National Flag, the Constitution, the National Anthem, and the Indian map, as well as contempt of the Constitution of India.
- Section 2 of the Act deals with insults to the Indian National Flag and the Constitution of India.
Do you know?
Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks:
To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).
Back2Basics: Story of our National Flag
(1) Public display for the first time
- Arguably the first national flag of India is said to have been hoisted on August 7, 1906, in Kolkata at the Parsee Bagan Square (Green Park).
- It comprised three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green, with Vande Mataram written in the middle.
- Believed to have been designed by freedom activists Sachindra Prasad Bose and Hemchandra Kanungo, the red stripe on the flag had symbols of the sun and a crescent moon, and the green strip had eight half-open lotuses.
(2) In Germany
- In 1907, Madame Cama and her group of exiled revolutionaries hoisted an Indian flag in Germany in 1907 — this was the first Indian flag to be hoisted in a foreign land.
(3) During the Home Rule Movement
- In 1917, Dr Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement.
- It had five alternate red and four green horizontal stripes, and seven stars in the saptarishi configuration.
- A white crescent and star occupied one top corner, and the other had Union Jack.
(4) Final version by Pingali Venkayya
- The design of the present-day Indian tricolour is largely attributed to Pingali Venkayya, an Indian freedom fighter.
- He reportedly first met Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa during the second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), when he was posted there as part of the British Indian Army.
- Years of research went into designing the national flag. In 1916, he even published a book with possible designs of Indian flags.
- At the All India Congress Committee in Bezwada in 1921, Venkayya again met Gandhi and proposed a basic design of the flag, consisting of two red and green bands to symbolise the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims.
(5) During Constituent Assembly
- On July 22, 1947, when members of the Constituent Assembly of India, the first item on the agenda was reportedly a motion by Pandit Nehru, about adopting a national flag for free India.
- It was proposed that “the National Flag of India shall be horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (Kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion.”
- The white band was to have a wheel in navy blue (the charkha being replaced by the chakra), which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka.
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Sant Kabir: the extraordinary poet-saint of the Bhakti Movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kabir, Bhakti Movement
Mains level: NA
President Kovind inaugurated the Sant Kabir Academy and Research Centre Swadesh Darshan Yojana and paid tribute to the Bhakti saint, Kabir at Maghar, his resting place in Uttar Pradesh.
Kabir and the Bhakti Movement
- The Bhakti movement, which began in the 7th century in South India, had begun to spread across north India in the 14th and the 15th centuries.
- The movement was characterized by popular poet-saints who sang devotional songs to God in vernacular languages.
- Most of the preaching were meant for abolishing the Varna system and promoting Hindu-Muslim unity.
- They emphasized an intense emotional attachment with God.
Who was Sant Kabir?
- One school within the Bhakti movement was the Nirguni tradition and Sant Kabir was a prominent member of it.
- In this tradition, God was understood to be a universal and formless being.
- Many of the saints of the Bhakti movement came from the ranks of the lower to middle artisanal classes.
- Kabir was an alleged ‘low caste’ weaver (Julaha), Raidas was a leather worker and Dadu a cotton carder.
- Their radical dissent against orthodoxy and rejection of caste made these poet-saints extremely popular among the masses and their ideology of egalitarianism spread across India.
His life
- He was born in Varanasi and lived between the years 1398 and 1448, or till the year 1518 according to popular belief.
- He was from a community of ‘lower caste’ weavers of the Julaha caste, a group that had recently converted to Islam.
- He learned the art of weaving, likely studied meditative and devotional practices under the guidance of a Hindu guru and grew to become an eminent teacher and poet-singer.
- Kabir’s beliefs were deeply radical, and he was known for his intense and outspoken voice which he used to attack the dominant religions and entrenched caste systems of the time.
- He composed his verses orally and is generally assumed to be illiterate.
His literary works
- Kabir’s compositions can be classified into three literary forms – dohas (short two liners), ramanas (rhymed 4 liners), sung compositions of varying length, known as padas (verses) and sabdas (words).
- There are myriad legendary accounts on the other hand, for which there exists less of a factual historical basis.
Kabir’s critique of religion and caste
- Kabir is in modern times portrayed as a figure that synthesized Islam and Hinduism.
- While he did borrow elements from different traditions, he very forcefully proclaimed his independence from them.
- He did not only target the rituals and practices of both Hinduism and Islam, but also dismissed the sacred authority of their religious books, the Vedas and the Quran.
- He even combined Allah and Ram in his poems.
- He sought to eradicate caste distinctions and attempted to create an egalitarian society, by stressing the notion that a Bhakt (devotee) was neither a Brahmin nor an ‘untouchable’ but just a Bhakt.
Kabir’s legacy
- Kabir’s own humble origins and his radical message of egalitarianism fostered a community of his followers called the Kabir Panth.
- A sect in northern and central India, many of their members are from the Dalit community.
- All regard Kabir as their guru and treat the Bijak as their holy scripture.
- The Bijak contains works attributed to Kabir and is argued by historians to have been written in the 17th century.
- Several of Kabir’s verses and songs form a vital part of the Guru Granth Sahib.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2019:
Q.Consider the following statements:
1.Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
2.Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here.
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Qutub Minar not a Place of Worship: ASI
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Qutub Minar
Mains level: Not Much
The Qutub Minar complex is not a place of worship and its character cannot be changed now, the Archaeological Survey of India submitted in a Delhi Court while opposing a plea challenging the dismissal of a civil suit seeking “restoration” of temples on the premises.
What is the case?
- The original suit claimed that 27 temples were demolished to build the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque at the Qutub Minar complex.
- This pleas was dismissed last year under the provisions of Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991.
- The Additional District Judge (ADJ) has now reserved the order.
- The petitioner said that the dismissal of the original suit based on the 1991 Act was wrong.
- The Qutub Minar complex comes under the purview of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act of 1958.
Why in news now?
- The ASI now submitted that the Qutub Minar complex was not a place of worship when it was first notified as a protected monument in 1914.
- The ASI, explained that the character of a monument is decided on the date when it comes under protection.
About Qutub Minar
- The Qutub Minar is a minaret and “victory tower” that forms part of the Qutb complex, which lies at the site of Delhi’s oldest fortified city, Lal Kot, founded by the Tomar Rajputs.
- It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mehrauli area of South Delhi.
- It can be compared to the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c. 1190, which was constructed a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower.
- The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns.
- The Qutb Minar has a shaft that is fluted with “superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies” at the top of each stage.
Its construction
- The Qutb Minar was built over the ruins of the Lal Kot, the citadel of Dhillika.
- Qutub Minar was begun after the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, which was started around 1192 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.
- It is usually thought that the tower is named for Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who began it.
- It is also possible that it is named after Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki a 13th-century sufi saint, because Shamsuddin Iltutmish was a devotee of his.
- Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, to the north-east of the Minar was built by Qutub-ud-Din Aibak in A.D. 1198.
- It consists of a rectangular courtyard enclosed by cloisters, erected with the carved columns and architectural members of 27 Jain and Hindu temples, which were demolished by Qutub-ud-Din.
- This is recorded in his inscription on the main eastern entrance.
Back2Basics:
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Prithviraj Chauhan?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Prithviraj Chauhan
Mains level: NA
There is controversy around a new film where some communities of Rajasthan are laying claim over the 12th century emperor Prithviraj Chauhan.
Prithviraj Chauhan
- Prithviraj Chauhan (1177–1192 CE) popularly known as a king from the Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory of Sapadalaksha, with his capital at Ajmer in present-day Rajasthan.
- Ascending the throne as a minor in 1177 CE, Prithviraj inherited a kingdom which stretched from Thanesar in the north to Jahazpur (Mewar) in the south.
His legend
- He aimed to expand by military actions against neighbouring kingdoms, most notably defeating the Chandela’s.
- Prithviraj unified several Rajput clans and defeated the Ghurid army led by Muhammad Ghori near Taraori in 1191 AD.
- However, in 1192 CE, Ghori returned with an army of Turkish mounted archers and defeated the Rajput army on the same battlefield.
- Prithviraj fled the battlefield, but was captured near Sirsa and executed.
- His defeat at Tarain is seen as a landmark event in the Islamic conquest of India, and has been described in several semi-legendary accounts, most notably the Prithviraj Raso.
Prithviraj in literary works
- The image of Prithviraj as a fearless and skilled warrior that is now etched in the folk imagination can be traced back to his depiction in ‘Prithviraj Raso’.
- This was a poem in Brajbhasha attributed to Chand Bardai, which is thought to have been composed in the 16th century.
- James Mill’s ‘The History of British India’ (1817) categorized Indian history into the Hindu, Muhammadan and British periods.
- In this formulation, Prithviraj Chauhan would be the last ruler of ‘Hindu’ India.
Why is he being revived?
- To a vocal section of the Hindu right, Prithviraj Chauhan appears as “the last Hindu emperor” of India who made a valiant attempt to stop the radical invaders.
- In the popular imagination, he is the heroic figure who symbolises the exalted ideals of patriotism and national pride.
- However the historical evidence demonstrates rather different ways in which Prithviraj has been seen over the ages.
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250th birth anniversary of Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Raja Ram Mohun Roy
Mains level: His contributions
One of the most influential social and religious reformers of the 19th century, Ram Mohan Roy, born on May 22, 1772 in what was then Bengal Presidency’s Radhanagar in Hooghly district, would have turned 250 years today.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)
Early life
- Born into a prosperous upper-caste Brahmin family, Roy grew up within the framework of orthodox caste practices of his time.
- Child-marriage, polygamy and dowry were prevalent among the higher castes and he had himself been married more than once in his childhood.
- The family’s affluence had also made the best in education accessible to him.
- The waning of the Mughals and the ascendancy of the East India Company in Bengal towards the end of the 18th century was also the time when Roy was slowly coming into his own.
Academics
- Roy knew Bengali and Persian, but also Arabic, Sanskrit, and later, English.
- His exposure to the literature and culture of each of these languages bred in him a scepticism towards religious dogmas and social strictures.
- He spent considerable time studying the Vedas and the Upanishads, but also religious texts of Islam and Christianity.
Religious belief
- He was particularly intrigued by the Unitarian faction of Christianity and was drawn by the precepts of monotheism that, he believed, lay at the core of all religious texts.
- He wrote extensive tracts on various matters of theology, polity and human rights, and translated and made accessible Sanskrit texts into Bengali.
- Rammohun did not quite make a distinction between the religious and the secular. He believed religion to be the site of all fundamental changes.
- What he fought was not religion but what he believed to be its perversion.
Roy, the first among liberals
- Even though British consolidation of power was still at a nascent stage in India at the time, Roy could sense that change was afoot.
- Confident about the strength of his heritage and open to imbibing from other cultures what he believed were ameliorative practices, Roy was among India’s first liberals.
- He was simultaneously interested in religion, politics, law and jurisprudence, commerce and agrarian enterprise, Constitutions and civic rights, the unjust treatment of women and the appalling condition of the Indian poor.
Establishment of Atmiya Sabha
- In 1814, he started the Atmiya Sabha (Society of Friends), to nurture philosophical discussions on the idea of monotheism in Vedanta.
- It aimed to campaign against idolatry, casteism, child marriage and other social ills.
- The Atmiya Sabha would make way for the Brahmo Sabha in 1828, set up with Debendranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore’s father.
Abolition of Sati, educational and religious reforms
- He campaigned for the modernisation of education, in particular the introduction of a Western curriculum, and started several educational institutions in the city.
- In 1817, he collaborated with Scottish philanthropist David Hare to set up the Hindu College (now, Presidency University).
- He followed it up with the Anglo-Hindu School in 1822 and, in 1830, assisted Alexander Duff to set up the General Assembly’s Institution, which later became the Scottish Church College.
- It was his relentless advocacy alongside contemporaries such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar that finally led to the abolition of Sati under the governor generalship of William Bentinck in 1829.
- Roy argued for the property rights of women, and petitioned the British for freedom of the press (in 1829 and 1830).
- His Brahmo Sabha, that later became the Brahmo Samaj, evolved as a reaction against the upper-caste stranglehold on social customs and rituals.
Perils of non-conformism
- Roy, who was given the title of Raja by the Mughal emperor Akbar II, was no exception to the societal enmity.
- Roy was also often attacked by his own countrymen who felt threatened by his reformist agenda, and by British reformers and functionaries, whose views differed from his.
Conclusion
- Roy’s work in the sphere of women’s emancipation, modernising education and seeking changes to religious orthodoxy finds new relevance in this time.
- He was among the first Indians to gain recognition in the UK and in America for his radical thoughts.
- Roy was unquestionably the first person on the subcontinent to seriously engage with the challenges posed by modernity to traditional social structures and ways of being.
- Rabindranath Tagore called him a ‘Bharatpathik’ by which he meant to say that Rammohun combined in his person the underlying spirit of Indic civilisation, its spirit of pluralism, tolerance and a cosmic respect for all forms of life.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Devasahayam Pillai: first Indian layman to be declared a Saint by Vatican
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Devasahayam Pillai
Mains level: NA
Pope Francis canonised Devasahayam Pillai as a Catholic Saint during an event in St Peter’s Basilica.
Who was Devasahayam Pillai?
- Devasahayam was born on April 23, 1712 in Nattalam village in Kanyakumari district, and went on to serve in the court of Marthanda Varma of Travancore.
- After meeting a Dutch naval commander at the court, Devasahayam was baptised in 1745, and assumed the name ‘Lazarus’, meaning ‘God is my help’.
His works
- While preaching, he particularly insisted on the equality of all people, despite caste differences.
- His conversion did not go well with the heads of his native religion.
- False charges of treason and espionage were brought against him and he was divested of his post in the royal administration.
- On January 14, 1752, Devasahayam was shot dead in the Aralvaimozhy forest.
- Since then, he is widely considered a martyr, and his mortal remains were interred inside what is now Saint Francis Xavier’s Cathedral in Kottar, Nagercoil.
Other canonized saints in India
- Of the eleven, Gonsalo Garcia, born in India to Portuguese parents in Mumbai in 1557, is considered to have been the first India-born saint.
- In 2008, Kerala-born Sister Alphonsa was declared as the first woman Catholic saint from India.
- Mother Teresa had a fast track to sainthood when she was canonized in 2016.
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Places in news: Martand Sun Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Martand Sun Temple
Mains level: Not Much
After Prayers held at the ruins of the eighth-century Martand Sun Temple in Jammu and Kashmir’s Anantnag is deemed to be a violation of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) rules.
About Martand Sun Temple
- The Martand Sun Temple is a Hindu temple located near the city of Anantnag in the Kashmir Valley.
- It dates back to the eighth century AD and was dedicated to Surya, the chief solar deity.
- The temple was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri in a bid to undertake mass conversion and execution of Hindus in the valley.
- According to Kalhana, the Temple was commissioned by Lalitaditya Muktapida in the eighth century AD.
- The temple is built on top of a plateau from where one can view whole of the Kashmir Valley.
- From the ruins the visible architecture seems to be blended with the Gandharan, Gupta and Chinese forms of architecture.
Why in news now?
- According to ASI, prayers are allowed at its protected sites only if they were “functioning places of worship” at the time it took charge of them.
- No religious rituals can be conducted at non-living monuments where there has been no continuity of worship when it became an ASI-protected site.
What are the living/non-living monument?
- If some activity, like any kind of worship, has been going on for years in the structure, then it is taken over as a living monument.
- But where no activity has taken place, say an abandoned building, then it is declared a dead monument.
- The latter is difficult to restore because it is generally covered by a lot of overgrowths.
- The best-known example of a living ASI monument is the Taj Mahal in Agra, where namaz is held every Friday.
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Who was Veer Kunwar Singh (1777-1858)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Veer Kunwar Singh
Mains level: Not Much
Political factions in Bihar has planned to organise the birth anniversary of the 1857 uprising hero Veer Kunwar Singh on April 23 at Jagdishpur in Bhojpur.
Veer Kunwar Singh
- Kunwar Singh also known as Babu Kunwar Singh was a leader during the uprising of 1857.
- He belonged to a family of the Ujjainiya clan of the Parmar Rajputs of Jagdispur, currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar.
- At the age of 80, he led a selected band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the British East India Company.
- He was the chief organiser of the fight against the British in Bihar.
- He is popularly known as Veer Kunwar Singh or Veer Babu Kunwar Singh.
Role in 1857 Uprising
- Singh led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 in Bihar. He was nearly eighty and in failing health when he was called upon to take up arms.
- He was assisted by both his brother, Babu Amar Singh and his commander-in-chief, Hare Krishna Singh.
- He gave a good fight and harried British forces for nearly a year and remained invincible until the end.
- He was an expert in the art of guerrilla warfare.
In popular culture
- To honour his contribution to India’s freedom movement, the Centre issued a commemorative stamp on 23 April 1966.
- The Government of Bihar established the Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah, in 1992.
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Places in news: East Timor
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: East Timor
Mains level: NA
Asia’s youngest nation, East Timor, also known as Timor Leste, holds the second and final round of its presidential election.
About East Timor
- The territory was colonized by Portugal in the 18th century and remained under is control until 1975.
- When the Portuguese withdrew, troops from Indonesia invaded and annexed East Timor as its 27th province.
- A long and bloody struggle for independence ensued, during which at least 100,000 people died.
- The East Timorese voted for independence in a 1999 U.N.-supervised referendum, but that unleashed even more violence until peace-keeping forces were allowed to enter.
- The country was officially recognized by the United Nations in 2002.
- East Timor has applied to be a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It currently holds observer status.
Its geography
- East Timor comprises the eastern half of Timor Island, the western half of which is part of Indonesia.
- It spans a 15,000 square km (5,792 square mile) land area – slightly smaller than Israel – and it’s 1.3 million people are predominantly Roman Catholic.
Politics and economy
- In nearly 20 years since independence, East Timor’s presidential and parliamentary elections have been dominated by many of the same faces.
- Its revolutionary have run for and held various positions of power and continue to feature prominently in the running of the country.
- East Timor depends on revenues from its offshore oil and gas reserves which account for 90% of its gross domestic product.
- Its main revenue stream, the Bayu Undan gas field, is set to dry up by 2023 and the country is now planning to collaborate with companies like Australia’s Santos to turn it into carbon capture facilities.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Guru Tegh Bahadur?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Teg Bahadur
Mains level: NA
The government will celebrate the 400th birth anniversary of Guru Tegh Bahadur with a two-day event at the Red Fort.
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)
- Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He was born at Amritsar in 1621 and was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
- His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- There are several accounts explaining the motive behind the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur on Aurangzeb’s orders.
- He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
- He was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for himself refusing Mughal rulers and defying them.
- Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of his body.
Impact of his martyrdom
- The execution hardened the resolve of Sikhs against religious oppression and persecution.
- His martyrdom helped all Sikh Panths consolidate to make the protection of human rights central to its Sikh identity.
- Inspired by him, his nine-year-old son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, eventually organized the Sikh group into a distinct, formal, symbol-patterned community that came to be known as Khalsa (Martial) identity.
- In the words of Noel King of the University of California, “Guru Teg Bahadur’s martyrdom was the first-ever martyrdom for human rights in the world.
- He is fondly remembered as ‘Hind di Chaadar’.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Post your answers here.
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Who was Guru Nabha Dass?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Nabha Das Ji
Mains level: Bhakti Movement
Punjab government has announced gazetted holiday on the birth anniversary of Guru Nabha Dass, a 16th century saint, taking it out from list of restricted holidays.
Who was Guru Nabha Dass?
- Guru Nabha Dass was born on April 8, 1537 at village Bhadrachalam on the bank of Godavari river in Khammam district, which falls in the present day Telangana.
- He belonged to Mahasha also known as doom or dumna community, which is one of the Schedule Caste communities.
- Since childhood, orphaned Guru Nabha Dass, whose original name was Narayan Dass, had an inclination towards spirituality.
- Two religious gurus — Agar Dass and Keel Dass — who were passing through his village took the orphan child to a temple at Ghalta Dham, which is now main pilgrimage of Nabhadassias, at Jaipur.
- People from this community are also known as Nabhadassias. They are known for making baskets and grain storage containers with bamboo.
His legacy
- Guru Nabha Dass wrote ‘Bhagatmal’ in 1585.
- It has the life history of around 200 saints. He died in 1643.
What is his connection with Punjab?
- Guru Nabha Dass used to visit village Pandori in Gurdaspur district where people of Doom community live.
- Some gurus of the community also used to live there.
What made government announce gazetted holiday now?
- Political parties can’t manage to ignore the sentiments of such a large community.
- The community had been requesting the government to declare April 8 as a gazetted holiday since long.
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Raja Ravi Varma and his Arts
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Raja Ravi Varma
Mains level: Not Much
Raja Rai Varma’s Draupadi Vastraharan is expected to fetch between Rs 15 and Rs 20 crore at an auction.
Who was Raja Ravi Varma?
- Raja Ravi Varma was born in April 1848 in Kilimanoor, Kerala, to a family which was very close to the royals of Travancore.
- Often referred to as the father of modern Indian art, he is widely known for his realistic portrayal of Indian gods and goddesses.
- While he majorly painted for the royalty, he is also credited for taking art to the masses with his prints and oleographs.
- At a young age, he would draw animals and everyday scenes on the walls in indigenous colours made from natural materials such as leaves, flowers and soil.
- His uncle, Raja Raja Varma, noticed this and encouraged his talent.
- Patronised by Ayilyam Thirunal, the then ruler of Travancore, he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen.
How he became an artist of the royals?
- Varma became a much sought-after artist for the aristocrats and was commissioned several portraits in late 19th century.
- Arguably, at one point, he became so popular that the Kilimanoor Palace in Kerala opened a post office due to the sheer number of painting requests that would come in for him.
- He travelled across India extensively, for work and inspiration.
Fame as a notable painter
- Following a portrait of Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, he was commissioned 14 Puranic paintings for the Durbar Hall of the new Lakshmi Vilas Palace at Baroda.
- Depicting Indian culture, Varma borrowed from episodes of Mahabharata and Ramayana for the same.
- He also received patronage from numerous other rulers, including the Maharaja of Mysore and Maharaja of Udaipur.
- As his popularity soared, the artist won an award for an exhibition of his paintings at Vienna in 1873.
- He was also awarded three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.
Nature of his artforms
- Much of his celebrated art also borrows heavily from Indian mythology.
- In fact, he is often credited with defining the images of Indian gods and goddesses through his relatable and more realistic portrayals often painted with humans as models.
- The depictions include Lakshmi as the goddess of wealth, Saraswati as the goddess of knowledge and wisdom, and Lord Vishnu with his consorts, Maya and Lakshmi.
How he took Indian art to the masses?
- Raja Ravi Varma aspired to take his art to the masses and the intent led him to open a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894.
- The idea, reportedly, came from Sir T Madhava Rao, former Dewan of Travancore and later Baroda, in a letter where he pointed out to Varma that since it was impossible for him to meet the large demand for his work, it would be ideal for him to send some of his select works to Europe and have them produced as oleographs.
- Varma, instead, chose to establish a printing press of his own.
- The first picture printed at Varma’s press was reportedly The Birth of Shakuntala, followed by numerous mythological figures and saints such as Adi Shankaracharya.
Try this PYQ:
Q. There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Post your answers here.
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Back in news: Malabar Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Malabar Rebellion
Mains level: Not Much
The Indian Council for Historical Research (ICHR) has deferred its decision on a recommendation to remove the 1921 Malabar Rebellion martyrs, including Variamkunnaathu Kunhahamad Haji and Ali Musliyar, from the list of India’s freedom fighters.
Malabar Rebellion
- The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule and the feudal system in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
- There were a series of clashes between Mappila peasantry and their landlords, supported by the British, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defence of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
- The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
Who was Variyankunna Kunjahammed Haji?
- He was one of the leaders of the Malabar Rebellion of 1921.
- He raised 75000 natives, seized control of large territory from the British rule and set up a parallel government.
- In January 1922, under the guise of a treaty, the British betrayed Haji through his close friend Unyan Musaliyar, arresting him from his hideout and producing him before a British judge.
- He was sentenced to death along with his compatriots.
Back2Basics: “Dictionary of Martyrs” Project
- The project for compilation of “Dictionary of Martyrs” of India’s Freedom Struggle was commissioned by the Ministry of Culture, to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) to commemorate the 150th anniversary of uprising of 1857.
- In this dictionary a martyr has been defined as a person who died or who was killed in action or in detention, or was awarded capital punishment while participating in the national movement for emancipation of India.
- It includes ex-INA or ex-military personnel who died fighting the British.
- Information of about 13,500 martyrs has been recorded in these volumes.
Who are included?
- It includes the martyrs of 1857 Uprising, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34), Quit India Movement (1942-44), Revolutionary Movements (1915-34), Kissan Movements, Tribal Movements, Agitation for Responsible Government in the Princely States (Prajamandal), Indian National Army (INA, 1943-45), Royal Indian Navy Upsurge (RIN, 1946), etc.
Five Volumes
- Volume 1: In this volume, more than 4400 martyrs of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh have been listed.
- Volume 2: In this volume more than 3500 martyrs of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan and Jammu & Kashmir have been listed.
- Volume 3: The number of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 1400. This volume covers the martyrs of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sind.
- Volume 4: The numbers of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 3300. This volume covers the martyrs of Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.
- Volume 5: The number of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 1450. This volume covers the martyrs of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Try this question from CSP 2020:
Q. With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following event?
(a) The Revolt of 1857
(b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
(c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
(d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Post your answers here.
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In news: Pal-Dadhvav Massacre
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pal-Dadhvav Massacre
Mains level: Major tribal uprisings in freedom struggle
The Gujarat government has marked 100 years of the Pal-Dadhvav killings, calling it a massacre “bigger than the Jallianwala Bagh”.
Pal-Dadhvav Massacre
- The massacre took place on March 7, 1922, in the Pal-Chitariya and Dadhvaav villages of Sabarkantha district, then part of Idar state.
- The day was Amalki Ekadashi, which falls just before Holi, a major festival for tribals.
- Villagers from Pal, Dadhvav, and Chitariya had gathered on the banks of river Heir as part of the ‘Eki movement’, led by one Motilal Tejawat.
- The movement was to protest against the land revenue tax (lagaan) imposed on the peasants by the British and feudal lords.
- Tejawat, who belonged to Koliyari village in the Mewad region of Rajasthan, had also mobilised Bhils from Kotda Chhavni, Sirohi, and Danta to participate.
The fateful day
- Tejawat had been outlawed by the Udaipur state, which had announced a Rs-500 reward on his head.
- The Mewad Bhil Corps (MBC), a paramilitary force raised by the British that was on the lookout for Tejawat, heard of this gathering and reached the spot.
- On a command from Tejawat, nearly 2000 Bhils raised their bows and arrows and shouted in unison- ‘We will not pay the tax’.
- The MBC commanding officer, HG Sutton, ordered his men to fire upon them creating a huge stampede.
- Nearly 1,000 tribals (Bhils) fell to bullets. While the British claimed some 22 people were killed, the Bhils believe 1,200-1,500 of them died.
Must read:
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Legacy of Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jyotiba Phule
Mains level: NA
Maharashtra Governor has recently received flak for his remarks on the social reformist couple Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule.
Who were the Phules?
- Mahatma Jyotirao and Savitribai Phule stand out as an extraordinary couple in the social and educational history of India.
- They spearheaded path-breaking work towards female education and empowerment, and towards ending caste- and gender-based discrimination.
- In 1840, at a time when child marriages were common, Savitri at the age of ten was married to Jyotirao, who was thirteen years old at the time.
- The couple later in life strove to oppose child marriage and also organised widow remarriages.
The Phules’ endeavors and legacy
- Education: Jyotirao, the revolutionary that he was, observed the lack of opportunities for education for young girls and women.
- Leaders of the masses: He started to educate his wife at home and trained her to become a teacher. Together, by 1848, the Phules started a school for girls, Shudras and Ati-Shudras in Poona.
- Widow shelter: The historic work was started by Jyotirao when he was just 21 years old, ably supported by his 18-year-old wife. In 1853, Jyotirao-Savitribai opened a care centre for pregnant widows to have safe deliveries and to end the practice of infanticide owing to social norms.
- Prevention of infanticide: The Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (Home for the Prevention of Infanticide) started in their own house at 395, Ganj Peth, Pune.
The Satyashodhak Samaj:
- Literally meaning ‘The Truth-Seeker’s Society’ was established on September 24, 1873 by Jyotirao-Savitribai and other like-minded people.
- The Samaj advocated for social changes that went against prevalent traditions, including economical weddings, inter-caste marriages, eradication of child marriages, and widow remarriage.
- The Phules also had far-sighted goals — popularising female education, establishing an institutional structure of schools in India, and to have a society where women worked in tandem with men.
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Back in news: Visva-Bharati University
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Viswabharati University
Mains level: NA
The stalemate continues in Visva-Bharati University as students demand the reopening of hostels and conducting of online examinations.
Visva-Bharati
- Visva-Bharati is a central research university and an Institution of National Importance located in Shantiniketan, West Bengal, India.
- It was founded by Rabindranath Tagore who called it Visva-Bharati, which means the communion of the world with India.
- Until independence, it was a college.
- Soon after independence, the institution was given the status of a central university in 1951 by an act of the Parliament.
Its establishment
- The origins of the institution date back to 1863 when Debendranath Tagore was given a tract of land by the zamindar of Raipur, zamindar of Kirnahar.
- He set up an ashram at the spot that has now come to be called chatim tala at the heart of the town.
- The ashram was initially called Brahmacharya Ashram, which was later renamed Brahmacharya Vidyalaya.
- It was established with a view to encouraging people from all walks of life to come to the spot and meditate.
- In 1901 his youngest son Rabindranath Tagore established a co-educational school inside the premises of the ashram.
- From 1901 onwards, Tagore used the ashram to organize the Hindu Mela, which soon became a center of nationalist activity.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2021:
Q. With reference to Madanapalle of Andhra Pradesh, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Pingali Venkayya designed the tricolour Indian National Flag here.
(b) Pattabhi Sitaramaiah led the Quit India Movement of Andhra region from here.
(c) Rabindranath Tagore translated the National Anthem from Bengali to English here.
(d) Madame Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott set up headquarters of Theosophical Society fi rst here.
Post your answers here.
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Who was Lachit Borphukan?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan, Battle of Saraighat
Mains level: NA
The Prime Minister has paid tribute to Lachit Borphukan on Lachit Diwas.
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- The year was 1671 and the decisive Battle of Saraighat was fought on the raging waters of the Brahmaputra.
- On one side was Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s army headed by Ram Singh of Amer (Jaipur) and on the other was the Ahom General Lachit Borphukan.
- He was a commander in the Ahom kingdom, located in present-day Assam.
- Ram Singh failed to make any advance against the Assamese army during the first phase of the war.
- Lachit Borphukan emerged victorious in the war and the Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
Lachit Diwas
- On 24 November each year, Lachit Divas is celebrated state-wide in Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan.
- On this day, Borphukan has defeated the Mughal army on the banks of the Brahmaputra in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
- The best passing out cadet of National Defence Academy has been conferred the Lachit gold medal every year since 1999 commemorating his valor.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Post your answer here.
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Who was Narsinh Mehta?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Narsinh Mehta
Mains level: Bhakti Movement
Recently Junagadh University discovered a new species of spider and named it Narsinhmehtai in honour of Narsinh Mehta, the 15th-century poet who was a devotee of Lord Krishna.
Narsinh Mehta
- Mehta is believed to have been born in Talaja in present-day Bhavnagar district in 1410 and died in Junagadh in 1480s.
- The family had its origin in Vadnagar in north Gujarat, and the caste name is believed to be Pandya but as members of the family were officers in kingdoms of those days.
- They were called Mehta (one who keeps books of accounts) which later on became the family name.
- His father died when Mehta was just 5 and it is believed that Mehta learnt to speak only when he was eight years old, after a holy man asked him to utter the name of Lord Krishna.
- His elder brother Bansidhar and Bansidhar’s wife raised Mehta and arranged his marriage.
Miracles in his life
- Mehta used to spend time in Krishna-bhakti (devotion to Lord Krishna) even after his marriage to Manekba, paying little attention to family duties.
- Mehta is believed to have run away from home and done tapashcharya at a Shiva temple in Talaja for seven days.
- After that, Mehta relocated with his family to Junagadh.
- Nonetheless, folklore has it that Lord Krishna, by impersonating as Mehta, helped the devout poet organise shraadhha (a ritual performed post death of a family member) of his father, marriage of his son Shamaldas etc.
- One of his bhajans narrates how Ra Mandlik, the then ruler of Junagadh had imprisoned him, accusing the poet of not having seen Lord Krishna and yet claiming to have done so.
His poetry
- Mehta penned more than 750 poems, called padd in Gujarat.
- They mainly deal with devotion to Lord Krishna, gyan (wisdom) vairagya (detachment from worldly affairs).
- Others like Shalmshano Vivah, Kunvarbainu Mameru, Hundi and Harmala are believed to be autobiographical accounts of different occasions in his life.
- Vaishanavajn to tene kahiye, Mahatma Gandhi’s favourite bhajan is Mehta’s creation.
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In news: Tarapur Massacre of 1932
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tarapur Massacre of 1932
Mains level: NA
Bihar CM has announced that February 15 would be celebrated as “Shahid Diwas” in memory of the 34 freedom fighters who were killed by police in Tarapur town of Bihar’s Munger district 90 years ago.
Why such move?
- The Tarapur massacre was the biggest carried out by the British police after the one in Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar in 1919.
- The freedom fighters had never got their due, the CM said.
- PM Modi too had referred to the Tarapur massacre in his Mann ki Baat radio address of January 2021.
Tarapur Massacre: Course of events
- On February 15, 1932, a group of young freedom fighters planned to hoist an Indian national flag at Thana Bhavan in Tarapur.
- Police were aware of the plan, and several officers were present at the spot. Around 2 pm, even as the police carried out a brutal lathicharge, Gopal Singh succeeded in raising the flag at Thana Bhavan.
- A 4,000-strong crowd pelted the police with stones, injuring an officer of the civil administration.
- The police responded by opening indiscriminate fire on the crowd.
- After about 75 rounds were fired, 34 bodies were found at the spot, even though there were claims of an even larger number of deaths.
Trigger for protest
- The hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru in Lahore on March 23, 1931, sent a wave of grief and anger around the country.
- Following the collapse of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, the Mahatma was arrested in early 1932.
- The Congress was declared an illegal organization, and Nehru, Patel, and Rajendra Prasad were also thrown in jail.
- In Munger, freedom fighters Srikrishna Singh, Nemdhari Singh, Nirapad Mukherjee, Pandit Dasrath Jha, Basukinath Rai, Dinanath Sahay, and Jaymangal Shastri were arrested.
- A call given by the Congress leader Sardar Shardul Singh Kavishwar to raise the tricolour over government buildings resonated in Tarapur.
Back2Basics:
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Who was Tilka Manjhi?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tilka Manjhi
Mains level: Tribal Revolts during colonial times
The Nation is remembering revolutionary freedom fighter and tribal leader Tilka Manjhi on his 272nd birth anniversary.
Tilka Manjhi (1750-1785)
- He organized Adivasis into an army and led the famous Santhal Hool in 1784 against the exploitative British.
- In 1770, there was a severe famine in the Santhal region and people were dying of hunger.
- Tilka Manjhi looted the treasury of the East India Company and distributed it among the poor and needy.
- Inspired by this noble act of Tilka, many other tribals also joined the rebellion.
- With this began his Santhal Hool, the revolt of the Santhals.
- He continued to attack the British and their sycophantic allies.
- From 1771 to 1784, Tilka Manjhi never surrendered.
Offensive with the colonists
- Tilka Majhi attacked Augustus Cleveland, an East India Company administrator and fatally wounded him.
- The British surrounded the Tilapore forest from which he operated but he and his men held them at bay for several weeks.
- When he was finally caught in 1784, he was tied to the tail of a horse and dragged all the way to the Collector’s residence at Bhagalpur, Bihar, India.
- There, his deeply wounded body was hung from a Banyan tree.
Try this question from CSP 2018:
Q.After the Santhal uprising subsided, what was/ were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
- The territories called ‘Santhal Paraganas’ were created.
- It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here.
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Places in news: Chandernagore
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chandernagore
Mains level: Colonization of India
The Registry Building, a two-storey structure at Chandernagore built in 1875 and a symbol of French settlement of the colonial town, has been awaiting restoration for a long time.
French in India
- France was the last of the major European maritime powers of the 17th century to enter the East India trade.
- The French settlement in India began in 1673 with the purchase of land at Chandernagore from the Mughal Governor of Bengal.
- The next year they acquired Pondicherry from the Sultan of Bijapur. Both became the centers of maritime commercial activities of the French in India.
- Joseph Francois Dupleix who was initially appointed as Intendent of Chandernagore in 1731, sowed the seeds of colonization.
- The village, which hitherto was engaged in maritime commerce along with Pondicherry, got fortified by him.
Significance of Chandernagore
- Chandernagore, though a part of French colonies in India, was unique in many ways.
- It was very active in spearheading the freedom movement against the British. Due to its close proximity to Calcutta, it became a safe haven for freedom fighters of all hues.
- Even Aurobindo Ghosh who was one of the accused in the Alipore Bomb case of 1909, was acquitted unconditionally and after a short stay at Chandernagore moved to Pondicherry.
- Since the partition of Bengal in 1905, Chandernagore was in the thick of activities of freedom fighters against the British and produced several martyrs including Kanailal Dutt.
Merger into India
- As the British decided to hand over powers to the people of India by August 15, 1947, the people living under French rule in Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam were eager to join their homeland.
- But the French were yet to learn their lessons. They tried all the tricks in the book to avert this.
- Facing the onslaught from the people under their rule and the British and Indian rulers, the French declared Chandernagore as free city in 1947.
- In June 1948, they conducted a referendum in which an overwhelming majority of 97 per cent people opted for a merger with India.
- After so many legal hurdles, it became a part of India on October 2, 1955.
Back2Basics: European Colonies in India
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Back in news: Liberation of Goa
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Goan Liberation
Mains level: Causes of delayed de-colonization
The PM recently took a jibe at then PM Nehru, saying that it could have liberated Goa in 1947 itself had Nehru sent the Indian Army there.
What is the news?
- Goa was liberated 15 years after India attained freedom.
- PM Modi accused Nehru as guilty of leaving satyagrahis in the dismay, refusing to send the Indian Army to liberate Goa, even after 25 of them were shot dead by the Portuguese Army.
Goa’s Colonization: A backgrounder
- Goa became a Portuguese colony in 1510, when Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque defeated the forces of the sultan of Bjiapur, Yusuf Adil Shah.
- The next four and a half centuries saw one of Asia’s longest colonial encounters — Goa found itself at the intersection of competing regional and global powers.
- It received a religious and cultural ferment that lead eventually to the germination of a distinct Goan identity that continues to be a source of contestation even today.
- By the turn of the twentieth century, Goa had started to witness an upsurge of nationalist sentiment opposed to Portugal’s colonial rule, in sync with the anti-British nationalist movement.
Beginning of freedom movement
- Tristao de Braganza Cunha, celebrated as the father of Goan nationalism, founded the Goa National Congress at the Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress in 1928.
- In 1946, the socialist leader Ram Manohar Lohia led a historic rally in Goa that gave a call for civil liberties and freedom, and eventual integration with India.
- This event became a watershed moment in Goa’s freedom struggle.
- At the same time, there was a thinking that civil liberties could not be won by peaceful methods, and a more aggressive armed struggle was needed.
- This was the view of the Azad Gomantak Dal (AGD), whose co-founder Prabhakar Sinari is one of the few freedom fighters still living today.
- Finally, Goa was liberated on December 19, 1961 by swift Indian military action that lasted less than two days.
Recognition of Goa
- The Supreme Court of India recognized the validity of the annexation and rejected the continued applicability of the law of occupation.
- In a treaty with retroactive effect, Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty in 1974.
- Under the jus cogens rule, forceful annexations including the annexation of Goa are held as illegal since they have taken place after the UN Charter came into force.
Why was Goa left un-colonized?
As India moved towards independence, however, it became clear that Goa would not be free any time soon, because of a variety of complex factors.
- No immediate war: Then PM Nehru felt that if he launched a military operation (like in Hyderabad) to oust the colonial rulers, his image as a global leader of peace would be impacted.
- Trauma of Partition: The trauma of Partition and the massive rupture that followed, coupled with the war with Pakistan, kept the Government of India from opening another front.
- Internationalization of the issue: This might have led the international community to get involved.
- No demand from within: It was Gandhi’s opinion that a lot of groundwork was still needed to raise the consciousness of the people, and the diverse political voices emerging within be brought under a common umbrella.
Nehruvian dilemma
- India’s global image: Nehru was headed in shaping India’s position in the comity of nations.
- Trying peaceful options: He was trying to exhaust all options available to him given the circumstances that India was emerging from.
- Portuguese obsession: Portugal had changed its constitution in 1951 to claim Goa not as a colonial possession, but as an overseas province.
- Portugal in NATO: The move was apparently aimed at making Goa a part of the newly formed North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) military alliance. Hence the collective security clause of the treaty would be triggered.
- Weak indigenous push: Nehru saw it prudent to pursue bilateral diplomatic measures with Portugal to negotiate a peaceful transfer while, at the same time, a more ‘overt’ indigenous push for liberation.
Why did Nehru wait until December 1961 to launch a full-scale military offensive?
India could no longer be seen to delay the liberation of Goa because:
- Portuguese offensive against Satyagrahis: The firing incident also provoked a sharp response from the Government of India, which snapped diplomatic and consular ties with Portugal in 1955.
- India as torchbearer of de-colonization: India got itself firmly established as a leader of the Non Aligned World and Afro Asian Unity, with decolonisation and anti-imperialism as the pillars of its policy.
- Criticisms from African nations: An Indian Council of Africa seminar on Portuguese colonies organized in 1961 heard strong views from African as this was hampering their own struggles against the ruthless regime.
- Weakening Colonialism: The delegates were certain that the Portuguese empire would collapse the day Goa was liberated.
The debate in 2022
- Politics needs to be charitable to history, because at some point it would be put to the same scrutiny and judgment as it becomes history itself.
- Goa has seen 60 years of eventful liberation and successful amalgamation in the Indian Union.
- It is more important for it to look ahead to its future than to rapidly receding, increasingly dim images in the rear-view mirror.
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President quotes Thirukkural while addressing Parliament
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thirukkural
Mains level: Ancient sangam literature
President Ram Nath Kovind quoted a couplet from Thirukkural while addressing the joint Houses of Parliament for Budget Session.
What did the President quote?
- ‘Karka Kasadara Karpavai Kattrapin Nirka Atharku Thaka’ was the couplet chosen by him to reiterate the importance of the New Education Policy.
- The couplet insists on thorough and flawless learning and adhering to what one has learnt.
What is Thirukkural?
- The Tirukkuṟaḷ (meaning ‘sacred verses’), or shortly the Kural, is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each.
- The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue (aram), wealth (porul) and love (inbam), respectively.
- Considered one of the greatest works ever written on ethics and morality, it is known for its universality and secular nature.
Three major parts of the book
- Aram : Book of Virtue (Dharma), dealing with moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy
- Porul : Book of Polity (Artha), dealing with socio-economic values, polity, society and administration
- Inbam: Book of Love (Kama), dealing with psychological values and love
Who authored it and when?
- Its authorship is traditionally attributed to Valluvar, also known in full as Thiruvalluvar.
- The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE.
- The traditional accounts describe it as the last work of the third Sangam, but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period.
Cultural significance of Thirukkural
- The Kural is traditionally praised with epithets and alternative titles, including “the Tamil Veda” and “the Divine Book.”
- Written on the foundations of ahimsa, it emphasizes non-violence and moral vegetarianism as virtues for an individual.
- In addition, it highlights truthfulness, self-restraint, gratitude, hospitality, kindness, goodness, duty, giving, and so forth.
- It covers a wide range of social and political topics such as king, ministers, taxes, justice, forts, war, greatness of army and soldier’s honor.
- It emphasizes death sentence for the wicked, agriculture, education, abstinence from alcohol and intoxicants.
- It also includes chapters on friendship, love, sexual unions, and domestic life.
Read these quotes and bookmark them. They can be used in essays:
- Nothing is impossible for those who act after wise counsel and careful thought.
- Real kindness seeks no return.
- The only gift is giving to the poor; All else is exchange.
- Friendship with the wise gets better with time, as a good book gets better with age.
- Worthless are those who injure others vengefully, while those who stoically endure are like stored gold.
- Among a man’s many good possessions, A good command of speech has no equal. Prosperity and ruin issue from the power of the tongue. Therefore, guard yourself against thoughtless speech.
- A fortress is of no use to cowards.
- Even the ignorant may appear very worthy, If they keep silent before the learned.
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[pib] Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas
Mains level: Temple architecture of India
The Hoysala Temples of Belur, Halebid and Somnathapura in Karnataka have been finalized as India’s nomination for consideration as World Heritage for the year 2022-2023.
Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas
- The sacred ensembles of the Hoysalas are extraordinary expressions of spiritual purpose and vehicles of spiritual practice and attainment.
- The sacred ensembles of the Hoysalas at Belur and Halebid are the finest, most exquisite, and most representative examples of the artistic genius and cultural accomplishments of the Hoysalas remaining today.
[I] Belur: Chennakeshava Temple Complex
- The Chennakeshava temple complex was at the center of the old walled town located on the banks of the Yagachi River.
- The complex itself was walled in a rectangular campus with four rectilinear streets around it for ritual circumambulation of the deity.
- Construction of the temple commenced in 1117 AD and took a 103 years to complete.
- The temple was devoted to Vishnu.
- The richly sculptured exterior of the temple narrate scenes from the life of Vishnu and his reincarnations and the epics, Ramayana, and Mahabharata.
- However, some of the representations of Shiva are also included.
- Consecrated on a sacred site, the temple has remained continuously worshipped since its establishment and remains until today as a site of pilgrimage for Vaishnavites.
[II] Halebid: Hoysaleshwara Temple
- At the zenith of the Hoysala empire, the capital was shifted from Belur to Halebid that was then known as Dorasamudhra.
- The Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu is the most exemplary architectural ensemble of the Hoysalas extant today.
- Built in 1121CE during the reign of the Hoysala King, Vishnuvardhana Hoysaleshwara.
- The temple, dedicated to Shiva, was sponsored and built by wealthy citizens and merchants of Dorasamudra.
- The temple is most well-known for the more than 240 wall sculptures that run all along the outer wall.
- Halebid has a walled complex containing of three Jaina basadi (temples) of the Hoysala period as well as a stepped well.
[III] Somnathpur: Kesava Temple
- The Keshava temple at Somanathapura is another magnificent Hoysala monument, perhaps the last.
- This is a breathtakingly beautiful Trikuta Temple dedicated to Lord Krishna in three forms – Janardhana, Keshava and Venugopala.
- Unfortunately, the main Keshava idol is missing, and the Janardhana and Venugopala idols are damaged.
- Still this temple is worth a visit just to soak in the artistry and sheer talent of the sculptors who created this magnificent monument to the Divine.
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Netaji’s relationship with Nehru, Gandhi and the Congress
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: INA Mutiny, INC and Bose
Mains level: Netaji and his contribution in immediate freedom attainment
In public discourse, the popular imagination of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose is increasing all across the length and breadth of our country these days.
Back in 2016, when there was ruckus over de-classification of some files associated with Netaji, a question too appeared in UPSC CSE Mains:
Q. Highlight the differences in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom.
We can expect a repetition again considering the scale of ongoing debate around Netaji and the vitality of his INA leading to immediate withdrawal of British rulers from India.
Also read:
Context
The Bose-Gandhi rivalry is frequently understood as the biggest dichotomy of the Indian nationalist movement.
Bose: A complex character of freedom movement
- Bose was a complex character. His complexity comes alive when one realizes his disagreement with the Congress leadership, when Bose took over the Indian National Army (INA).
- He constituted four regiments, three of which were named after Gandhi, Nehru and Maulana Azad.
- He had profound respect for his colleagues.
- In 1943, while Gandhi was in jail, Bose on the former’s birthday gave a moving address over the Azad Hind Radio where he referred to Gandhi as ‘father of the nation’.
- This was probably the first time this epithet was used for Gandhi, and soon it became ubiquitous.
Bose and his association with INC
- Bose was a key member and a frontline leader of the Indian National Congress.
- He plunged into the anti-colonial movement under Gandhi’s leadership in 1921 and rose to be the president of the Congress in 1938 and 39.
- There were certain differences of opinion with the Gandhian high command in 1939, but he remained true to the Congress ideal of freedom.
Joining the Indian National Congress
- On July 16, 1921, Bose had returned to Bombay from London where he had gone on his father’s insistence to prepare for the Indian Civil Services examination.
- Despite qualifying for the services he had refused to take up the opportunity.
- Such was Bose’s zeal to join the freedom struggle that on the very afternoon he arrived in India he went to meet Gandhi at Mani Bhawan.
Relations with the mainstream leaders
(A) Bose vs. Gandhi
- Bose wanted to know how the different aspects of the movement were going to culminate in the non-payment of taxes, the last stage of the campaign.
- Secondly, he wanted to know how the non-payment of taxes would eventually force the British to leave and thirdly how Gandhi could promise Swaraj in one year.
- On Gandhi’s advice Bose moved to Calcutta, where he worked closely with the lawyer and Congress leader C R Das.
- As president of the Congress, his first disagreement with Gandhi happened in December 1938 when Bose was eager to form a coalition government in Bengal along with the Krishak Praja Party.
- The following year, Bose was hopeful for re-election as Congress president. A second term was very rare and Gandhi was pretty much against the idea of re-electing Bose.
- Bose found support from the younger and left leaning members of the Congress and also from the literary giant Rabindranath Tagore.
- Tagore had personally written to Gandhi requesting a second term for Bose. However, Bose was aggrieved to know that Gandhi saw this as a ‘personal defeat’.
(B) Bose vs. Nehru
- Both leaders were of same age, similar political leanings and often finding themselves frustrated by Gandhi’s commitment to non-violence.
- However, while Nehru was starry-eyed in his reverence for Gandhi, Bose though immensely respectful of Gandhi, found his political strategies to be ambiguous.
- Bose and Nehru had been in prison at that time and both expressed disappointment and anger over unilateral withdrawal of non-cooperation movement over Chauri Chaura incident.
- Both were left-leaning radical men, unswerving in their commitment to ‘purna swaraj’ and to the forming of a socialist state in independent India.
- When Bose sought the support of the Nazi government in Germany, he found himself ideologically at the farthest end to Nehru’s views.
(C) Bose vs. Patel
- In response to Bose’s re-election, several members of the Congress Working Committee resigned including Vallabhbhai Patel and Rajendra Prasad.
- Patel had an old rivalry with Bose, which was both personal and political.
- Their relationship had deteriorated rapidly with the death of Patel’s elder brother Vithalbhai in 1933.
- Bose had been very close to Vithalbhai and had nursed him during his last days.
- In his will, Vithalbhai had left a substantial portion of his property to Bose.
- Vallabhbhai had cast aspersions on the authenticity of the will and a long legal battle had followed culminating in the victory of Patel.
As Congress president
- In February 1938 Bose had taken over as president of the Congress and the next two years would be defining in creating his political profile as a Congressman and in drawing the rift with Gandhi and Nehru.
- At the Haripura session of the Congress, Bose made his presidential address, which is known to be the lengthiest and most important speech he ever made to the party.
- He made it clear that he stood for unqualified Swaraj.
- However, it needs to be noted that nowhere in the speech did Bose suggest any criticism or deviation from Gandhi’s methods.
Resignation from INC
- On April 29, 1939 Bose resigned from his post as president of the Congress Party.
- In a statement to the press, he mentioned the efforts he had made to find a common ground with Gandhi.
- These having failed, he felt his presidency may be a sort of obstacle or handicap in the path of the Congress as it sought to reconcile its two wings.
Life after leaving Congress
(A) World War II
- In September 1939 German tanks invaded Poland, marking the beginning of the Second World War.
- The war was to have a most significant impact in the history of modern India.
- Bose was a special invitee in the three-day meeting of the Congress Working Committee from September 9 to decide India’s position on the war.
- For Bose, the war served as a golden opportunity for India to launch a civil disobedience movement in order to win independence.
- For Bose the stance taken by the resolution to support British was completely unacceptable.
- Nehru had nothing but hatred towards Fascism and Nazism and sought for some concessions from the British government to fight Mussolini and Hitler.
(B) Escape to Germany
- Bose organized mass protests in Calcutta for the removal of the Holwell monument that stood in Dalhousie Square as a memorial to those who died in the Black Hole of Calcutta.
- He was arrested by the British government for the protests, but was released soon after he went into a seven-day hunger strike.
- Bose’s arrest and the subsequent release set the scene for him to escape to Germany via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.
After Netaji’s demise ( rather disappearance)
- It is also worth noting that at the end of the Second World War, Nehru put on his barrister’s gown and joined the defense team for the INA prisoners at the time of the Red Fort trials.
- In the several speeches of Nehru after Bose’s death, the former referred to Netaji in the most affectionate way.
- In August 1947, in his first speech from the ramparts of the Red Fort, Nehru mentioned only two people by name and were Gandhi and Bose. It was quite a warm reference.
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Who was Sri Ramanuja?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramanuja, Vishishtadvaita
Mains level: Not Much
Work is going apace on the 216-ft tall ‘Statue of Equality’ of the 11th century reformer and Vaishnavite saint, Sri Ramanuja, to be unveiled by PM Modi next month in Hyderabad.
Statue of Equality
- The ‘Statue of Equality’, as it is called, is being installed to mark the 1,000th birth anniversary of Sri Ramanuja.
- It was built of panchaloha, a combination of gold, silver, copper, brass and zinc, by the Aerospun Corporation in China and shipped to India.
- It is the second largest in the world in sitting position of the saint.
- The monument will be surrounded by 108 “Divya Desams” of Sri Vaishnavite tradition (model temples) like Tirumala, Srirangam, Kanchi, Ahobhilam, Badrinath, Muktinath, Ayodhya, Brindavan, Kumbakonam and others.
- The idols of deities and structures were constructed in the shape at the existing temples.
Who was Sri Ramanuja?
Ramanuja or Ramanujacharya (1017–1137 CE) was a philosopher, Hindu theologian, social reformer, and one of the most important exponents of Sri Vaishnavism tradition within Hinduism.
- His philosophical foundations for devotionalism were influential to the Bhakti movement.
His works
- Ramanuja’s philosophical foundation was qualified monism and is called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition.
- His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta, the other two are known as Adi Shankara’s Advaita (absolute monism) and Madhvacharya’s Dvaita (dualism)
- Important writings include:
- Vedarthasangraha (literally, “Summary of the Vedas meaning”),
- Sri Bhashya (a review and commentary on the Brahma Sutras),
- Bhagavad Gita Bhashya (a review and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita), and
- The minor works titled Vedantapida, Vedantasara, Gadya Trayam (which is a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam, Sriranga Gadyam and the Srivaikunta Gadyam), and Nitya Grantham.
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Amar Jawan Jyoti and its Relocation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Amar Jawan Jyoti, National War Memorial
Mains level: Read the attached story
The iconic Amar Jawan Jyoti (AJJ) at India Gate was extinguished as a part of its merger with the flame at the National War Memorial (NWM). This has sparked a political controversy.
What is the Amar Jawan Jyoti?
- The eternal flame at the AJJ underneath India Gate in central Delhi was an iconic symbol of the nation’s tributes to the soldiers who have died for the country in various wars and conflicts since Independence.
- Established in 1972, it was to mark India’s victory over Pakistan in the 1971 War, which resulted in the creation of Bangladesh.
- The then PM Indira Gandhi had inaugurated it on Republic Day 1972, after India defeated Pakistan in December 1971.
Description of the bust
- The key elements of the Amar Jawan Jyoti included a black marble plinth, a cenotaph, which acted as a tomb of the Unknown Soldier.
- The plinth had an inverted L1A1 self-loading rifle with a bayonet, on top of which was a soldier’s war helmet.
How the eternal flame was kept burning?
- For 50 years the eternal flame had been burning underneath India Gate, without being extinguished.
- But on Friday, the flame was finally put off, as it was merged with another eternal flame at the National War Memorial.
- Since 1972, when it was inaugurated, it used to be kept alive with the help of cylinders of liquefied petroleum gas, or LPG.
- One cylinder could keep one burner alive for a day and a half.
- In 2006 that was changed. Though a project that cost around Rs 6 lakh the fuel for the flames was changed from LPG to piped natural gas, or PNG.
- It is through this piped gas that the flame marking the tribute to Indian soldiers had been kept alive eternally.
Why was it placed at India Gate?
- The India Gate, All India War Memorial, as it was known earlier, was built by the British in 1931.
- It was erected as a memorial to around 90,000 Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army, who had died in several wars and campaigns till then.
- Names of more than 13,000 dead soldiers are mentioned on the memorial commemorating them.
- As it was a memorial for the Indian soldiers killed in wars, the Amar Jawan Jyoti was established underneath it by the government in 1972.
Reasons for its relocation
- The correct perspective is that the flame will not be extinguished, but just moved to be merged with the one at the National War Memorial.
- The flame which paid homage to the soldiers killed in the 1971 War, does not even mention their name, and the India Gate is a “symbol of our colonial past”.
- The names of all Indian martyrs from all the wars, including 1971 and wars before and after it are housed at the National War Memorial.
- Hence it is a true tribute to have the flame paying tribute to martyrs there.
- Further, it can also be seen as part of the government’s redevelopment of the entire Central Vista, of which India Gate, the AJJ and the National War Memorial are parts of.
What else is planned with the extinguish?
- The canopy next to the India Gate will get a statue of the Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.
- The new statue will be 28 feet high.
- Till the statue is completed, a hologram statue of Bose will be placed under the canopy, which he will unveil on January 23.
- The canopy used to have a statue of Kind George V, which was removed in 1968.
Why Netaji?
- January 23 this year marks his 125th birth anniversary.
- From this year onwards, Republic Day celebrations will start on January 23, as opposed to the usual practice of starting it on January 24, to mark the birth anniversary of Bose.
- It will end on January 30, the day Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated.
- The government had earlier announced that Bose’s birth anniversary would be celebrated as Parakram Divas.
What is the National War Memorial and when was it made?
- The National War Memorial, which is around 400 meters from India Gate was inaugurated in February 2019, in an area of around 40 acres.
- It was built to commemorate all the soldiers who have laid down their lives in the various battles, wars, operations and conflicts of Independent India.
- There are many independent memorials for such soldiers, but no memorial existed commemorating them all at the national level.
- Discussions to build such a memorial had been ongoing since 1961, but it did not come up.
Its architecture
- The architecture of the memorial is based on four concentric circles.
- Largest is the Raksha Chakra or the Circle of Protection which is marked by a row of trees, each of which represent soldiers, who protect the country.
- The Tyag Chakra, the Circle of Sacrifice, has circular concentric walls of honour based on the Chakravyuh.
- The walls have independent granite tablets for each of the soldiers who have died for the country since Independence.
- As of today, there are 26,466 names of such soldiers on these granite tablets etched in golden letters.
- A tablet is added every time a soldier is killed in the line of duty.
- The final is the Amar Chakra, the Circle of Immortality, which has an obelisk, and the Eternal Flame.
- Busts of the 21 soldiers who have been conferred with the highest gallantry award of the country, Param Vir Chakra, are also installed at the memorial.
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Veer Baal Diwas to be observed on December 26
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Veer Bal Divas
Mains level: Not Much
Prime Minister has declared that December 26 shall henceforth be marked as Veer Baal Diwas to pay homage to the courage of the Sahibzades, four sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the last Sikh guru.
What is the legend of Sahibzades?
- The word “Sahibzada” means “son” in Punjabi and is a term commonly used to refer to the 4 sons of Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru.
- The week of 21 to 27 December is celebrated as the Sacrificial Week in memory of the four Sahibzadas who made sacrifices for the protection of Sikhism and Hinduism.
- Sahibzada Ajit Singh, Jujhar Singh, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh got martyrdom while saving their religious faiths against forceful conversion.
Their martyrdom: A backgrounder story
- After the establishment of the Khalsa Panth, Guru Gobind Singh left the fort of Sri Anandpur Sahib with his family on 20-21 December 1704 to fight the invasion by Aurgangzeb.
- The elder sahibzade Ajit Singh, Jujhar Singh stayed with Guru ji, while the younger sons Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh were with Mata Gujri ji.
- Subedar Wazir Khan of Sirhind arrested the two Sahibzades subsequently and lured them for religious conversion.
- In the end, it was announced to get them elected in the living walls.
- The rest two sahibzades got assassinated in the battle of Chamkaur (1705).
Implications of their martyrdom
- When the news of this reached Guruji, he wrote a zafarnama (letter of victory) to Aurangzeb, in which he warned Aurangzeb that the Khalsa Panth was ready to destroy your empire.
- Baba Banda Singh Bahadur took revenge for the martyrdom of Guruji’s Sahibzadas.
- He punished Wazir Khan for his deeds in Sirhind and established Sikh hegemony over the entire area.
- The result of this sacrifice was that later a large Sikh empire emerged under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
A historic event in Indian History
- This event is an important part of Indian history and the occasion of their martyrdom is remembered and commemorated both with great vigor and sorrow.
- The names of Sahibzades are reverently preserved and are recalled every time Ardas (prayer) of supplication is recited at a congregation or privately by an individual.
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Significance of Delhi government’s recognition to fifth Sikh Takht
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Takhts in Sikhism
Mains level: Not Much
The Delhi Assembly has passed an amendment Bill to the Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Act, 1971, recognizing Takht Damdama Sahib as the fifth Takht of Sikhs.
What is a Sikh Takht?
- A Takht, which means a throne, is a seat of temporal authority for Sikhs.
- There are five Sikh Takhts, three in Punjab and one each in Maharashtra and Bihar.
(1) Akal Takht
- Located in Amritsar, it is the oldest of the Takhts, and considered supreme among the five.
- It was set up in 1606 by Guru Hargobind, whose succession as the sixth Guru after the execution of his father, Guru Arjan Dev, is considered a turning point in Sikh history.
- The Akal Takht, a raised platform that he built in front of the causeway leading to the sanctum sanctorum of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple).
- It symbolised the coming together of the temporal authority and the political sovereignty of the Sikh community (miri) with the spiritual authority (piri).
- It is seen as the first marker of Sikh nationalism.
The other four Takhts are linked to Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Sikh Guru.
(2) Takht Keshgarh Sahib
- Located in Anandpur Sahib in Punjab. It was here that Guru Gobind Singh raised Khalsa, the initiated Sikh warriors, in 1699.
(3) Takht Patna Sahib
- Guru Gobind Singh was born here in 1666.
(4) Takht Hazur Sahib
- In Nanded, where Guru Gobin Singh spent time and where he was cremated in 1708.
(5) Takht Damdama Sahib
- In Talwandi Sabo of Bathinda. Guru Gobind Singh spent several months here.
What does the amendment to the Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Act mean?
- Simply put, it adds one more ex officio member in the Delhi Sikh Gurdwara Managament Committee (DSGMC) house.
- Earlier, there were four ex officio members in the house — the chiefs (jathedars) of the other four Sikh Takhts.
Is it the first time it has been recognised as the fifth Takht?
- It was back in 1999 that Takht Damdama Sahib was recognised as the fifth Sikh Takht by the Union Home Ministry.
- It included it as such in the Sikh Gurdwaras Act, 1925 (Punjab Act VIII of 1925) with a notification dated April 23, 1999.
- Before that, an SGPC sub-committee had declared it the fifth Takht of Sikhs back in November 1966 after Punjab was carved out as a separate state through the Punjab Reorganisation Act, 1966.
How politically significant is the move?
- It comes ahead of the Punjab Assembly elections, where the, Delhi’s ruling party, has high stakes.
What is the role of the Sikh Takhts?
- The Takhts are known to issue hukumnamas (morality orders) from time to time on issues that concern the Sikh community.
- Akal Takht is supreme among them because it is the oldest and was created by a Sikh Guru himself, say Sikh scholars.
- Any edict or order concerning the entire community is issued only from Akal Takht.
- It is from Akal Takht that Sikhs found to be violating the Sikh doctrine and code of conduct are awarded religious punishment (declared tankhaiya).
Who appoints the jathedars of the Takhts?
- The three Takhts in Punjab are directly controlled by the SGPC, which appoints the jathedars.
- The SGPC is dominated by SAD members.
- It is widely understood that SAD puts the final seal on the appointment of these three jathedars.
- The two Takhts outside Punjab have their own trusts and boards.
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Who was Rani Velu Nachiyar?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Velu Nachiyar
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has paid tributes to Rani Velu Nachiyar on her birth anniversary.
Velu Nachiyar (1730-1796)
- Rani Velu Nachiyar was a queen of Sivaganga estate from c. 1780–1790.
- She was the first Indian queen to wage war with the East India Company in India.
- She is widely known as Veeramangai (“brave woman”).
Her legend
[A] Early life
- Velu Nachiyar was the princess of Ramanathapuram and the only child of King Chellamuthu Vijayaragunatha Sethupathy and Queen Sakandhimuthathal of the Ramnad kingdom.
- Nachiyar was trained in many methods of combat, including war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam, horse riding, and archery.
- She was a scholar in many languages and was proficient in languages like French, English and Urdu.
[B] Battles fought
- During this period, she formed an army and sought an alliance with Hyder Ali with the aim of launching a campaign against the East India Company in 1780.
- When her husband, Muthu Vaduganatha Periyavudaya Thevar was killed in a battle with EIC soldiers, she was drawn into the conflict.
- When Velu Nachiyar found the place where the EIC stored some of their ammunition, she arranged a suicide attack on the location, blowing it up.
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George Wittet, who left beautiful fingerprints across Mumbai
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indo-Saracenic Architecture
Mains level: NA
The restored and refurbished Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS) (erstwhile Prince of Wales Museum) will open this month as the building enters its centenary year.
Who was George Wittet?
- George Wittet was born in Blair Atholl, Scotland. He studied architecture in Perth, Scotland, and worked in Edinburgh and York before arriving in India in 1904.
- In India, he became assistant to John Begg, consulting architect to the Government of Bombay.
- Together, they pioneered the Indo-Saracenic style, using it in many government and public buildings across Bombay.
- About a decade later, Wittet rose to be consulting architect himself and was also elected as the first president of The Indian Institute of Architects.
- Besides the Prince of Wales Museum, Wittet also designed the Gateway of India, a fine example of Indo-Saracenic architecture and among the most identifiable landmarks of Mumbai.
What is Indo-Saracenic style?
- The Indo-Saracenic style was promoted by British architects starting from the late 19th century.
- It is exemplified by the use of elements seen in architecture across India, from Mughal structures to Hindu temples.
- The style was dominated by Indo-Islamic elements, but sometimes combined with Gothic and neo-classical elements popular in Britain at that time.
- Major features of the style include domes and domelets, chhattris, minarets, and open pavilions.
- Indo-Saracenic was seen as Raj’s efforts to promote “Indian” culture, so that their colonial subjects would view them more favorably, especially after the Revolt of 1857.
Notable monuments
Examples from other parts of India include the magnificent:
- Victoria Memorial in Kolkata
- Amba Vilas Palace (Mysore Palace) in Mysuru
- Senate House (on the Madras University campus) in Chennai
- Secretariat Building (Central Secretariat) in New Delhi
Mumbai’s notable architecture: CSMVS
- The dome of the CSMVS is based on the Gol Gumbaz, the mausoleum of king Mohammed Adil Shah of Bijapur.
- Wittet had toured the historic buildings of Bijapur, which was key to his Indo-Saracenic designs.
- CSMVS’s finial is based on that of the Taj Mahal.
- However, even though he won the competition for the museum’s design, it wasn’t his design that was executed finally.
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Who was Archbishop Desmond Tutu?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Desmond Tutu
Mains level: Anti-apartheid struggle in Africa
Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and veteran of South Africa’s struggle against white minority rule has died on December 26 at the age of 90.
Try this question from CS Mains 2016:
Q. The anti-colonial struggles in West Africa were led by the new elite of Western-educated Africans. Examine.
Desmond Tutu (1931- 2021)
- Tutu was a South African Anglican cleric who in 1984 received the Nobel Prize for Peace for his role in the opposition to apartheid in South Africa.
- A decade later, he witnessed the ends of that regime and he chaired a Truth and Reconciliation Commission, set up to unearth atrocities committed during those dark days.
- He was considered the nation’s conscience by both, the black majority and the white minority, an enduring testament to his faith and spirit of reconciliation in a divided nation.
His notable works
- During South Africa’s moves toward democracy in the early 1990s, Tutu propagated the idea of South Africa as “the Rainbow Nation”.
- The term was intended to encapsulate the unity of multi-culturalism and the coming together of people of many different nations, in a country once identified with the strict division of white and black under the Apartheid regime.
- In 1995 South African Pres. Nelson Mandela appointed Tutu head of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which investigated allegations of human rights abuses during the apartheid era.
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Who was P.N. Panicker?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: P.N. Panicker and his contribution
Mains level: Not Much
The President of India has recently unveiled the statue of Shri P.N. Panicker at Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram.
P.N. Panicker (1909-1995)
- Puthuvayil Narayana Panicker is known as the Father of the Library Movement of Kerala.
- June 19, his death anniversary, has been observed in Kerala as Vayanadinam (Reading Day) since 1996.
- In 2017, PM has declared June 19, Kerala’s Reading Day, as National Reading Day in India.
- The following month is also observed as National Reading Month in India
Contributions
- Panicker led the formation of Thiruvithaamkoor Granthasala Sangham (Travancore Library Association) in 1945 with 47 rural libraries.
- The slogan of the organization was ‘Read and Grow’.
- Later on, with the formation of Kerala State in 1956, it became Kerala Granthasala Sangham (KGS).
- He traveled to the villages of Kerala proclaiming the value of reading.
- Grandhasala Sangham won the ‘Krupsakaya Award’ from UNESCO in 1975.
- It became the Kerala State Library Council, with an in-built democratic structure and funding.
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60th Goa Liberation Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Liberation of Goa
Mains level: Decolonization of India
Goa hosts PM for the celebration of its 60th liberation day.
Goan Liberation
- An important port for trade and military operations, Goa was ruled by the Portuguese for more than 450 years.
- Historically, revolts against Portuguese rulers and their policies were recorded in the 18th and 19th century too.
- On June 18, 1946, the movement of Goa’s liberation gathered momentum after socialist leader Dr Ram Manohar Lohia plunged himself into the freedom movement with many young Goans.
- The day is now observed as Goa Revolution Day.
Freeing from Portuguese Rule
- Even as India became independent on August 15, 1947, Goa continued to be under Portuguese rule 14 years after that.
- After independence, the calls for Goa’s Liberation again gathered steam.
- After multiple agitations by freedom fighters, India made peaceful attempts for Goa’s liberation through diplomatic channels.
- However, as a last resort, the Indian government then led by PM Nehru, sent in its armed forces to the coastal state after which the Portuguese surrendered and Goa was liberated on December 19, 1961.
- This moment also marked the exit of the Portuguese (the first-comers), the last of the European colonizers to leave India.
Contribution of T.B. Cunha
- Cunha (1891-1958) was a prominent Indian nationalist and anti-colonial activist from Goa.
- He is popularly known as the “Father of Goan nationalism”, and was the organiser of the first movement to end Portuguese rule in Goa
What was ‘Operation Vijay’?
- Perhaps the first tri-service operation of the Indian armed forces, Operation Vijay was about the liberation of the Portuguese territories of Goa, Daman and Diu.
- It was a 36-hour military operation that started on December 18, 1961 and concluded on December 19, 1961.
- While the army advanced into Goa from the North and the East, the Indian Air Force bombed the Portuguese airbase at Dabolim.
- The Indian Navy was tasked with preventing hostile action by Portuguese warships, securing access to the Mormugao harbour, and securing the Anjadip island off Karwar.
- By the evening of December 19, 1961, Portuguese Governor General Vassalo De Silva had signed the document of surrender after Indian armed forces.
What happened after the liberation of Goa?
- Goa was annexed into the Indian Union and was the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu.
- In 1967, however, the question of whether the state should merge with Maharashtra or not was answered through a plebiscite in which the majority of the Goan people voted against a merger.
- It continued to remain a Union Territory until 1987 when it was accorded statehood.
- Goa became India’s 25th state even as Daman and Diu continue to be UTs.
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Tamil Nadu brings in State Song
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tamil Thai Vaazhthu
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Tamil Nadu Government has declared the Tamil Thai Vaazhthu as State Song.
The decision came after the Madras High Court ruling that there is no statutory or executive order requiring the attendees to stand up when Tamil Thai Vaazhthu is sung.
Tamil Thai Vaazhthu
- A part of the verses under the title ‘Tamil Dheiva Vanakkam’ from Manonmaniam, penned by Manonmaniam Sundaranar and published in 1891, eventually came to be known as the Tamil Thai Vaazhthu.
- In 1913, the annual report of the Karanthai Tamil Sangam made the demand for singing the song at all functions.
- The Tamil Thai Vaazhthu is being sung at Karanthai Tamil Sangam since 1914.
- It is also being sung at all Tamil Sangams associated with the Karanthai Tamil Sangam.
- The Karanthai Tamil Sangam had appealed to the then Chief Minister, C.N. Annadurai, to declare Tamil Thai Vaazhthu the State song.
What was the Madras HC observation?
- There is no statutory or executive order requiring attendees to stand up when it was being sung.
- The court, however, ruled that Tamil Thai Vaazhthu “is a prayer song and not an Anthem”.
- While the “highest reverence and respect ought to be shown”, it was not necessary to stand for it.
- The song is sung at the commencement (and not at the end) of all functions organized by government departments, local bodies and educational institutions.
What about National Anthem?
- In the Bijoe Emmanuel vs. State of Kerala (1986) Case, the Supreme Court ordered the readmission to school of three children who had been expelled for refusing to sing the national anthem.
- It was then noted by the SC that there is no provision of law which obliges anyone to sing the National Anthem.
- Again, the Supreme Court had, in Shyam Narayan Chouksey v. Union of India (2017), directed that all cinema halls shall play the national anthem before the film and all present are obliged to stand.
What is the state directive?
- TN CM has issued a directive that everyone who is present during the rendition of the song, barring differently-abled persons, should remain standing.
- The song should compulsorily be sung at the beginning of events organized by all educational institutions, government offices and public sector undertakings, among other public organizations.
- The song should be sung in 55 seconds in Mullaipaani Ragam (Mohana Raagam) in the thisra thaalaa.
- At public functions, the playing of the song with musical instruments/recordings is to be avoided, and trained singers should sing it.
Point of discussion: Is it a case of Sub-nationalism?
- There has been an intensification of sub-nationalism in India by highlighting the greatness of their state, language or historical state icons.
- This pride has, at times, led to unimaginable actions. The latest issue of contention was regarding a separate State flag for Karnataka.
- India also witnesses shocking developments showing the ugly face of provincialism in the North-East.
Issues with such tendencies
- Overambitious aspirations: As much as it is a matter of pride it remains a matter of concern when regional aspirations become too strong.
- Secessionist tendencies: India has already faced partition due to rising religious motives and has been plagued by secessionism in J&K and Nagaland based on regional identities.
- National Unity: It can be argued that subnationalism emphasizes aggressively on its regional identities then it can break the sensitive thread through which India remains a nation.
- Communalism: It should be critically studied that whether the state’s assertions are to freely exercise their own culture and language or to belittle and suppress others.
Affirmations to offer
- Pluralism: An optimistic view emerges which characterizes subnationalism as the strength of a multi-cultural nation such as India.
- Socio-economic solidarity: Subnationalism encourages social development as the level of solidarity is high in a state under such motives of state song, flag etc.
- Unification: State symbols means that a region becomes more and more homogenous and dedicated for welfare under cultural and linguistic symbolization.
Conclusion
- As long as subnationalism is not secessionist in nature or is aimed towards other communities, it might become a positive force in India.
- It will help in re-establishing the nature of the pluralistic society of India amidst the growing manufactured rhetoric of nationalism being falsely related exclusively with religious nationality.
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Historical episodes that PM spoke about in Kashi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Personalities mentioned
Mains level: NA
In his speech at Kashi, PM has referred to several historical episodes including the battle between Salar Masud and Raja Suhaldev and the conflict between Governor-general Warren Hastings and Raja Chait Singh.
He also mentioned the contributions of historical figures like Rani Bhabani from Bengal.
Note: UPSC is known to ask contemporaries.
[1] Salar Masud and Raja Suhaldev
- The story of Salar Masud, also known as Ghazi Mian, and Suhaldev is a mix of history and myth.
- Ghazi Mian is believed to have acquired popularity as a warrior in the 12th century.
- He was the nephew of the 11th-century Turkik invader, Mahmud of Ghazni, whose invasion of India is known as the moment when Islam entered large parts of the subcontinent.
- Interestingly, his tomb at Bahraich in Uttar Pradesh stands as a place of pilgrimage for a large number of Muslims as well as Hindus.
- The most comprehensive source of information about Ghazi Mian is the Mirat-e-Masaud (Mirror of Masaud), a 17th-century Persian hagiography written by Abdur Rahman Chisti, a Sufi saint.
- He asserted that Masud was the disciple of Sheikh Moinuddin Chisti, the founder of the Chistiya order of Sunni mysticism.
His conquest and Suheldev
- Masud arrived in Multan as a 17-year old head of the Afghan army and after having subjugated it made for Delhi where he spent almost half a year.
- Advancing his aggressive campaigns, Masud on the way destroyed several temples and converted many to Islam.
- It was at Bahraich, where in the course of a battle in 1034 CE between Masud and a local king by the name Suhaldev that the former was wounded by an arrow and succumbed.
- Suheldev is believed to have been the eldest son of the king of the Bhar community, from which emerged the Pasi community, a Dalit caste group of the region.
[2] Warren Hastings and Maharaja Chait Singh
- Another historical episode cited by Modi in his Kashi speech was about the first governor-general of Bengal Warren Hastings fleeing the city in 1781.
- By the late 18th century, Benaras had declared independence from the Nawab of Awadh.
- In 1771, Maharaja Chait Singh succeeded to the throne of Banaras with the help of British authorities.
- Two years later, the Maharaja transferred the domain to the East India Company under the control of Hastings.
Issues over Mysore war
- When faced with the need for resources to fight the Mysore War against Hyder Ali, Hastings pressed Maharaja Chait Singh to make additional revenue payments and supply troops in 1778 and 1779.
- When Singh failed to comply, Hastings marched to Benaras with his troops to confront the king.
- A skirmish erupted between the British troops on the one hand and the Raja’s forces and his large number of supporters on the other.
- As they fought, the Raja managed to escape from the fort through a window facing the Ganges.
An embarrassing defeat for Hastings
- Several of Hastings’ men were killed in the conflict and, left with no other option, the governor-general was forced to retreat.
- Popular narrative goes that he left hurriedly at night for the nearby Chunar Fort riding an elephant.
- The incident is believed to have given rise to the popular saying in Banaras: “Ghode par haudah, hathi par jeen, Kashi se bhaga Warren Hastings”.
[3] Rani Bhabani
- Bhabani was married to Raja Ramkanta Ray, the zamindar of the Natore estate in Rajshahi (present day Bangladesh).
- After the death of her husband in 1748, the zamindari passed on to the hands of Bhabani, making her one among the very few women zamindars of the time.
- For the next four decades, Bhabani is said to have managed the estate of Natore with utmost efficiency.
- Bhabani is remembered most for her philanthropic efforts. She is known to have built several schools across Rajshahi district and offered a number of scholarships.
- She is also known to have built the Durga Kund Mandir in Varanasi.
- She also desired to build a Kashi in Bengal and, consequently in 1755 a complex consisting of a dozen temples was built in Baronagar in Murshidabad by her.
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[pib] Durga Puja gets UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage tag
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Intangible Cultural Heritages in India
Mains level: Not Much
UNESCO has inscribed ‘Durga Puja in Kolkata’ on the Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
What is Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH)?
- ICH means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated with them that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as a part of their cultural heritage.
- Furthermore, its importance is not in the cultural manifestation itself, but in the wealth of knowledge, know-how and skills that are transmitted from one generation to the next.
About Durga Puja
- Durga Puja, also known as Durgotsava or Sharodotsava, is an annual Hindu festival that reveres and pays homage to the goddess Durga.
- It is an important festival in the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism.
- It is celebrated because of Durga’s victory over Mahishasur.
- It is particularly popular and traditionally celebrated in the Indian states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha among other states.
- It is a ten-day festival, of which the last five are of the most significance.
Citation for the UNESCO tag
- The UNESCO Committee commended its initiatives to involve marginalized groups, and individuals as well as women in their participation in safeguarding the element.
- The festival is also marked by scripture recitations, performance arts, revelry, gift-giving, family visits, feasting, and public processions.
- Durga Puja not only is a celebration of the feminine divinity but is a consummate expression of dance, music, crafts, rituals, practices culinary and cultural aspects.
- The festival transcends the boundaries of caste, creed and economic classes and joins the people together in its celebration.
Also read: National List for Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH)
Other ICH in India
- With the inscription of Durga Puja in Kolkata, India now has 14 intangible cultural heritage elements on the prestigious UNESCO Representative List of ICH of Humanity.
- In recent years, the ICH elements that saw inscriptions are Kumbh Mela (inscribed 2017), Yoga (inscribed 2016) among others.
- Also, India is a SIGNATORY of the 2003 UNESCO Convention which aims for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Heritage along with traditions and living expression.
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Significance of Raigad Fort in Maratha History
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Raigad Fort
Mains level: Not Much
President Ram Nath Kovind is commencing his visit to Maharashtra by visiting the Raigad Fort where he will pay tribute to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj.
Where is Raigad fort located?
- Raigad is a hill fort situated about 25 km from Mahad in the Raigad district and stands 2,851 feet above sea level.
- The British Gazette states the fort was known to early Europeans as the Gibraltar of the East.
- Its decisive feature is a mile and a half flat top which has adequate room for buildings.
- In its prime, the fort had 300 stone houses and a garrison of 2,000 men.
When was it built?
- The fort, which was earlier called Rairi, was the seat of the Maratha clan Shirke in the 12th century.
- The fort changed hands a number of times from the dynasty of Bahaminis to the Nizamshahis and then the Adilshahis.
- In 1656, Chhatrapati Shivaji captured it from the More’s of Javli who were under the suzerainty of the Adilshahi Sultanate.
- The fort not only helped Shivaji challenge the supremacy of the Adilshahi dynasty but also opened up the routes towards Konkan for the extension of his power.
Significance of the fort in Shivaji’s life
- In 1662, Shivaji formally changed the fort’s name to Raigad and added a number of structures to it.
- By 1664, the fort had emerged as the seat of Shivaji’s government.
- As the Marathas under the leadership of Shivaji gained strength in their struggle against the Mughals, the announcement of a sovereign, independent state was made.
- On June 6, 1674, Shivaji was coronated at Raigad by Gagabhatt where he took on the title of Chhatrapati.
- Six years later, Shivaji passed away in Raigad in 1680 and has been cremated at the fort.
Importance of Raigad Fort in Maharashtra’s polity
- Chhatrapati Shivaji is the tallest and the most revered icon in Maharashtra and there is a constant attempt by political parties of all hues to appropriate his legacy.
- Due to the significance of Raigad in his life, many political leaders make it a point to visit the fort.
- Maharashtra has already announced a mid-sea memorial in the Arabian Sea for the Maratha warrior king.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was St. Francis Xavier?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: St. Francis Xaviers and his missions
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has greeted the people of Goa on the day of the Feast of St. Francis Xavier.
St. Francis Xavier (1506-1552)
- Francis Xavier venerated as Saint Francis Xavier, was a Catholic missionary and saint who was a co-founder of the Society of Jesus.
- He was born in Javier, Kingdom of Navarre (in present-day Spain), he was a companion of Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits.
- He led an extensive mission into Asia, mainly in the Portuguese Empire of the time and was influential in evangelization work, most notably in India.
His works
- He has asked for a special minister to the king of Portugal whose sole office would be to further Christianity in Goa.
- He also was the first Christian missionary to venture into Japan, Borneo, the Maluku Islands, and other areas.
- In those areas, struggling to learn the local languages and in the face of opposition, he had less success than he had enjoyed in India.
- Xavier was about to extend his missionary preaching to China when he died on Shangchuan Island.
- Known as the “Apostle of the Indies” and “Apostle of Japan”, he is considered to be one of the greatest missionaries since Paul the Apostle.
Try this question from CSP 2021
Q. Consider the following statements:
- Francis Xavier was one of the founding members of the Jesuit Order.
- Francis Xavier died in Goa and a church is dedicated to him there.
- The Feast of St. Francis Xavier is celebrated in Goa each year.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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Paika Rebellion to be included as ‘case study’ in history textbook
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paika Rebellion
Mains level: Peasants uprising in India
The 1817 Paika Rebellion of Odisha would be included as a case study in the Class 8 NCERT history textbook, informed the Union Culture Minister.
Who were the Paiks?
- The Paiks of Odisha were the traditional landed militia and enjoyed rent free land tenures for their military service and policing functions on a hereditary basis.
Paika Rebellion
- When the British started tinkering with the revenue system in 1803, the farming community of Odisha rose in rebellion.
- At that critical juncture, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar — the military chief of the King of Khurda — led his army of Paikas forcing the British East India Company forces to retreat.
- The rebellion came to be known as Paika Bidroh (Paika rebellion).
When did it take place?
- The rebellion, by the landed militia of Khurda called Paiks, predates the first war of independence in 1857 but did not get similar recognition.
- It took place when the British East India Company wrested the rent-free land that had been given to the Paiks for their military service to the Kingdom of Khurda.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2020:
Q. With reference to the history of India, ‘ulgulan’ or the great tumult is the description of the which of the following?
(a) The revolt of 1857
(b) The Mappila rebellion of 1921
(c) The Indigo revolt of 1859-1860
(d) Birsa Munda’s revolt of 1899-1900
Post your answers here.
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[pib] Who was Lachit Borphukan?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan, Battle of Saraighat
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has paid tributes to Lachit Borphukan on Lachit Diwas.
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- The year was 1671 and the decisive Battle of Saraighat was fought on the raging waters of the Brahmaputra.
- On one side was Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s army headed by Ram Singh of Amer (Jaipur) and on the other was the Ahom General Lachit Borphukan.
- He was a commander in the Ahom kingdom, located in present-day Assam.
- Ram Singh failed to make any advance against the Assamese army during the first phase of the war.
- Lachit Borphukan emerged victorious in the war and the Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
Lachit Diwas
- On 24 November each year, Lachit Divas is celebrated statewide in Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan.
- On this day, Borphukan has defeated the Mughal army on the banks of the Brahmaputra in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
- The best passing out cadet of National Defence Academy has conferred the Lachit gold medal every year since 1999 commemorating his valour.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Rani Gaidinliu?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rani Gaidinliu
Mains level: Not Much
Union Home Minister has laid the foundation for ‘Rani Gaidinliu Tribal Freedom Fighters Museum’ in Imphal, Manipur.
Rani Gaidinliu
- Gaidinliu (26 January 1915 – 17 February 1993) was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in India.
- At the age of 13, she joined the Heraka religious movement of her cousin Haipou Jadonang.
- The movement later turned into a political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas.
- Within the Heraka faith, she came to be considered an incarnation of the Goddess Cherachamdinliu.
Meeting with Pt. Nehru
- Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers.
- Jawaharlal Nehru met her at Shillong Jail in 1937 and promised to pursue her release.
- Nehru gave her the title of “Rani” (“Queen”), and she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.
Her legacy
- She was released in 1947 after India’s independence and continued to work for the upliftment of her people.
- An advocate of the ancestral Naga religious practices, she staunchly resisted the conversion of Nagas to Christianity.
- She was honored as a freedom fighter and was awarded a Padma Bhushan by the Government of India.
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Puri Heritage Corridor Project
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jagannath Temple and its architecture
Mains level: Temple architecture of India
Odisha CM will lay the foundation stone of the much-awaited Puri Heritage Corridor.
Puri Heritage Corridor Project
- Conceived in 2016, the Puri Heritage Corridor Project was unveiled in December 2019 to transform the holy town of Puri into an international place of heritage.
- The project includes redeveloping major portions of the holy town and in the vicinity of the temple for visitors and tourists.
About Jagannath Temple
- The Jagannath Temple is an important Vaishnavite temple dedicated to Jagannath, a form of Sri Krishna in Puri in Odisha.
- The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century onwards, on the site of an earlier temple, and begun by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the first king of the Eastern Ganga dynasty.
- The Puri temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra, or chariot festival, in which the three principal deities are pulled on huge and elaborately decorated temple cars.
Its architecture
- With its sculptural richness and fluidity of the Oriya style of temple architecture, it is one of the most magnificent monuments of India.
- The huge temple complex covers an area of over 400,000 square feet and is surrounded by a high fortified wall.
- This 20 feet high wall is known as Meghanada Pacheri.
- Another wall known as kurma bedha surrounds the main temple.
The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely:
- Deula, Vimana or Garba griha (Sanctum sanctorum) where the triad deities are lodged on the ratnavedi (Throne of Pearls). In Rekha Deula style;
- Mukhashala (Frontal porch);
- Nata mandir/Natamandapa, which is also known as the Jagamohan (Audience Hall/Dancing Hall), and
- Bhoga Mandapa (Offerings Hall)
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Pochampally makes it to list of best tourism villages in the world
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Best Tourism Villages Initiative
Mains level: Bhoodan Movement
Pochampally village in Telangana is set to be named as one of the best Tourism Villages by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation.
Best Tourism Villages Initiative
- The Best Tourism Villages by UNWTO Pilot initiative aims to award those villages which are outstanding examples of rural destinations and showcase good practices in line with its specified nine evaluation areas.
- It also aims to support villages to enhance their rural tourism potential through training and access to opportunities for improvement.
Key objectives
- Reduce regional inequalities in income and development
- Fight rural depopulation
- Progress gender equality and women’s and youth empowerment
- Enhance education and skills development
About Pochampally
- Pochampally, 50 Kms from Hyderabad, is a town in Nalgonda district of Telangana.
- It is often referred to as the Silk City of India for the exquisite sarees that are woven through a unique style called Ikat.
- It is also known as Bhoodan Pochampally to commemorate the Bhoodan Movement that was launched by Acharya Vinobha Bhave from this village on April 18th, 1951.
- Currently, a two-room Vinobha Bhave Mandir exists within the village which was earlier the place where Vinobha Bhave resided during his visit to the village.
What is Pochampally Ikat?
- Ikat is a Malaysian, Indonesian word that means “Tie and Dye”.
- For this style, Pochampally Ikat, received a Geographical Indicator (GI Status) in 2004.
- Ikat involves the process of wrapping (or tying) and dyeing sections of bundled yarn to a predetermined colour pattern before they are woven.
- The dye penetrates into exposed sections while the wrapped section remains undyed.
- This pattern formed by the yarn in this process is woven into fabric.
Back2Basics: Bhoodan Movement
- The Bhoodan movement (Land Gift movement), also known as the Bloodless Revolution, was a voluntary land reform movement.
- It was initiated by Vinoba Bhave, a staunch Gandhian in 1951 at Pochampally village, which is now in Telangana, and known as Bhoodan Pochampally.
- The movement attempted to persuade wealthy landowners to voluntarily give a percentage of their land to landless people.
- Philosophically, Bhave was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s Sarvodaya movement and Gram Swarajya.
- Landless laborers were given small plots that they could settle and grow their crops on.
- Bhoodan Acts were passed that stated that the beneficiary had no right to sell the land or use it for non-agricultural purposes or for forestry.
Try this PYQ:
Q. With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings
(b) The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless
(c) It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation
(d) Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits
Post your answers here.
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Mosques to honour 1921 Malabar Rebellion martyrs
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Malabar Rebellion
Mains level: Not Much
Granite plaquettes featuring the names of Variamkunnathu Kunjahamad Haji, Ali Musliyar, and other martyrs of the 1921 Malabar Rebellion will be put up at the precincts of a few mosques in Ernakulam.
Malabar Rebellion
- The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule and the feudal system in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
- There were a series of clashes between Mappila peasantry and their landlords, supported by the British, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defence of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
- The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
Who was Variyankunna Kunjahammed Haji?
- He was one of the leaders of the Malabar Rebellion of 1921.
- He raised 75000 natives, seized control of large territory from the British rule and set up a parallel government.
- In January 1922, under the guise of a treaty, the British betrayed Haji through his close friend Unyan Musaliyar, arresting him from his hideout and producing him before a British judge.
- He was sentenced to death along with his compatriots.
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UNESCO picks Srinagar as ‘Creative City’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UCCN
Mains level: Not Much
The UNESCO has picked up Srinagar among 49 cities as part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network (UCCN) under the Crafts and Folk Arts category.
What is UCCN?
- UCCN created in 2004, is a network of cities that are thriving, active centers of cultural activities in their respective countries.
- These cities can be from all continents with different income levels or with different levels of populations.
- UCCN believes that these cities are working towards a common mission by placing creativity at the core of their urban development plans to make the region resilient, safe, inclusive and sustainable.
- Ministry of Culture is the nodal Ministry of the Government of India for all matters in UNESCO relating to culture.
Objective of UCCN
- Placing creativity and the creative economy at the core of their urban development plans to make cities safe, resilient, inclusive and sustainable, in line with the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
The 7 categories for recognition under UCCN are as follows:
- Crafts and Folk Arts
- Design
- Film
- Gastronomy (food)
- Music
- Media Arts
- Literature
Previously, 3 Indian cities were recognized as members of UCCN namely-
- Jaipur-Crafts and Folk Arts (2015)
- Varanasi-Creative city of Music (2015)
- Chennai-Creative city of Music (2017)
- Mumbai-Film (2019)
- Hyderabad- Gastronomy (2019)
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Life, work and legend of Adi Shankaracharya
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adi Shankaracharya, Advaita Vedanta Philisophy
Mains level: Indian Schools of Philosophy
PM has unveiled a 12-foot statue of Adi Shankaracharya at Kedarnath, where the acharya is believed to have attained samadhi at the age of 32 in the ninth century.
Adi Shankaracharya (788-820 AD)
- Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian whose works had a strong impact on the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
- He founded mathas, which are believed to have helped in the historical development, revival and propagation of his philosophy.
- The story recounted today has been reconstructed from multiple Shankaravijayas (Conquests of Shankara) written over the centuries.
Birth and death
- He is said to have been born in Kaladi village on the bank of the Periyar, the largest river in Kerala.
- He is believed to have attained samadhi at Kedarnath; however, Kanchi and Thrissur are also talked about as places where Adi Shankara spent his last days.
His literary works
- Adi Shankara is generally identified as the author of 116 works.
- Among them the celebrated commentaries (bhashyas) on 10 Upanishads, the Brahmasutra and the Gita, and poetic works including Vivekachudamani, Maneesha Panchakam, and Saundaryalahiri.
- He composed the Kanakadhara Stotram, following which there was a rain of golden amlas, which brought prosperity to the household.
- It has also been claimed that Adi Shankara composed texts like Shankarasmrithi, which seeks to establish the social supremacy of Nambuthiri Brahmins.
- His great standing is derived from his commentaries of the prasthanatrayi (Upanishads, Brahmasutra and Gita), where he explains his understanding of Advaita Vedanta.
His philosophy: Advaita Vedanta
- Advaita Vedanta articulates a philosophical position of radical nondualism, a revisionary worldview which it derives from the ancient Upanishadic texts.
- According to this, the Upanishads reveal a fundamental principle of nonduality termed ‘brahman’, which is the reality of all things.
- Advaitins understand brahman as transcending individuality and empirical plurality.
- They seek to establish that the essential core of one’s self (atman) is brahman. It is pure non-intentional consciousness.
- It is one without a second, nondual, infinite existence, and numerically identical with brahman.
- This effort entails tying a metaphysics of brahman to a philosophy of consciousness.
Do you know?
There are six major schools of Vedic philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mīmāṃsā and Vedanta, and five major heterodox (sramanic) schools—Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika, Ajñana, and Charvaka.
Shankara’s contested legacy
- Custodians of the caste system cite from Shankara’s commentaries to justify the unequal and unjust social order.
- It is argued that the Advaita Vedanta borrowed the categories of Buddhist thinkers and called him the Prachhanna Buddha (Buddha in disguise).
- Sri Narayana Guru offered a radical reading of Advaita Vedanta to dismantle the theory and praxis of caste.
His political appropriation
- His works transcends the political boundaries of his time.
- The mathas are believed to have established in Sringeri, Dwaraka, Puri, and Joshimath for the spread of Advaita Vedanta.
- They are seen as custodians of Hinduism, and Shankara’s digvijaya (conquest) often interpreted as a near nationalistic project where faith, philosophy and geography are yoked together to imagine a Hindu India.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
(d) Sankhya and Yoga
Post your answers here.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Shri Guru Nanak Jayanti to be declared World Pedestrian Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Nanak Dev
Mains level: Not Much
The Punjab Police has proposed that the birth anniversary (Gurpurab) of Sikhism founder Guru Nanak Dev be declared as ‘World Pedestrian Day’.
Why is Guru Nanak Dev considered the world’s most notable and revered pedestrian?
- The founder of Sikhism, Shri Guru Nanak Dev had traveled far and wide during the 15th and 16th centuries.
- It is believed that Nanak Dev, along with his companion Bhai Mardana, undertook most part of his journeys on foot.
- He aimed to spread the message of oneness and to break barriers across faiths by engaging in spiritual dialogues.
Places visited by him
- From Mecca to Haridwar, from Sylhet to Mount Kailash, Guru Nanak visited hundreds of interfaith sites related to Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, and Jainism.
- His journeys are referred are also called udaasis. At some sites, gurdwaras were constructed to commemorate his visit.
- Later his travels were documented in texts called ‘janamsakhis’.
- These sites are now spread across nine nations as per current geographical divisions — India, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, China (Tibet), Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan.
Motive behind Punjab Police’s proposal
- The idea is to spread awareness on road safety for pedestrians by introducing Guru Nanak Dev’s own life as an inspiration.
- The best results are achieved only when the community is mobilized for a cause.
- Walking is a universal form of travel. It is the best way which convey equality amongst all.
Try answering this PYQ:
Q. Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over? (CSP 2018)
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Post your answers here.
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[pib] Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Thevar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: M. Thevar, Forward Bloc
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has recalled the rich contributions of Pasumpon Muthuramalinga Thevar on Thevar Jayanthi.
Who was M. Thevar (1908-1963)?
- Muthuramalingam was a politician and a patriarch of Thevar community in the state of Tamil Nadu.
- He was elected three times to the national Parliamentary Constituency.
His legacy:
(a) Association with INC
- Thevar attended the 52nd annual session of the Indian National Congress, held in Tripuri in March 1939.
- At this meeting the presidency of Subhas Chandra Bose was challenged by Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Sitaramayya had the active support of Gandhi.
- Bose was elected president again over Gandhi’s preferred candidate Pattabhi Sitaramayya.
- Thevar strongly supported Bose in the intra-Congress dispute and joined the Forward Bloc.
(b) Opposition to the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA)
- The CTA had been enacted in 1920 by the government of the Madras Presidency and was subsequently implemented in a piecemeal fashion.
- CTA criminalized entire communities by designating them as habitual criminals.
- Adult males of the groups were forced to report weekly to local police, and had restrictions on their movement imposed.
- Thevar mobilised resistance to it, touring villages in the affected areas and leading protest rallies for the rights of the individuals registered under it.
(c) Temple entry movement
- The Temple Entry Authorisation and Indemnity Act was passed by the government of C. Rajagopalachari in 1939.
- This removed restrictions prohibiting Dalits from entering Hindu temples.
- Thevar supported this reform and on 8 July 1939 he helped the activist A. Vaidyanatha Iyer take Dalits to Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.
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[pib] Ramappa – Kakatiya Rudreshwara Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramappa Temple, UNESCO Heritage sites
Mains level: Ancient temple architecture
The Union Minister for Culture, Tourism has unveiled the UNESCO World Heritage Listing plaque at Ramappa – Kakatiya Rudreshwara Temple in Palampet.
Rudreswara Temple
- The Rudreswara temple was constructed in 1213 AD during the reign of the Kakatiya Empire by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapati Deva.
- It is also known as the Ramappa temple, after the sculptor who executed the work in the temple for 40 years.
- The main temple is flanked by the collapsed structures of the Kateshwarayya and Kameshwarayya temples in Palampet, about 220 km from Hyderabad.
- An inscription dates the temple to 1135 Samvat-Saka on the eighth day of Magha (January 12, 1214).
- It is India’s 39th UNESCO World Heritage Site. (Total 40 in number after Dholavira).
Its architecture
- The temple complexes of Kakatiyas have a distinct style, technology, and decoration exhibiting the influence of the Kakatiyan sculptor.
- The temple stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped platform with walls, pillars, and ceilings adorned with intricate carvings that attest to the unique skill of the Kakatiyan sculptors.
- The foundation is built with the “sandbox technique”, the flooring is granite, and the pillars are basalt.
- The lower part of the temple is red sandstone while the white gopuram is built with light bricks that reportedly float on water.
- European merchants and travelers were mesmerized by the beauty of the temple and one such traveler had remarked that the temple was the “brightest star in the galaxy of medieval temples of the Deccan”.
Surviving through ages
- According to the temple priest, some of the iconography on the temple was damaged during the invasion of Malik Kafur in 1310.
- Treasure hunters vandalized the rest.
- But the biggest test for the temple was an earthquake in the 17th century (one of the biggest was that of 7.7-8.2-magnitude on June 16, 1819).
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Which one of the following was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya kingdom? (CSP 2017)
(a) Kakinada
(b) Motupalli
(c) Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam)
(d) Nelluru
Post your answers here.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund, and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
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Historical Significance of Kushinagar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Places associated with Buddhism
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has inaugurated the Kushinagar International Airport in Uttar Pradesh, which will help connect key Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
About Kushinagar
- Kushinagar is a town in the Kushinagar district of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh.
- It is an important Buddhist pilgrimage site, where Buddhists believe Gautam Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana after his death.
- It is an international Buddhist pilgrimage centre.
- It is also at the centre of a Buddhist tourist circuit, which includes Lumbini (Nepal), Sarnath and Bodhgaya.
- Other Buddhist destinations nearby include Nalanda, Sravasti and Kapilavastu.
History of Kushinagar
The present Kushinagar is identified with Kusavati (in the pre-Buddha period) and Kushinara (in the post-Buddha period).
[A] Ancient
- Kushinara was the capital of Mallas which was one of the sixteen mahajanpada of the 6th century BCE.
- Since then, it remained an integral part of the erstwhile empires of Maurya, Shunga, Kushana, Gupta, Harsha, and Pala dynasties.
[B] Medieval
- In the medieval period, Kushinagar had passed under the suzerainty of Kultury Kings.
- Kushinara continued to be a living city till the 12th century CE and was thereafter lost into oblivion.
- It was believed to be ruled over by a Rajput adventurer, Madan Singh, in the 15th century CE.
[C] Modern
- Kushinagar came into prominence in the 19th century with archaeological excavations carried out by Alexander Cunningham, the first Archaeological Surveyor of India.
- It was later followed by C.L. Carlleyle who exposed the main stupa and also discovered a 10 meters long statue of reclining Buddha in 1876.
- Excavations continued till 1907 under J. Ph. Vogel, uncovering a wealth of Buddhist materials.
- Chandra Swami, a Burmese monk, came to India in 1903 and made Mahaparinirvana Temple into a living shrine.
What is the Buddhist Tourist Circuit?
- In 2016, the Ministry of Tourism announced the Buddhist Circuit as the country’s first transnational tourism circuit, covering sites in Nepal and Sri Lanka alongside those in India.
- The map of the Buddhist Circuit includes Bodh Gaya, Vaishali, and Rajgir in Bihar, Kushinagar, Sarnath, and Shravasti in UP, and Lumbini in Nepal.
Significance of these places
- The Buddha was born as the prince Siddhartha Gautama in c. 563 BC in Lumbini, and he lived until the age of 29 with his parents in the Shakya capital of Kapilavastu.
- He attained enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree in Bodh Gaya, and gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi.
- He taught in the area around Rajgir, where he was built a forest monastery by king Bimbisara of Magadha, and he lived the largest part of his life as the Buddha in Shravasti.
- He delivered his last sermon in Vaishali and got parinirvana at Kushinagar.
Significance of this Circuit
Ans. Cultural Diplomacy
- Look East: There is an awareness in the government that the absence of tourist infrastructure is a major reason why India loses out to Southeast Asian nations such as Indonesia and Thailand.
- Employment through Tourism: The hope is that world-class facilities will be able to attract Buddhist tourists to India, and boost revenues and employment generation.
- Gaining soft power: The push is intended to assert and consolidate India’s position as the original centre of Buddhism, against the claims from China.
Questions based on either Buddhism or Jainism, are all-time favourite of UPSC and are equally invincible.
They no more seem to be based on NCERT or other standard references available in market.
Stay connected if you expect us to resolve this issue. Do let us know in the comment box.
Meantime, try this PYQ:
Which of the following kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?
- Avanti
- Gandhara
- Kosala
- Magadha
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 3 and 4 only
Post your answers here.
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Places in news: Mount Manipur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Manipur
Mains level: Not Much
The Union government has rechristened Mount Harriet, a historical tourist spot in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as ‘Mount Manipur’ to commemorate the1891 Anglo-Manipur war.
Manipur’s connection to Mount Harriet
- After the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891, several Manipuris who had fought the British in the war, including Maharaja Kulachandra Dhwaja Singh, were exiled to the British penal colony in the Andaman Islands.
- Since the cellular jail (Kalapani) was yet to be built, Kulachandra and the prisoners were kept on Mount Harriet, a hillock in what is now the Ferragunj tehsil of South Andaman district.
- 23 men, including King Kulachandra and his brothers, were “transported for life” to the Andamans.
- While some died there, Kulachandra was released and shifted elsewhere before his death.
This is why Mount Harriet is an important symbol of the Anglo-Manipur War of 1891.
About Anglo-Manipur War of 1891
- Considered an epoch in the history of Manipur, the Anglo-Manipur War was fought between the kingdom of Manipur and the British over a month in 1891.
- The battle was triggered by a coup in the palace of Manipur, which had been marked by internal factionalism in the years leading up 1891.
- The British government took advantage of the internal dissension among the princes of the royal family.
Battle for throne
- In 1886, when Surchandra inherited the throne from his father Chandrakirti Singh, the kingdom of Manipur was not under the British rule but had links with the crown through different treaties.
- However, Surchandra ascension to the throne was controversial and his younger brothers — Kulachadra, Tikendrajit — revolted against him.
- The1890 coup by the rebel faction deposed Surchandra, and proclaimed Kulachandra, the next oldest brother, the king.
- Surchandra fled to Calcutta seeking British help to reinstate him.
- Instead, the British dispatched James Quinton, the Chief Commissioner of Assam, with an army to Manipur.
- His mission was to recognise Kulachandra as the king under the condition that they be allowed to arrest the coup leader Crown Prince Tikendrajit and deport him from Manipur.
This aggressive imposition of British law in a sovereign state was rejected by the king, precipitating the Anglo-Manipuri War of 1891.
Its aftermath
- In the first phase of the war, the British surrendered and their officers — including Quinton — were executed in public.
- In the second phase, the British attacked Manipur from three sides, and finally capture the Kangla Fort in Imphal.
- Prince Tikendrajit and four others were hanged by the British, while Kulachandra, along with 22 others, were banished to the Andaman Islands.
Significance of the war
- Many say the war was described as a blow to British prestige.
- In India, it was viewed as being part of the general uprising against British rule in the country, soon after after the Revolt of 1857.
- The war led to Manipur officially becoming a princely state under the indirect rule of the British crown.
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In news: Battle of Chamkaur (1704)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Chamkaur
Mains level: NA
The new Punjab CM represents the Assembly constituency of Chamkaur Sahib, which is of significance in Sikh history.
For such history-related topics, one must not forget to note the contemporaries of a particular period.
The Battle of Chamkaur
- The coalition forces of Mughals and hill rajas led by Wazir Khan, the Nawab of Sirhind, had laid siege to Anandpur Sahib in the hope of capturing Guru Gobind Singh in May 1704.
- After seven months of fighting and heavy losses, the coalition forces offered a safe passage to the Guru and his followers.
- The heads of the coalition pledged they would not harm the Guru, his family, or his soldiers.
- The peace treaty was sent in the name of Emperor Aurangzeb himself.
- But when Gobind Singh and his followers stepped out of the Anandpur Sahib fort on the night of December 20, they were attacked.
- Historically, this was where that Guru Gobind Singh lost two of his elder sons in a battle with the coalition forces of Mughals and the hill rajas.
What happened at Chamkaur Sahib?
- The Guru, accompanied by panj piaras (the five Sikhs he had initially baptised), his elder sons and around 40 soldiers, regrouped in a fortress-like two-storey house, with high compound walls made of mud.
- They were surrounded by an army commandeered by Wazir Khan and Sher Mohammed Khan, the younger brother of Malerkotla’s chieftain.
- The Guru sent out soldiers in small squads for hand-to-hand combat. Two such attacks were led by his sons, both of whom died fighting.
- Three of the panj piaras — Mohkam Singh, Himmat Singh and Sahib Singh — too died fighting.
How did the battle conclude?
- When very few soldiers were left, they decided the Guru should leave so that he could carry on his mission.
- It was at the Chamkaur fort that panj piaras issued an edict (hukumnama) ordering the Guru to leave.
- This was the first edict issued by panj piaras after the formation of the Khalsa on April 13, 1699.
- Before leaving, the Guru gave his attire and distinguishing kalgi to Sangat Singh, a Mazhabi Sikh who resembled him.
- Three other soldiers too left the fort, and went in separate directions. The following day, the enemy forced their way inside to find only two soldiers who fought till their last breath.
- Five days later, Guru Gobind Singh’s two younger sons, aged nine and seven, were bricked alive for refusing to convert.
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[pib] Who was Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Social reformers in Colonial India
Mains level: Not Much
The PM has laid the foundation stone of Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh State University in Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh.
UPSC is exploring deeper for social reformers involved in the freedom struggle. This is very much visible from the questions based on Rakhmabai, Gopal Baba Walangkar, Sakharam Deuskar etc. in CS Prelims 2020.
Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh (1886-1979)
- Raja Mahendra Pratap Singh was an Indian freedom fighter, journalist, writer and a revolutionary.
- He was President in the Provisional Government of India, which served as the Indian Government in exile during World War I from Kaabul in 1915.
- He also formed the Executive Board of India in Japan in 1940 during the Second World War.
- He also took part in the Balkan War in the year 1911 along with his fellow students of Muhammedan Anglo College.
- In recognition of his services, the government of India issued postage stamps in his honor. He is popularly known as “Aryan Peshwa”.
- He was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1932.
Involvement in Swadeshi Movement
- He met several leaders involved in the Swadeshi movement, deciding to promote small industries with indigenous goods and local artisans.
- He was influenced by the speeches of Dadabhai Naoroji, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Maharaja of Baroda, and Bipin Chandra Pal, helping to make him a patriot who turned Swadeshi.
Formation of provisional govt in exile
- On 1 December 1915 during World War I Pratap established the first Provisional Government of India at Kabul in Afghanistan as a government-in-exile of Free Hindustan, with himself as President, Maulavi Barkatullah as Prime Minister, and Maulana Ubaidullah Sindhi as Home Minister, declaring jihad on the British.
- Due to his revolutionary ideas Pratap had a good relationship with Lenin, who invited him to Russia after its liberation and welcomed him.
- By this time, the British had noticed his activities, and the British Government of India put a bounty on his head, attached/confiscated his entire estate, and declared him a fugitive, causing him to flee to Japan in 1925.
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124 years of the Battle of Saragarhi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Saragarhi
Mains level: Anglo-Afghan Wars
This September 12 marks the 124th anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi that has inspired a host of armies, books and films, both at home and abroad.
What is the Battle of Saragarhi?
- The Battle of Saragarhi is considered one of the finest last stands in the military history of the world.
- Twenty-one soldiers were pitted against over 8,000 Afridi and Orakzai tribals but they managed to hold the fort for seven hours.
- Though heavily outnumbered, the soldiers of 36th Sikhs (now 4 Sikhs), led by Havildar Ishar Singh, fought till their last breath, killing 200 tribals and injuring 600.
What was Saragarhi, and why was it important?
- Saragarhi was the communication tower between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan.
- The two forts in the rugged North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), now in Pakistan. were built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh but renamed by the British.
- Though Saragarhi was usually manned by a platoon of 40 soldiers, on that fateful day, it was being held by only 21 soldiers from 36th Sikh (now 4 Sikh) and a non-combatant called Daad, a Pashtun who did odd jobs for the troops.
- Saragarhi helped to link up the two important forts which housed a large number of British troops in the rugged terrain of NWFP.
- Fort Lockhart was also home to families of British officers.
What transpired on that day?
- Around 9 am that day, the sentry at Saragarhi saw a thick haze of dust and soon realized that it was caused by a large army of tribals marching towards the fort.
- The 8,000 and 15,000 tribals wanted to isolate the two forts by cutting off the lines of communication between them.
- Unfortunately, the Pathans had cut the supply route between Fort Lockhart and Saragarhi.
Who was Havildar Ishar Singh who led the troops?
- Havildar Ishar Singh was born in a village near Jagraon.
- He joined the Punjab Frontier Force in his late teens after which he spent most of his time on various battlefields.
- Soon after it was raised in 1887, Ishar was drafted into the 36th Sikhs.
- He was in his early 40s when he was given independent command of the Saragarhi post.
- Ishar Singh was quite a maverick who dared to disobey his superiors but he was loved by his men for whom he was always ready to go out on a limb.
How was the news of the battle received in Britain?
- Making a departure from the tradition of not giving gallantry medals posthumously, Queen Victoria awarded the 21 dead soldiers — leaving out the non-combatant/
- They were awarded the Indian Order of Merit (comparable with the Victoria Cross) along with two ‘marabas’ (50 acres) and Rs 500 each.
How are the slain soldiers remembered?
- In 2017, the Punjab government decided to observe Saragarhi Day on September 12 as a holiday.
- Even today the Khyber Scouts regiment of the Pakistani army mounts a guard and salutes the Saragarhi memorial close to Fort Lockhart.
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PM inaugurates Jallianwala Bagh Memorial
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
Mains level: Not Much
Prime Minister has virtually inaugurated the renovated Jallianwala Bagh complex in Amritsar.
What led to Jallianwala Bagh Massacre?
Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act
- The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
- It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
- It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
- It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
- The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
- The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.
The day
- The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
- The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
- Dyer without warning ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
- The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.
Aftermath
- In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
- Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
- Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
- The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.
Hunter Commission for inquiry
- In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
- Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
- Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.
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Making of the Modern City of Kolkata
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kolkata City
Mains level: Urban development of colonial period
A 2003 judgment by the Calcutta High Court generates discussion of the city’s age, its date of founding, and Job Charnock, whom many credits for having “found” the city of Calcutta.
Calcutta: Who founded the city?
Nobody.
- A place then called Kalikatah was an important religious centre due to the existence of the Kali temple in the adjacent village of Kalighat.
- The first literary reference to the site is found in Bipradas Pipilai’s magnum opus Manasa Mangala which dates back to 1495.
- Abul Fazl’s Ain-I-Akbari dating 1596 also mentions the place.
- The Sabarna Roy Choudhury family was granted the Jagirdari of Kalikatah by Emperor Jehangir in 1608.
Who was Job Charnock?
- Job Charnock (1630–1693) was an English administrator with the East India Company.
- He was once regarded as the founder of the city of Kolkata (formerly Calcutta).
- However, this view is challenged, and in 2003 the Calcutta High Court declared that he ought not to be regarded as the founder.
- Charnock was entrusted with procuring the Company’s saltpetre and appointed to the centre of the trade, Patna in Bihar in1659.
Beginning of Urbanization
- The establishment of the Government House in 1767 and the Lottery Commission in 1817 were the other important developments in the city’s history that gave its urban landscape more defined contours.
- This commission was entirely responsible for the setting up of the city’s roads, streets and lanes.
- Some markers of urban settlements include planned roads, water supply and transport.
- The establishment of these in the early 19th century was responsible for making Calcutta the great city that it eventually became.
Significance of Kolkata
One of the most significant developments that gave the city a semblance of urban formation occurred in 1756 when the Nawab of Bengal Siraj ud-Daulah lay siege to Calcutta.
- This was in retaliation for the British East India Company engaging in unauthorized development of the structure that is now known as Fort William.
- The East India Company was defeated in a decisive battle, making them realise the vulnerability of the fort.
- Post 1757 the fort was remade and fortified with enhanced protection, the construction was exceptionally well done.
- It was really this attack on Fort William, a bastion of the British and other Europeans living there, that changed the map of Calcutta.
- The Europeans who used to primarily lived inside the fort—the European merchants, the administrators etc—started moving out.
- They knew that if there was an attack, there was infrastructure to save them. That was European Calcutta, what we call ‘White Town’.
Hey! We won’t let you move away without answering this PYQ:
Wellesley established the Fort William College at Calcutta because (CSP 2020):
(a) He was asked by the board of directors at London to do so
(b) He wanted to revive interest in oriental learning in India
(c) He wanted to provide William Carey and his associates with employment
(d) He wanted to train British civilians for administrative purposes in India.
Post your answers here:
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Person in news: Sree Narayana Guru
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sree Narayana Guru
Mains level: SNDP Movement
The Prime Minister has paid tributes to Sree Narayana Guru on his Jayanti.
Sree Narayana Guru (1856-1928)
- Narayana Guru was a philosopher, spiritual leader and social reformer in India.
- He led a reform movement against the injustice in the caste-ridden society of Kerala in order to promote spiritual enlightenment and social equality.
His legacy:
Temple Entry
- He was in the forefront of the movement for universal temple entry and against the societal ills like the social discrimination of untouchables.
- He gave the famous slogan “One Caste, One Religion, One God for All”.
- In 1888, he built a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva at Aruvippuram which was against the caste-based restrictions of the time.
- In one temple he consecrated at Kalavancode, he kept mirrors instead of idols. This symbolised his message that the divine was within each individual.
Untouchability
- The social protest of Vaikom Satyagraha (1924-25) was an agitation by the lower caste against untouchability in Hindu society of Travancore.
- He taught equality but felt the inequalities should not be exploited to carry out conversions and therefore generate strife in society.
Philosophy
- Sree Narayana Guru became one of the greatest proponents and re-evaluators of Advaita Vedanta, the principle of non-duality put forward by Adi Shankara.
Answer this PYQ:
Q.Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
(d) Sankhya and Yoga
Post your answers here.
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Places in news: Indira Point
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indira Point
Mains level: NA
The Swarnim Vijay Varsh Victory Flame was taken to Indira Point, the southernmost tip of the country on August 22, 2021, as part of its voyage to the Nicobar Group of Islands.
Indira Point
- Indira Point is the southernmost point of Indian Territory.
- It is a village in the Nicobar district at Great Nicobar Island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India.
- Rondo Island, Indonesia’s northernmost island in Sabang district of Aceh province of Sumatra, lies 163 km south of Little Andaman Island and 145 km or 80 nautical miles from Indira point.
- The point was formerly known as Pygmalion Point and Parsons Point. It was renamed in honour of Indira Gandhi during mid-1980s.
- Galathea National Park and Lighthouse are the major attractions here.
India and Indonesia are upgrading the deep sea port Sabang under the strategic military and economic collaboration to protect the channel between Great Nicobar Island and Rondo Island which is 612 km or 330 nautical miles from Indira Point.
What is Swarnim Vijay Varsh?
- It marks the 50th anniversary of the 1971 India-Pakistan war.
- Vijay Diwas is celebrated every year on December 16 to mark India`s triumph in liberating Bangladesh.
- The journey of the Victory Flame is taken from north to south corners of India.
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Malabar Rebellion of 1921
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Moplah Revolt
Mains level: Various tribal uprisings in India
This August 20, marked the centenary of the Malabar rebellion, which is also known as the Moplah riots.
Try this question from CSP 2020:
Q. With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following event?
(a) The Revolt of 1857
(b) The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
(c) The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60
(d) Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900
Sign-in to post your answers here.
Malabar Rebellion
- The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule and the feudal system in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
- There were a series of clashes between Mappila peasantry and their landlords, supported by the British, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defence of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
- The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
Who was Variyankunna Kunjahammed Haji?
- He was one of the leaders of the Malabar Rebellion of 1921.
- He raised 75000 natives, seized control of large territory from the British rule and set up a parallel government.
- In January 1922, under the guise of a treaty, the British betrayed Haji through his close friend Unyan Musaliyar, arresting him from his hideout and producing him before a British judge.
- He was sentenced to death along with his compatriots.
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Places in news: Panjshir Valley
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Panjshir Valley
Mains level: Not Much
The Taliban has sent hundreds of its fighters to the Panjshir Valley, one of the few parts of Afghanistan not yet controlled by the group.
Panjshir Valley
- Located 150 km north of Kabul, the Valley is near the Hindu Kush Mountain range.
- It’s divided by the Panjshir river and ringed by the Panjshir mountains in the north and the Kuhestan mountains in the south.
- The mountain tops are covered by snow throughout the year.
- This difficult terrain makes the Valley a nightmare for invaders.
Why is it significant?
- The Valley has repeatedly played a decisive role in Afghanistan’s military history, as its geographical position almost completely closes it off from the rest of the country.
- The only access point to the region is through a narrow passage created by the Panjshir River, which can be easily defended militarily.
- Famed for its natural defenses, the region tucked into the Hindu Kush mountains never fell to the Taliban during the civil war of the 1990s, nor was it conquered by the Soviets a decade earlier.
- Panjshir Valley was among the safest regions in the country during the time of the NATO-backed government from 2001 to 2021.
- The valley is also known for its emeralds, which were used in the past to finance the resistance movements against those in power.
Answer this PYQ:
Consider the following pairs
Towns: Country in news
- Aleppo: Syria
- Kirkuk: Yemen
- Mosul: Palestine
- Mazar-i-sharif: Afghanistan
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? (CSP 2018)
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 3 and 4
Post your answers here.
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Person in news: Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharaja Ranjit Singh
Mains level: Not Much
A bronze statue of the first ruler of the Sikh Empire, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, was vandalized in Pakistan.
Who was Maharaja Ranjit Singh?
- Maharaja Ranjit Singh (13 November 1780 – 27 June 1839), popularly known as Sher-e-Punjab or “Lion of Punjab”, was the first Maharaja of the Sikh Empire.
- He survived smallpox in infancy but lost sight in his left eye.
- Prior to his rise, the Punjab region had numerous warring misls (confederacies), twelve of which were under Sikh rulers and one Muslim.
- Ranjit Singh successfully absorbed and united the Sikh misls and took over other local kingdoms to create the Sikh Empire.
- He repeatedly defeated invasions by outside armies, particularly those arriving from Afghanistan, and established friendly relations with the British.
Empirical expansion
- Ranjit Singh’s trans-regional empire spread over several states. His empire included the former Mughal provinces of Lahore and Multan besides part of Kabul and the entire Peshawar.
- The boundaries of his state went up to Ladakh — Zorawar Singh, a general from Jammu, had conquered Ladakh in Ranjit Singh’s name — in the northeast.
- His empire extended till Khyber pass in the northwest, and up to Panjnad in the south where the five rivers of Punjab fell into the Indus.
- During his regime, Punjab was a land of six rivers, the sixth being the Indus.
His legacy
- Ranjit Singh’s reign introduced reforms, modernization, investment into infrastructure, and general prosperity.
- His Khalsa army and government included Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Europeans.
- His legacy includes a period of Sikh cultural and artistic renaissance, including the rebuilding of the Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar, Takht Sri Patna Sahib, Bihar, and Hazur Sahib Nanded, Maharashtra under his sponsorship.
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[pib] Quit India Movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quit India Movement
Mains level: Quit India Movement
The Prime Minister has greeted the nation on the eve of the anniversary of Quit India Movement Day.
Before proceeding, answer this PYQ:
Q. Quit India Movement was launched in response to:
(a) Cabinet Mission Plan
(b) Cripps Proposals
(c) Simon Commission Report
(d) Wavell Plan
Post your answers here:
About the day
- The Quit India Movement is also known as the Bharat Chhodo Andolan was launched by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8, 1942, at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC).
- The movement demanded an end to British rule in India.
- Since the protest was held in August, it also went on to be known as August Kranti or August Movement.
- The ‘Do or Die’ speech was etched in the hearts of Indians, and many faced the consequences of the movement.
- Every year, the day is celebrated by paying tribute to freedom fighters who laid their lives for the country.
Quit India Movement
- The movement began on August 8, 1942, with its foundations being laid back in 1939 when the Governor-general of India was Lord Lilingthow.
- In 1942, Staford Cripps was sent to India by the British Establishment to negotiate with the leaders of the All India Congress Committee for gaining their support in exchange for their freedom.
- July 1942- The Quit India Movement Resolution was passed at the Wardha Conference of All India Congress Committee.
Series of events
- Mahatma Gandhi delivered his speech at Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan, also called August Kranti Maidan, on 08th August 1942.
- Gandhi Ji was arrested and jailed at Pune’s Aga Khan Palace and his wife Kasturba Gandhi, Sarojini Naidu and secretary Mahadev Desai.
- Many other senior members of the Indian National Congress were also arrested, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad, and were kept in the Yerwada Jail.
- The British Government banned the Congress Committee declaring it an unlawful association.
- Aruna Asaf Ali, popularly known as the ‘Grand Old Lady’ of the Independence Movement, hoisted the National Flag at Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank Maidan.
- This event was followed by an uproar among the people and the emergence of several young leaders such as Ram Manohar Lohia, JP Narayan, SM Joshi, and others who continued to fuel the fire of the movement throughout India during the period of World War II.
Causes of the Movement
- Involvement of India in World War II without prior consultation with the leaders: The Indian Nationalists were disgruntled with the Governor-General of India, Lord Linlithgow, as he brought India to the verge of World War II without consulting them.
- Failure of Cripps Mission: The British sent Stafford Cripps to India to gain the cooperation of India, which failed because the Cripps Mission offered India not complete freedom but the Dominion Status to India, along with the partition. After the failure of Cripps Mission, the Indian Nationalist Leaders knew that the Britishers were in no mood to amend the Constitution before the end of World War II.
- Shortage of essential commodities: There was widespread discontent due to the shortage of essential commodities and rising prices of salt, rice, etc., and commandeering of boats in Bengal and Orissa. There were fears that the Britishers would follow a scorched earth policy in Assam, Bengal, and Orissa in reaction to the advancement of the Japanese. The Economy also shattered as a result of World War II.
- Prevalence of anti-British sentiment: The sentiments were widely anti-British, and the masses were demanding complete independence from the British Government.
- Centralization of many small movements: The Ground for the movement was already prepared by various associated and affiliated bodies of the Congress, like Forward Bloc, All India Kisan Sabha, and others. They were leading the mass movements on a much more radical level for more than two decades. The also channelized many militant outbursts, which were happening at several places in the country.
Phases of Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement can be viewed in three phases from its inception to end. The phases are as follows:
- First phase: The first phase or the inception of the movement had no violence. It began with civil disobedience, boycotts, strikes that the British Government quickly suppressed. Almost all members of the Congress Committee, including Gandhiji, were arrested and kept in Jail till 1945 without any trial.
- Second phase: In its second phase, the movement shifted to the countryside. The second phase of the movement took a violent and aggressive turn. Any building or offices which were the symbol of the colonial authority was attacked and distracted. Communication systems, railway stations & tracks, telegraph poles and wires were also targeted.
- Third and last phase: In the last phase of the movement, there was the formation of many independent national or parallel governments in the isolated pockets of the country, such as Ballia, Satara, Tamluk, etc.
Successes
- Women empowerment: Aruna Asif Ali hoisted the national flag on the Gowalia tank maidan; Usha Mehta, on the other hand, helped set up the underground radio station to spread awareness about the movement.
- Rise of future leaders : This movement also gave some future prominent leaders such as Biku Patnaik, Aruna Asif Ali, Ram Manohar Lohia, Sucheta Kriplani, J.P. Narayan, etc. These leaders were helping the movement through underground activities.
- Rise of nationalism: A greater sense of unity and brotherhood emerged due to the Quit India Movement. Many students dropped out of schools and colleges, people gave up their jobs and withdrew money from the banks.
Failure of the movement
The movement did not have the support of many organizations of the country itself.
- The Britishers were supported by the Princely States, British Indian Army, Indian Civil Services, Viceroy’s Council (which had Indians in the majority), All India Muslim League, Indian Imperial Police.
- The Hindu Mahasabha, Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) & Muslim League also opposed the Quit India Movement.
- Many Congress members like C Rajagopalachari resigned from the provincial legislature as they did not favor Mahatma Gandhi’s idea.
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Who was Dara Shikoh (1615-1659)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dara Shikhoh and his legacy
Mains level: Secular polity in Medieval India
The final resting place of Mughal prince Dara Shikoh remains a mystery, with the Archaeological Survey of India saying it has not located the grave within the Humayun’s Tomb complex.
Dara Shikoh
- Dara Shikoh, who was Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s son and expected heir, was killed on the orders of his brother Aurangzeb in 1659 after losing the war of succession.
- He was the eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
- Dara was designated with the title Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba (Prince of High Rank) and was favored as a successor by his father and his older sister, Princess Jahanara Begum.
- In the war of succession which ensued after Shah Jahan’s illness in 1657, Dara was defeated by his younger brother Prince Muhiuddin (Aurangzeb).
- He was executed in 1659 on Aurangzeb’s orders in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne.
His legacy
- Dara was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim as opposed to the orthodox Aurangzeb.
- He authored the work The Confluence of the Two Seas, which argues for the harmony of Sufi philosophy in Islam and Vedanta philosophy in Hinduism.
- It was Dara Shikoh who was responsible for making the Upanishads available to the West as he had them translated.
- He had commissioned a translation of Yoga Vasistha.
- A great patron of the arts, he was also more inclined towards philosophy and mysticism rather than military pursuits.
- The course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians.
Q.Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait?
(a) Humayun
(b) Akbar
(c) Jahangir
(d) Shah Jahan
Answer this PYQ here:
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Person in news: Abanindranath Tagore
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Abanindranath Tagore
Mains level: Not Much
Year-long celebrations marking 150 years of Abanindranath Tagore have been kicked off in Kolkata.
Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951)
- Tagore CIE was the principal artist and creator of the “Indian Society of Oriental Art”.
- A nephew of Rabindranath Tagore and a decade younger to the poet, he helped shape modern Indian art and was the creator of the iconic ‘Bharat Mata’ painting.
- He was also the first major exponent of Swadeshi values in Indian art, thereby finding the influential Bengal school of art, which led to the development of modern Indian painting.
- He was also a noted writer, particularly for children.
- Tagore sought to modernize Mughal, Rajput styles to counter the influence of Western models of art, as taught in art schools under the British Raj.
- Along with other artists from the Bengal school of art, Tagore advocated in favor of a nationalistic Indian art derived from Indian art history, drawing inspiration from the Ajanta Caves.
Q. Which among the following event happened earliest? (CSP 2018)
(a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj.
(b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan.
(c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandmath.
(d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first India to succeed in the Indian Civil Services Examination.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
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Dholavira gets into UNESCO World Heritage list
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dholavira
Mains level: Indus Valley Civilization
The Harappan city of Dholavira, in present-day Gujarat, has been named the 40th Indian site on UNESCO’s World Heritage list.
Dholavira site
- The IVC acropolis is located on a hillock near present-day Dholavira village in Kutch district, from which it gets its name.
- It was discovered in 1968 by archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi.
- The site’s excavation between 1990 and 2005 under the supervision of archaeologist Ravindra Singh Bisht uncovered the ancient commercial city.
Key features
- It is one of the very few well preserved urban settlements in South Asia dating from the 3rd to mid-2nd millennium BCE.
- It was located in the island of Khadir which was strategic to harness different mineral and raw material sources (copper, shell, agate-carnelian, steatite, lead, banded limestone, among others).
- It facilitated internal as well as external trade to the Magan (modern Oman peninsula) and Mesopotamian regions.
- One finds the origin of the Buddhist Stupas in memorials in Dholavira.
A gem in the IVC acropolis
- After Mohen-jo-Daro, Ganweriwala and Harappa in Pakistan and Rakhigarhi in Haryana of India, Dholavira is the fifth largest metropolis of IVC.
- The site has a fortified citadel, a middle town and a lower town with walls made of sandstone or limestone instead of mud bricks in many other Harappan sites.
- While unlike graves at other IVC sites, no mortal remains of humans have been discovered at Dholavira.
Its architecture
- The city demonstrates its multifaceted achievements in terms of urban planning, construction techniques, water management, social governance and development, art, manufacturing, trading, and belief system.
- The property comprises two parts:
- A walled city: Consists of a fortified Castle with attached fortified Bailey and Ceremonial Ground, and a fortified Middle Town and a Lower Town
- A cemetery to the west of the city
Trade and commercial activities
- Remains of a copper smelter indicate of Harappans, who lived in Dholavira, knew metallurgy.
- It is believed that traders of Dholavira used to source copper ore from present-day Rajasthan and Oman and UAE and export finished products.
- It was also a hub of manufacturing jewellery made of shells and semi-precious stones, like agate and used to export timber.
- Such beads peculiar to the Harappan workmanship have been found in the royal graves of Mesopotamia, indicating Dholavira used to trade with the Mesopotamians.
Famous for water conservation
- The expansive water management system designed to store every drop of water available shows the ingenuity of the people to survive against the rapid geo-climatic transformations.
- Water diverted from seasonal streams, scanty precipitation and available ground was sourced, stored, in large stone-cut reservoirs which are extant along the eastern and southern fortification.
- To further access water, few rock-cut wells, which date as one of the oldest examples, are evident in different parts of the city, the most impressive one being located in the citadel.
- Such elaborate water conservation methods of Dholavira is unique and measures as one of the most efficient systems of the ancient world.
Causes for its decline
- Harappans, who were maritime people, lost a huge market, affecting the local mining, manufacturing, marketing and export businesses once Mesopotamia fell.
- From 2000 BC, Dholavira entered a phase of severe aridity due to climate change and rivers like Saraswati drying up.
- Because of a drought-like situation, people started migrating toward the Ganges valley or towards south Gujarat and further beyond in Maharashtra.
- In those times the Great Rann of Kutch, which surrounds the Khadir island on which Dholavira is located, used to be navigable, but the sea receded gradually and the Rann became a mudflat.
Other Harappan sites in Gujarat
- Before Dholavira was excavated, Lothal, in Saragwala village on the bank of Sabarmati in Dholka taluka of Ahmedabad district, was the most prominent site of IVC in Gujarat.
- It was excavated between 1955 and 1960 and was discovered to be an important port city of the ancient civilisation, with structures made of mud bricks.
- From a graveyard in Lothal, 21 human skeletons were found. Foundries for making copperware were also discovered. Ornaments made of semi-precious stones, gold etc. were also found from the site.
- Besides Lothal, Rangpur on the bank of Bhadar river in Surendranagar district was the first Harappan site in the state to be excavated.
- Rojdi in Rajkot district, Prabhas near Veraval in Gir Somnath district, Lakhabaval in Jamnagar, and Deshalpar in Bhuj taluka of Kutch are among other Harappan sites in the state.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (CSP 2019)
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
Also read:
Telangana’s Rudreswara Temple inscribed as a World Heritage Site
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Telangana’s Rudreswara Temple inscribed as a World Heritage Site
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Rudreswara Temple
Mains level: Temple architecture of India
India’s nomination of Rudreswara Temple, (also known as the Ramappa Temple) at Palampet, Mulugu district, near Warangal in the state of Telangana has been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage list. This would be the 39th site in India.
Also read:
Rudreswara Temple
- The Rudreswara temple was constructed in 1213 AD during the reign of the Kakatiya Empire by Recharla Rudra, a general of Kakatiya king Ganapati Deva.
- It is also known as the Ramappa temple, after the sculptor who executed the work in the temple for 40 years.
- The main temple is flanked by the collapsed structures of the Kateshwarayya and Kameshwarayya temples in Palampet, about 220 km from Hyderabad.
- An inscription dates the temple to 1135 Samvat-Saka on the eighth day of Magha (January 12, 1214).
Its architecture
- The temple, known for its exquisite craftsmanship and delicate relief work, is a savvy blend of technical know-how and materials of its time.
- The foundation is built with the “sandbox technique”, the flooring is granite, and the pillars are basalt.
- The lower part of the temple is red sandstone while the white gopuram is built with light bricks that reportedly float on water.
- The temple complexes of Kakatiyas have a distinct style, technology, and decoration exhibiting the influence of the Kakatiyan sculptor.
- The temple stands on a 6 feet high star-shaped platform with walls, pillars, and ceilings adorned with intricate carvings that attest to the unique skill of the Kakatiyan sculptors.
- European merchants and travelers were mesmerized by the beauty of the temple and one such traveler had remarked that the temple was the “brightest star in the galaxy of medieval temples of the Deccan”.
Surviving through ages
- According to the temple priest, some of the iconography on the temple was damaged during the invasion of Malik Kafur in 1310.
- Treasure hunters vandalized the rest
- But the biggest test for the temple was an earthquake in the 17th century (one of the biggest was that of 7.7-8.2-magnitude on June 16, 1819).
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Which one of the following was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya kingdom? (CSP 2017)
(a) Kakinada
(b) Motupalli
(c) Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam)
(d) Nelluru
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund, and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
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When were Tilak and Gandhi tried under the Sedition Law?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sedition in colonial times
Mains level: Not Much
Recently, Chief Justice of India N V Ramana observed that the “colonial law” was used by the British to silence Mahatma Gandhi and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
Must read:
Use of sedition law through history
- According to the LOC blog, the first known instance of the application of the law was the trial of newspaper editor Jogendra Chandra Bose in 1891.
- Other prominent examples of the application of the law include the trials of Tilak and Gandhi.
- Apart from this, Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar were also charged with sedition.
When was sedition law used against Gandhi and Tilak?
- In 1922, Gandhi was arrested on charges of sedition in Bombay for taking part in protests against the colonial government.
- He was sentenced to six years in prison but was released after two years because of medical reasons.
- Before Gandhi, Tilak faced three trials in cases related to sedition and was imprisoned twice.
- He was charged with sedition in 1897 for writing an article in his weekly publication called Kesari and was sentenced to 12 months imprisonment.
- He has tried again in 1908 and was represented by MA Jinnah. But his application for bail was rejected and he was sentenced to six years.
- The second time he was tried was also because of his writings, one of which referred to the murder of European women in Muzzafarpur when bombs were thrown by Bengali revolutionaries.
- Interestingly, the judge who announced Tilak’s sentence in the second trial, Justice DD Davar, had represented him in his first trial in 1897.
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Person in news: Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair
Mains level: Not Much
A noted filmmaker has recently announced his decision to produce the biopic of Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, an acclaimed lawyer and judge in the Madras High Court and one of the early builders of the Indian National Congress.
Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair
- Nair was born in the year 1857 in Mankara village of Malabar’s Palakkad district.
- He belonged to an aristocratic family and his great grandfather was employed by the East India Company to enforce peace in the Malabar region.
- His grandfather was employed as the chief officer under the Civilian Divisional Officer.
His legal career
- Nair was drawn towards Law while he was completing his graduation from Presidency College in Madras.
- After completing his degree in Law, he was hired by Sir Horatio Shepherd who later became the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court.
- Since his early days as a lawyer, Nair was known for his defiant attitude.
- He went against a resolution passed by Indian vakils (advocates) of Madras stating that no Indian vakil would work as a junior to an English barrister.
- His stance on the issue made him so unpopular that he was boycotted by the other vakils, but he refused to let that bother him.
Legacy
- Nair was known for being a passionate advocate for social reforms and a firm believer in the self-determination of India.
- But what really stood out in his long glorious career is a courtroom battle he fought against the Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, Michael O’Dwyer.
- Nair had accused O’Dwyer in his book, ‘Gandhi and anarchy’ for being responsible for the atrocities at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
- Consequently, he was fighting against an Englishman, in an English court that was presided over by an English jury.
- In all senses, the case was bound to make history.
- When the 1908 Montague-Chelmsford reforms were being discussed, he wrote an article in the Contemporary Review criticizing the English jury for being partial towards Englishmen.
- This infuriated the Anglo-Indian community who petitioned the Viceroy and the Secretary of State for India objecting to his appointment as high court judge the first time.
- He was once described by Edwin Montague, the secretary of state for India as an ‘impossible person’.
Key positions held
- In 1897 he became the youngest president of the INC in the history of the party till then, and the only Malayali to hold the post ever.
- By 1908 he was appointed as a permanent judge in the Madras High Court. In 1902 Lord Curzon appointed him a member of the Raleigh University Commission.
- In 1904 he was appointed as Companion of the Indian Empire by the King-Emperor and in 1912 he was knighted.
- In 1915 he became part of the Viceroy’s Council, put in charge of the education portfolio.
Career as judge
- As a Madras High Court judge, his best-known judgments clearly indicate his commitment to social reforms.
- In Budasna v Fatima (1914), he passed a radical judgement when he ruled that those who converted to Hinduism cannot be treated as outcasts.
- In a few other cases, he upheld inter-caste and inter-religious marriages.
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[pib] Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Mains level: Literary movements during freedom struggle
The Prime Minister has paid homage to Rishi Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay on his birth anniversary.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894)
- Chattopadhyay was a revolutionary novelist, poet and journalist.
- He was the composer of Vande Mataram, originally in Sanskrit, personifying India as a mother goddess and inspiring activists during the Indian Independence Movement.
- Chattopadhyay wrote fourteen novels and many serious, serio-comic, satirical, scientific and critical treatises in Bengali.
- He is known as Sahitya Samrat (Emperor of Literature) in Bengali.
His literary work
- Anandamath is a political novel that depicts a Sannyasi (Hindu ascetic) army fighting a British force. The book calls for the rise of Indian nationalism.
- The novel was also the source of the song Vande Mataram which, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, was taken up by many Indian nationalists and is now the National Song of India.
- The plot of the novel is loosely set on the Sannyasi Rebellion.
- He imagined untrained Sannyasi soldiers fighting and defeated the highly experienced British Army; ultimately, however, he accepted that the British could not be defeated.
- The novel first appeared in serial form in Bangadarshan, the literary magazine that Chattopadhyay founded in 1872.
- Vande Mataram became prominent during the Swadeshi movement, which was sparked by Lord Curzon’s attempt to partition Bengal.
- Drawing from the Shakti tradition of Bengali Hindus, Chattopadhyay personified India as a Mother Goddess known as Bharat Mata, which gave the song a Hindu undertone.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Which among the following event happened earliest? (CSP 2018)
(a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj
(b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan
(c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandmath
(d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first India to succeed in the Indian Civil Services Examination
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[pib] Flag Satyagraha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Flag Satyagraha
Mains level: Not Much
The Minister of State (IC) for Culture and Tourism has organized to observe the Flag Satyagraha in Jabalpur to commemorate the Jhanda Satyagraha of the year 1923.
Flag Satyagraha
- Flag satyagrahas were one of the most common acts of defiance during the nationalist rebellions led by Gandhi and the Indian National Congress throughout the struggle.
- It is a campaign of peaceful civil disobedience during the Indian independence movement.
- It was against the defiance of laws prohibiting the hoisting of nationalist flags and restricting civil freedoms.
- Flag Satyagrahas were conducted most notably in the city of Jabalpur and Nagpur in 1923 but also in many other parts of India.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.The ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Boycott’ adopted as methods of struggle for the first time during the:
(a) Agitation against the Partition of Bengal
(b) Home Rule Movement
(c) Non-Cooperation Movement
(d) Visit of the Simon Commission to India
Course of the movement
- The arrest of nationalist protestors demanding the right to hoist the flag caused an outcry across India especially as Gandhi had recently been arrested.
- Nationalist leaders such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jamnalal Bajaj, Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, and Vinoba Bhave organized the revolt.
- Thousands of people from different regions including as far south as the Princely state of Travancore traveled to Nagpur and other parts of the Central Provinces to participate in civil disobedience.
- In the end, the British negotiated an agreement with Patel and other Congress leaders permitting the protestors to conduct their march unhindered and obtaining the release of all those arrested.
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National Maritime Heritage Complex
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Maritime Heritage Complex, Lothal
Mains level: Not Much
In order to showcase the maritime heritage and history of India, a National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) will be developed in the Lothal region of Gujarat.
National Maritime Heritage Complex
- It is to note that the National Maritime Heritage Complex will be made within the ASI site of Lothal that is located 80 km away from Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
- The project, once completed, will be made an international tourist destination in India where people from across the countries can take a look at the maritime heritage of India from ancient to modern times.
- The government is aiming to showcase this via an edutainment approach where the latest technology would be adopted to spread awareness.
- The development will be done in an area expanding 400 acres.
- The complex will have many offerings including National Maritime Heritage Museum, Heritage Theme Park, and Light House Museum.
About Lothal
- Lothal was one of the southernmost cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization located in Gujarat.
- Construction of the city began around 2200 BCE.
- According to the ASI, Lothal had the world’s earliest known dock, which connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra.
- Lothal was a vital and thriving trade Centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems, and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa.
- The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years.
- The Lothal site has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.
Answer this question from CSP 2019 in the comment box:
Q. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
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Statehood Day of Goa
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Goan liberation from Portuguese
Mains level: Decolonization in India
On 18 December 1961, the Indian government took military action against the Portuguese rule in Goa culminating in the liberation of Goa and its merger with the Indian Union.
About Goa
- Goa is located on the southwestern coast of India within the region known as the Konkan, and geographically separated from the Deccan highlands by the Western Ghats.
- Capital: Panji.
- Official Language: Konkani which is one of the 22 languages from the Eight Schedule.
- Borders: It is surrounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and south, with the Arabian Sea forming its western coast.
History:
- Portugal conquered Goa in 1510 and made it a colony.
- In 1950, the Indian government, in a bid to start diplomatic measures to free Goa, asked the Portuguese government to start negotiations for the independence of Goa. However, Portugal refused.
- The Goan movement was supported by Indian independence leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia and Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
- Dadra and Nagar Haveli was annexed by India in 1954 with the support of the United Front of Goans, the Azad Gomantak Dal and the National Movement Liberation Organisation.
- The commander of the Indian forces was Major-General K.P. Candeth. The operation for Goa liberation was codenamed “Operation Vijay”.
- After the fall of Goa, Portugal terminated all diplomatic relations with India and only in 1974 Portugal recognise Goa as a part of India and resume diplomatic relations.
- The USSR had steadfastly supported India in this matter and also vetoed a resolution condemning the Indian invasion in the UN Security Council.
Geography:
- The highest point of Goa is Sonsogor.
- Goa’s seven major rivers are the Zuari, Mandovi, Terekhol, Chapora, Galgibag, Kumbarjua canal, Talpona and the Sal.
- Most of Goa’s soil cover is made up of laterites.
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6 UNESCO heritage sites added in India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sites mentioned in the news
Mains level: Not Much
Six sites have been added to India’s tentative list of UNESCO world heritage sites.
Which are the 6 sites?
- Ganga ghats in Varanasi
- Temples of Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu
- Satpura Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh
- Maratha military architecture in Maharashtra
- Hire Bengal megalithic site in Karnataka and
- Bhedaghat-Lametaghat of Narmada Valley in Madhya Pradesh
[1] Ghats of Varanasi
- The Ganges riverfront of Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, has been vying for the UNESCO tag for several years now.
- The Ganga river with its riverfront ghats also fulfil the criteria of Cultural Landscapes as designated in Article 1 of the Convention and specifically that of a cultural landscape/
- It retains an active social role in contemporary society closely associated with the traditional way of life, and in which the evolutionary process is still in progress.
[2] Temples of Kanchipuram
- Synonymous with spirituality, serenity, and silk, the temple town of Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu, is dotted with ancient temples that are architectural marvels and a visual treat, states incredibleindia.org.
- Situated on the banks of River Vegavathi, this historical city once had 1,000 temples, of which only 126 (108 Shaiva and 18 Vaishnava) now remain.
- Its rich legacy has been the endowment of the Pallava dynasty, which made the region it’s capital between the 6th and 7th centuries and lavished upon its architectural gems that are a fine example of Dravidian styles.
[3] Satpura Tiger Reserve
- Located in Madhya Pradesh, the Satpura National Park is home to 26 species of the Himalayan region including reptiles, and 42 species of Nilgiri areas.
- It is the largest tiger-occupied forest and also has the largest tiger population.
- The website also states the place has more than 50 rock shelters with paintings that are 1500 to 10,000 years old.
[4] Maratha Military Architecture in Maharashtra
- There are 12 forts in Maharashtra dating back to the era of the 17th-century Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji.
- They are namely Shivneri (the birthplace of Shivaji); Raigad (the capital fort rebuilt for the coronation of the Maratha king), Torna (the first fort of the Maratha empire), Rajgad, Salher-Mulher, Panhala, Pratapgad, Lohagad, Sindhudurg, Padmadurga (Kasa), Vijaydurg and Kolaba.
- This highlight how the formation of Military Landscape in the form of hill and sea forts as a response to hilly terrain in the area is of outstanding universal value.
[5] Megalithic site of Hire Benkal
- The 2,800-years-old megalithic site of Hire Benkal in Karnataka is one of the largest prehistoric megalithic settlements where some funerary monuments are still intact.
- The granite structures are burial monuments that may also have served many ritual purposes.
- Due to the extremely valuable collection of Neolithic monuments, the site was proposed for recognition.
[6] Bhedaghat-Lametaghat in Narmada Valley- Jabalpur
- Bhedaghat, often referred to as the Grand Canyon of India, is a town in the Jabalpur district, around 25 km from Jabalpur.
- It is known for its marble rocks and their various morphological forms on either side of the Narmada River which flows through the gorge states whcunesco.org.
- It has also been observed that the magical marble mountains assume different colours and even shapes of animals and other living forms as one moves through them.
- Several dinosaur fossils have been found in the Narmada valley, particularly in Bhedaghat-Lametghat area of Jabalpur. In 1828, the first Dinosaur fossil was collected from Lameta Bed by William Sleeman.
- River Narmada narrows down on its way through marble rocks and plunges in a waterfall giving out the appearance of a smoke cascade.
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Person in news: Jyotirao Phule (1827 –1890)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jyotiba Phule
Mains level: Social reformers in India
The Prime Minister has paid tribute to the great social reformer, thinker, philosopher and writer Mahatma Jyotiba Phule on his birth anniversary.
Mahatma Phule
- Jotirao Govindrao Phule was an Indian social activist, thinker, anti-caste social reformer and writer from Maharashtra.
- His work extended to many fields, including the eradication of untouchability and the caste system and for his efforts in educating women and exploited caste people.
- He and his wife, Savitribai Phule, were pioneers of women’s education in India. Phule started his first school for girls in 1848 in Pune at Tatyasaheb Bhide’s residence or Bhidewada.
- He, along with his followers, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj (Society of Truth Seekers) to attain equal rights for people from exploited castes.
- People from all religions and castes could become a part of this association which worked for the upliftment of the oppressed classes.
- Phule is regarded as an important figure in the social reform movement in Maharashtra. He was bestowed with an honorific Mahātmā title by Maharashtrian social activist Vithalrao Krishnaji Vandekar in 1888.
His social work
Phule’s social activism included many fields, including the eradication of untouchability and the caste system, education of women and the Dalits, and welfare of downtrodden women.
- Education
- In 1848, aged 21, Phule visited a girls’ school in Ahmadnagar, run by Christian missionaries.
- He realized that exploited castes and women were at a disadvantage in Indian society, and also that education of these sections was vital to their emancipation
- Phule first taught reading and writing to his wife, Savitribai, and then the couple started the first indigenously run school for girls in Pune.
- The conservative upper caste society of Pune didn’t approve of his work. But many Indians and Europeans helped him generously.
- Women’s welfare
- Phule watched how untouchables were not permitted to pollute anyone with their shadows and that they had to attach a broom to their backs to wipe the path on which they had travelled.
- He saw young widows shaving their heads, refraining from any sort of joy in their life. He saw how untouchable women had been forced to dance naked.
- He made the decision to educate women by witnessing all these social evils that encouraged inequality.
- He championed widow remarriage and started a home for dominant caste pregnant widows to give birth in a safe and secure place in 1863.
- His orphanage was established in an attempt to reduce the rate of infanticide.
- Along with his longtime friend Sadashiv Ballal Govande and Savitribai, he started an infanticide prevention centre.
- Phule tried to eliminate the stigma of social untouchability surrounding the exploited castes by opening his house and the use of his water-well to the members of the exploited castes.
- Views on religion and caste
- Phule recast Aryan invasion theory, proposing that the Aryan conquerors of India, were in fact barbaric suppressors of the indigenous people.
- He believed that they had instituted the caste system as a framework for subjugation and social division that ensured the pre-eminence of their Brahmin successors.
- He saw the subsequent Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent as more of the same sort of thing, being a repressive alien regime.
- But he considered the British to be relatively enlightened and not supportive of the varnashrama dharma system instigated and then perpetuated by those previous invaders.
- In his book, Gulamgiri, he thanked Christian missionaries and the British colonists for making the exploited castes realise that they are worthy of all human rights.
- His critique of the caste system began with an attack on the Vedas, the most fundamental texts of Hindus. He considered them to be a form of false consciousness.
- He is credited with introducing the Marathi word ‘Dalit’ (broken, crushed) as a descriptor for those people who were outside the traditional varna system.
- He advocated making primary education compulsory in villages. He also asked for special incentives to get more lower-caste people in high schools and colleges.
Satyashodhak Samaj
- On 24 September 1873, Phule formed Satyashodhak Samaj to focus on the rights of depressed groups such as women, the Shudra, and the Dalit.
- Through this the samaj opposed idolatry and denounced the caste system.
- Satyashodhak Samaj campaigned for the spread of rational thinking and rejected the need for priests.
- Phule established Satyashodhak Samaj with the ideals of human well-being, happiness, unity, equality, and easy religious principles and rituals.
- A Pune-based newspaper, Deenbandhu, provided the voice for the views of the Samaj.
- The membership of the samaj included Muslims, Brahmins and government officials. Phule’s own Mali caste provided the leading members and financial supporters for the organization.
Published works
- Tritiya Ratna, 1855
- Manav Mahammand (Muhammad) (Abhang)
- Gulamgiri, 1873
- Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak, April 1889
- Sarvajanic Satya Dharmapustak, 1891
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Who was Lachit Borphukan?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister (in an election campaign) has called 17th-century Ahom General Lachit Borphukan a symbol of India’s “atmanirbhar” military might.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- The year was 1671 and the decisive Battle of Saraighat was fought on the raging waters of the Brahmaputra.
- On one side was Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s army headed by Ram Singh of Amer (Jaipur) and on the other was the Ahom General Lachit Borphukan.
- He was a commander in the Ahom kingdom, located in present-day Assam.
- Ram Singh failed to make any advance against the Assamese army during the first phase of the war.
- Lachit Borphukan emerged victorious in the war and the Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
Lachit Diwas
- On 24 November each year, Lachit Divas is celebrated statewide in Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan.
- On this day, Borphukan has defeated the Mughal army on the banks of the Brahmaputra in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
- The best passing out cadet of National Defence Academy has conferred the Lachit gold medal every year since 1999 commemorating his valour.
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Tomar king Anangpal II and his connection with Delhi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: History of Delhi
Mains level: Delhi sultanate
The Union government has recently formed a committee to popularize the legacy of 11th-century Tomar king, Anangpal II.
Revision: Delhi Sultanate and their contemporaries
Who was Anangpal II?
- Anangpal II, popularly known as Anangpal Tomar, belonged to the Tomar dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Delhi and Haryana between the 8th and 12th centuries.
- The capital of Tomars changed many times from being initially at Anangpur (near Faridabad) during the reign of Anangpal I (who founded the Tomar dynasty in the 8th century), to Dhillikapuri (Delhi) during the reign of Anangpal II.
- The Tomar rule over the region is attested by multiple inscriptions and coins, and their ancestry can be traced to the Pandavas (of the Mahabharata).
- Anangpal Tomar II was succeeded by his grandson Prithviraj Chauhan, who was defeated by the Ghurid forces in the Battle of Tarain (present-day Haryana) after which the Delhi Sultanate was established in 1192.
His connection with Delhi
- Anangpal II is credited to have established and populated Delhi during his reign in the 11th century.
- He was instrumental in populating Indraprastha and giving it its present name, Delhi.
- The region was in ruins when he ascended the throne in the 11th century, it was he who built Lal Kot fort and Anangtal Baoli.
- He was the founder of Dhillikapuri, which eventually became Delhi.
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Places on PM Modi’s Bangladesh Visit
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: NA
PM Modi will be on a two-day visit to Bangladesh where he will take part in commemorations of some epochal events there.
Bangabandhu shrine in Tungipara
- Located about 420 kilometres from Dhaka, Tungipara was the place of birth of Rahman, the architect of the 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence.
- This is also the place where he lies buried inside a grand tomb called the ‘Bangabandhu mausoleum’.
- Millions of people gather here every year on August 15, to observe the day when Rahman was assassinated by a group of disgruntled army officers.
Harichand Thakur’s shrine in Orakandi
- Thakur was the founder of the Matua Mahasangha, which was a religious reformation movement that originated in Orakandi in about 1860 CE.
- At a very early age, Thakur experienced spiritual revelation, following which he founded a sect of Vaishnava Hinduism called Matua.
- Members of the sect were the namasudras who were considered to be untouchables.
- The objective of Thakur’s religious reform was to uplift the community through educational and other social initiatives.
- Members of the community consider Thakur as God and an avatar of Vishnu or Krishna.
- After the 1947 Partition, many of the Matuas migrated to West Bengal.
‘Sugandha Shaktipith’ (Satipith) temple in Shikarpur
- Modi is also scheduled to visit the Sugandha Shaktipeeth which is located in Shikarpur, close to Barisal.
- The temple, dedicated to Goddess Sunanda is of immense religious significance to Hinduism.
- It is one of the 51 Shakti Pith temples.
- The Shakti Pith shrines are pilgrimage destinations associated with the Shakti (Goddess worship) sect of Hinduism.
Rabindra Kuthi Bari in Kushtia
- The Kuthi Bari is a country house built by Dwarkanath Tagore, the grandfather of Nobel laureate and Bengali poetic giant Rabindranath Tagore.
- The latter stayed in the house for over a decade in irregular intervals between 1891 and 1901.
- In this house Tagore composed some of his masterpieces like Sonar Tari, Katha o Kahini, Chaitali etc. He also wrote a large number of songs and poems for Gitanjali here.
- It was also in this house that Tagore began translating the Gitanjali to English in 1912, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
Ancestral home of Bagha Jatin in Kushtia
- Jatindranath Mukherjee, better known as ‘Bagha Jatin’ (tiger Jatin) was a revolutionary freedom fighter.
- He was born in Kayagram, a village in Kushtia district, where his ancestral home is located.
- Jatin acquired the epithet ‘Bagha’ after he fought a Royal Bengal Tiger all by himself and killed it with a dagger.
- Jatin was the first commander-in-chief of the ‘Jugantar Party’ which was formed in 1906 as a central association dedicated to train revolutionary freedom fighters in Bengal.
- This was the period when Bengal was seething with nationalist furore against Lord Curzon’s declaration of Partition of the province.
- Inspired by Jatin’s clarion call, “amra morbo, jagat jagbe” (we shall die to awaken the nation), many young revolutionaries joined the brand of the freedom struggle that the Jugantar Party represented.
His legend:
- Jatin is most remembered for an armed encounter he engaged in with the British police at Balasore in Orissa.
- They were expecting a consignment of arms and funds from Germany to lead an armed struggle when the British found out about the plot and raided the spot where the revolutionaries were hiding. A
- lthough Jatin lost his life in the Battle of Balasore, his activities did have an impact on the British forces.
- The colonial police officer Charles Augustus Tegart wrote about Jatin: “If Bagha Jatin was an Englishman, then the English people would have built his statue next to Nelson’s at Trafalgar Square.”
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The legacy and return of the Bamiyan Buddhas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bamiyan Buddhas
Mains level: Spread and decline of Buddhism
Two decades later after its destruction, the Bamiyan Buddhas have been brought back to life in the form of 3D projections in an event called “A Night with Buddha”.
Bamiyan Buddhas
- In their Roman draperies and with two different mudras, the Bamiyan Buddhas were great examples of a confluence of Gupta, Sassanian and Hellenistic artistic styles.
- They are said to date back to the 5th century AD and were once the tallest standing Buddhas in the world.
- Salsal and Shamama, as they were called by the locals, rose to heights of 55 and 38 metres respectively, and were said to be male and female.
- Salsal means “the light shines through the universe”; Shamama is “Queen Mother”.
- The statues were set in niches on either end of a cliffside and hewn directly from the sandstone cliffs.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2014:
Q.Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes-
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context
The significance of Bamiyan
- Bamiyan is situated in the high mountains of the Hindu Kush in the central highlands of Afghanistan.
- The valley, which is set along the line of the Bamiyan River, was once integral to the early days of the Silk Roads, providing passage for not just merchants, but also culture, religion and language.
- When the Buddhist Kushan Empire spread, acting as a crucible of sorts, Bamiyan became a major trade, cultural and religious centre.
- As China, India and Rome sought passage through Bamiyan, the Kushans were able to develop a syncretic (mix) culture.
- In the rapid spread of Buddhism between the 1st to 5th centuries AD, Bamiyan’s landscape reflected the faith, especially its monastic qualities.
Taliban’s destruction of the Buddhas
- The hardline Taliban movement, which emerged in the early 1990s, was in control of almost 90 per cent of Afghanistan by the end of the decade.
- The destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas was part of this extremist culture.
- In February 2001, the Taliban declared its intention to destroy the statues, despite condemnation and protest from governments and cultural ambassadors’ world over.
The aftermath of the destruction
- The Taliban’s destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas met with global criticism, many of whom saw it as a cultural crime not just against Afghanistan but also against the idea of global syncretism.
- Following the fall, UNESCO included the remains in its list of world heritage sites in 2003, with subsequent efforts made to restore and reconstruct.
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Dandi March to mark 75 years of Independence
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dandi March
Mains level: Civil Disobedience Movement
PM will flag off a commemorative ‘Dandi March’ on March 12 to launch the celebrations of the 75th year of Independence.
Dandi March
- The Dandi March was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India led by Mahatma Gandhi.
- The twenty-four day march lasted from 12 March 1930 to 5 April 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly.
- Another reason for this march was that the Civil Disobedience Movement needed a strong inauguration that would inspire more people to follow Gandhi’s example.
- Growing numbers joined them along the way.
- When Gandhi broke the British Raj salt laws at 6:30 am on 6 April 1930, it sparked large scale acts of civil disobedience against the salt laws by millions of Indians.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Who of the following organized a March on the Tanjore coast to break the Salt Law in April 1930?
(a) V. O. Chidambaram Pillai
(b) C. Rajagopalachari
(c) K. Kamaraj
(d) Annie Besant
Followed by Dharasana Satyagraha
- After making the salt at Dandi, Gandhi continued southward along the coast, making salt and addressing meetings on the way.
- The INC planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works, 40 km south of Dandi.
- However, Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4–5 May 1930, just days before the planned action at Dharasana.
- The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage.
- The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with Gandhi’s release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference.
Its aftermath
- The March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King Jr., James Bevel, and others during the Civil Rights Movement for African Americans in the 1960s.
- The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non-cooperation movement of 1920–22.
- It directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self-rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930.
- It gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
United Bengal Plan of 1947
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: United Bengal Plan, Partition of Bengal
Mains level: Two nation theory
In a recent election rally, a politician spoke about the contributions of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in the making of West Bengal immediately after independence.
This newscard contains some archaic statements and thoughts (that may seem like polarized opinions) which are directly reproduced from the newspaper.
The 1947 independence era circumstances are discussed with context to the United Bengal Plan and its subsequent partition.
The United Bengal plan
- A most striking aspect of the Partition of Bengal was the fact that the same people, who had vociferously opposed the 1905 partition of the region by Lord Curzon, were the ones who demanded the division of the province on communal lines.
- One way to understand this is by noting the fact that the communal skirmishes that had started in 1905, reached its peak by 1947.
- But there was also the fact that Bengal politics changed dramatically in 1932 with the introduction of the Communal Award.
- It gave more seats in the Legislative Council to Muslims than Hindus. It also provided separate electorates for the Dalits.
- Consequently, Bengali Hindus ceased to be as significant and visible in provincial politics as they were before.
- What further aggravated the situation was the communal violence in Calcutta in August 1946 and those in Noakhali just seven weeks later.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2013:
Q.The Partition of Bengal made by Lord Curzon in 1905 lasted until
(a) The First World War when Indian troops were needed by the British and the partition was ended.
(b) King George V abrogated Curzon’s Act at the Royal Darbar in Delhi in 1911
(c) Gandhiji launched his Civil Disobedience Movement
(d) The Partition of India, in 1947 when East Bengal became East Pakistan
Mukherjee and the Plan
- Mukherjee, who was president of the Akhil Bharatiya Hindu Mahasabha between 1943 and 1946, is known to have been the man behind the Partition of Bengal in 1947.
- Calcutta riots (1947) led the Hindu Mahasabha under Mukherjee to put forward the demand for dividing Bengal on religious grounds.
- He was one of the strongest voices to have opposed the united Bengal plan of the Bengal provincial League leader and PM Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy.
- As per the plan, Bengal would be a separate nation, independent from both India and Pakistan.
Debate over partition
- In the meantime Suhrawardy along with few other top Bengal politicians like Sarat Bose and K.S. Roy came up with an alternative for the Partition.
- They argued for a united Bengal, independent from India and Pakistan.
- Suhrawardy had realized that the Partition of Bengal would mean economic disaster for East Bengal since all jute mills, coal mines and industrial plants would go to the western part of the state.
- Suhrawardy argued strongly for a united Bengal because Bengal was indivisible in view of its ‘economic integrity, mutual reliance and the necessity of creating a strong workable state.
Why did Mukherjee oppose the united Bengal plan?
- The Hindu Mahasabha under Mukherjee spearheaded a fierce attack against the united Bengal scheme, which he thought would force Hindus to live under Muslim domination.
- He further defended the Partition to the Viceroy by drawing upon Jinnah’s two-nation theory.
- Finally, for Mukherjee, the idea of a united Bengal was not appealing because he believed that a ‘sovereign undivided Bengal would be a virtual Pakistan’.
- Eventually, the idea of a united Bengal failed to garner sufficient support from among the Muslim League and the Congress.
- It also did not find sufficient support from the grassroots as most Hindus favoured the Partition of Bengal.
Back2Basics: Partition of Bengal
- The first Partition of Bengal (1905) was a territorial reorganization of the Bengal Presidency implemented by the authorities of the British Raj.
- The reorganization separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas. Announced on 19 July 1905 by Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India.
- It was implemented on 16 October 1905, it was undone a mere six years later.
- Hindus were outraged at what they saw as a “divide and rule” policy, even though Curzon stressed it would produce administrative efficiency.
- The partition animated the Muslims to form their own national organization along communal lines.
- To appease Bengali sentiment, Bengal was reunited by Lord Hardinge in 1911, in response to the Swadeshi movement’s riots in protest against the policy.
- In 1947, Bengal was partitioned for the second time, solely on religious grounds, as part of the Partition of India following the formation of the nations India and Pakistan.
- In 1955, East Bengal became East Pakistan, and in 1971 became the independent state of Bangladesh.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Declaration of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World heritage sites in India
Mains level: Not Much
The Ministry of Culture and Tourism has provided some useful information about the World Heritage Sites By UNESCO in India.
We regret for the distorted view of this newscard on the app. Pls refer to the webpage link.
World Heritage Sites in India
- At present, India has 38 World Heritage Properties. All the sites under the Ministry are conserved as per ASI’s Conservation Policy and are in good shape.
- ‘Dholavira: A Harappan City’ has been submitted for the nomination of World Heritage Site in 2019-2020.
- Nomination dossiers of ‘Santiniketan, India’ and ‘Sacred Ensemble of Hoysalas’ have been submitted to UNESCO for the year 2021-22 cycle.
WORLD HERITAGE SITES IN INDIA (38)
CULTURAL SITES:
Under Protection of Archaeological Survey of India (22)
| S.No. | Name of Site | State |
| 1 | Agra Fort (1983) | Uttar Pradesh |
| 2 | Ajanta Caves (1983) | Maharashtra |
| 3 | Ellora Caves (1983) | Maharashtra |
| 4 | Taj Mahal (1983) | Uttar Pradesh |
| 5 | Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984) | Tamil Nadu |
| 6 | Sun Temple, Konark (1984) | Odisha |
| 7 | Churches and Convents of Goa (1986) | Goa |
| 8 | FatehpurSikri (1986) | Uttar Pradesh |
| 9 | Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986) | Karnataka |
| 10 | Khajuraho, Group of Temples (1986) | Madhya Pradesh |
| 11 | Elephanta Caves ( 1987) | Maharashtra |
| 12 | Great Living Chola Temples at Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram (1987 & 2004) | Tamil Nadu |
| 13 | Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987) | Karnataka |
| 14 | Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989) | Madhya Pradesh |
| 15 | Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi (1993) | Delhi |
| 16 | Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi (1993) | Delhi |
| 17 | Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003) | Madhya Pradesh |
| 18 | Champaner-Pavagarh Archaeological Park (2004) | Gujarat |
| 19 | Red Fort Complex, Delhi (2007) | Delhi |
| 20 | Hill Forts of Rajasthan
(Amber and Gagron Forts are under protection of Rajasthan State Archaeology and Museums) |
Rajasthan |
| 21 | Rani-ki-Vav (The Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan (2014) | Gujarat |
| 22 | Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara (Nalanda University) at Nalanda (2016) | Bihar |
Under Protection of Ministry of Railways (2)
| 23. | Mountain Railways of India Darjeeling,(1999), Nilgiri (2005), Kalka-Shimla (2008) | West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh |
| 24. | Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004) | Maharashtra |
Under Protection of Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee (1)
| 25 | Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, (2002) | Bihar |
Under Protection of Rajasthan State Archaeology and Museums (1)
| 26. | The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010) | Rajasthan |
Under Protection of Chandigarh Administration (1)
| 27. | The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement (2016) | Chandigarh |
Under Protection of Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (1)
| 28. | Historic City of Ahmedabad (2017) | Gujarat |
Under Protection of Bombay Municipal Corporation (1)
| 29. | Victorian and Art Deco Ensemble of Mumbai (2018) | Govt of Maharashtra |
Under Protection of Jaipur Municipal Corporation (1)
| 30. | Jaipur City, Rajasthan (2019) | Govt of Rajasthan |
NATURAL SITES: (7)
Under Protection of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Changes
| 31. | Kaziranga National Park (1985) | Assam |
| 32. | Keoladeo National Park (1985) | Rajasthan |
| 33. | Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985) | Assam |
| 34. | Sunderbans National Park (1987) | West Bengal |
| 35. | Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (1988, 2005) | Uttarakhand |
| 36. | Western Ghats (2012) | Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu |
| 37 | Great Himalayan National Park (2014) | Himachal Pradesh |
MIXED SITE: (1)
Under Protection of Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Changes
| 38. | Khangchendzonga National Park (2016) | Sikkim |
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Assam’s Sattras and their political significance
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sattras, Sankardeva's Philosophy
Mains level: Various schools of philosophy in India
In poll-bound Assam, the campaigns are sought to be held in the Bartadrava Than/Sattra (monastery) in Nagaon, which is the birthplace of renowned Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta Sankardeva.
Q.Discuss the role of religion in India’s electoral politics. Discuss how identity politics is harmful to a harmonious society.
What are Sattras?
- Sattras are monastic institutions created as part of the 16th-century Neo-Vaishnavite reformist movement started by Vaishnavite saint-reformer Srimanta Sankaradeva (1449-1596).
- As the saint travelled across Assam, spreading his teachings and propagating an egalitarian society, these Sattras/Thans were established as centres of religious, social and cultural reforms in the 16th century.
- These institutions are of paramount importance and lie at the heart of Assamese culture.
- Today, Sattras are spread across the state, promulgating Sankardeva’s unique “worship through art” approach with music (borgeet), dance (sattriya) and theatre (bhauna).
Composition of Sattra
- Each Sattra has a naamghar (worship hall) as its nucleus and is headed by an influential “Sattradhikar”.
- Monks, known as bhakats, are inducted into Sattras at a young age.
- They may or may not be celibate, depending on the kind of Sattra they are inducted into.
What is Sankardeva’s philosophy?
- Sankardeva propagated a form of Bhakti called eka-sharana-naam-dhrama.
- He espoused a society based on equality and fraternity, free from caste differences, orthodox Brahmanical rituals and sacrifices.
- His teaching focused on prayer and chanting (naam) instead of idol worship. His dharma was based on the four components of deva (god), naam (prayers), bhakats (devotees), and guru (teacher).
Try this PYQ:
Q. With reference to the cultural history of medieval India, consider the following statements:
- Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil region were monotheistic and condemned idolatry.
- Lingayats of Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
What is the relationship between the Sattra and the State?
- During the Ahom reign, the Sattras received a lot of donations in the form of land or money from the kings.
- Unlike temples, Sattras did not require patronage because they were self-sufficient, grew their own food and could sustain themselves.
- However, today, it is different. Annual grants from the state and central government are doled out to Sattras, in the hope of political support.
Do Sattras matter in elections?
- While Sattra votes may not decide the outcome of an election, it is undeniable that the Sattras and Sattradhikars have a lot of influence.
- There are especially Sattra-based constituencies like Nagaon, Kaliabor, Majuli, Barpeta, Bartadadrva etc.
- Assamese families usually have ties with one Sattra, or the other.
- That is why politicians — regardless of party are often seen visiting Sattra.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Who was Mannathu Padmanabhan (1878-1970)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mannathu Padmanabhan
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has tweeted tributes to Sri Mannathu Padmanabhan on his death anniversary.
UPSC is digging deeper in the regional freedom movements to get such questions beyond our knowledge base.Try this question from CSP 2020
Q.The Vital Vidhvansak, the first monthly journal to have the untouchable people as its target audience was published by:
(a) Gopal Babu Walangkar
(b) Jyotiba Phule
(c) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi
(d) Bhimarao Ramji Ambedkar
Here, we know something about options b, c and d. So it is less dicey to pull the odd man out.
Mannathu Padmanabhan
- Padmanabhan was an Indian social reformer and freedom fighter from the south-western state of Kerala.
- He is recognised as the founder of the Nair Service Society (NSS), which claims to represent the Nair community that constitutes 12.10% (From KMS 2011) of the population of the state.
- He fought for social equality, the first phase being the Vaikom Satyagraha, demanding the public roads near the temple at Vaikom be opened to low caste Hindus.
- He took part in the Vaikom (1924) and Guruvayoor (1931) temple-entry Satyagrahas; the anti-untouchability agitations. He opened his family temple for everyone, irrespective of caste distinction.
- He became a member of the Indian National Congress in 1946 and took part in the agitation against Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Iyer’s administration in Travancore.
- As the first president of the Travancore Devaswom Board, he revitalised many temples which had almost ceased to function.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Pagri Sambhaal Movement of 1907
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ajit Singh , Pagri Sambhal Movement
Mains level: Farmers agitation since colonial times
As a part of the ongoing farmers’ protest, groups across the country have celebrated February 23 as ‘Pagri Sambhal Diwas’.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement?
(a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon.
(b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak.
(c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab Colonization Bill.
(d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekar brothers.
Pagri Sambhaal Movement
- Pagrhi Sambhaal Jatta was a successful farm agitation that forced the British government to repeal three laws related to agriculture back in 1907.
- Bhagat Singh’s uncle Ajit Singh was the force behind this agitation, and he wanted to channel people’s anger over the farm laws to topple the colonial government.
What were the ‘three laws’?
- The three farm-related acts at the centre of the storm in 1907 were the Punjab Land Alienation Act 1900, the Punjab Land Colonization Act 1906 and the Doab Bari Act.
- These acts would reduce farmers from owners to contractors of land, and gave the British government the right to take back the allotted land if the farmer even touched a tree in his field without permission.
- Amid resentment against the laws, Bhagat Singh’s father Kishan Singh and uncle Ajit Singh, with their revolutionary friend Ghasita Ram, formed the Bharat Mata Society.
- It worked to mobilise this unrest into a revolt against the British government.
Repeal of the laws
- Ajit Singh persuaded Congress leader Lala Lajpat Rai to come on the stage during a rally in Lyallpur on March 3, 1907, to protest against the laws.
- On sensing the popular resentment, the British made a minor amendment to the laws.
- The agitation couldn’t remain non-violent. Ajit Singh was booked for sedition after his speech at a public meeting in Rawalpindi on April 21, 1921.
- Violence erupted soon afterwards and the British government repealed the three controversial laws in May 1907.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Who was Sant Ravidas?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sant Ravidas
Mains level: Bhakti Saints and their contribution
The President of India recently addressed the ‘Shri Guru Ravidas Vishva Mahapeeth Rashtriya Adhiveshan-2021’ in New Delhi.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2019:
Q.Consider the following statements:
1.Saint Nimbarka was a contemporary of Akbar.
2.Saint Kabir was greatly influenced by Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Who was Sant Ravidas?
- Ravidas was an Indian mystic poet-saint of the Bhakti movement and founder of the Ravidassia religion during the 15th to 16th century CE.
- Venerated as a guru (teacher) in the region of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and mainly Punjab and Haryana. He was a poet-saint, social reformer and spiritual figure.
- The life details of Ravidas are uncertain and contested. Scholars believe he was born in 1450 CE, in the cobbler caste.
- Ravidas’s devotional Verses were included in the Sikh scriptures known as Guru Granth Sahib.
- The Panch Vani text of the Dadupanthi tradition within Hinduism also includes numerous poems of Ravidas.
- He taught the removal of social divisions of caste and gender and promoted unity in the pursuit of personal spiritual freedoms.
Why his preaching is important?
- Philosophy and values of Sant Ravidas like social justice, equality and fraternity have been imbued in our constitutional values.
- He had envisaged a society that is based on equality and free from any kind of discrimination.
- He gave it the name ‘Be-gampura’ (a city near Lahore) where there is no place for any kind of grief or fear.
- Such an ideal city would be bereft of fear, vulnerability or scarcity. Rule of law based on the right ideas like equality and welfare of all would be the principle for governance.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Swami Dayanand Saraswati
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dayanand Saraswati
Mains level: Not Much
Information and Broadcasting Minister paid his tributes to Swami Dayanand Saraswati on his birth anniversary.
Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1883)
- Swami Dayanand Saraswati was a philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a reform movement of the Vedic dharma.
- He was the first to give the call for Swaraj as “India for Indians” in 1876, a call later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak.
- Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies.
- Subsequently, the philosopher and then President, S. Radhakrishnan called him one of the “makers of Modern India”, as did Sri Aurobindo.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which among the following event happened earliest?
(a) Swami Dayanand established Arya Samaj
(b) Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan
(c) Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay wrote Anandmath
(d) Satyendranath Tagore became the first India to succeed in the Indian Civil Services Examination
His influence
- Those who were influenced by and followed him included Madam Cama, Shyamji Krishna Varma, Kishan Singh, Bhagat Singh, VD Savarkar, Bhai Parmanand, Lala Hardayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, MG Ranade, Ashfaq Ullah Khan, , Lala Lajpat Rai etc.
Philosophy
- He was ascetic from boyhood and a scholar.
- He believed in the infallible authority of the Vedas.
- He advocated the doctrine of Karma and Reincarnation.
- He emphasized the Vedic ideals of Brahmacharya, including celibacy and devotion to God.
His contribution
- Among Dayananda’s contributions were his promoting of the equal rights for women, such as the right to education and reading of Indian scriptures.
- He wrote his commentary on the Vedas from Vedic Sanskrit in Sanskrit as well as in Hindi.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
[pib] Centenary of ‘Chauri Chaura’ Incident
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chauri Chaura Incident
Mains level: Mass movements for freedom struggle
PM will inaugurate the centenary Celebrations at Chauri Chaura at Gorakhpur Dist. Uttar Pradesh.
‘Chauri Chaura’ Incident
- The incident took place on 4 February 1922 at Chauri Chaura in the Gorakhpur district of the United Province.
- A large group of protesters participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement clashed with police who opened fire.
- In retaliation the demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, killing all of its occupants.
- The incident led to the death of three civilians and 22 policemen.
- Mahatma Gandhi, who was strictly against violence, halted the non-co-operation movement on the national level on 12 February 1922, as a direct result of this incident.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The ‘Swadeshi’ and ‘Boycott’ adopted as methods of struggle for the first time during the
(a) Agitation against the Partition of Bengal
(b) Home Rule Movement
(c) Non-Cooperation Movement
(d) Visit of the Simon Commission to India
Background
- In the early 1920s, Indians, led by Mahatma Gandhi, were engaged in a nationwide non-cooperation movement.
- Using non-violent methods of civil disobedience known as Satyagraha, protests were organised by the INC to challenge oppressive regulations such as the Rowlatt Act.
Course of the incident
- Two days before the incident, on 2 February 1922, volunteers participating in the Non-cooperation Movement led by a retired Army soldier named Bhagwan Ahir.
- The protest was planned against high food prices and liquor sale in the marketplace.
- Several of the leaders were arrested and put in the lock-up at the Chauri Chaura police station.
- In response to this, a protest against the police was called on 4 February, to be held at the local marketplace.
- Infuriated by the gunfire into their ranks, the crowd set the chowki ablaze, killing all of the Indian policemen and other staff trapped inside.
Aftermath
- Appalled at the outrage, Gandhi went on a five-day fast as penance for what he perceived as his culpability in the bloodshed.
- In reflection, Gandhi felt that he had acted too hastily in encouraging people to revolt against the British Raj without sufficiently emphasizing the importance of non-violence.
- On 12 February 1922, the Indian National Congress halted the Non-co-operation Movement on the national level as a direct result of the Chauri Chaura tragedy.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who are the Bargis?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: Decline of Mughal Empire
As the Assembly elections in West Bengal draw closer, the ‘insider-outsider’ theme has grown to become one of the topics of political debate. Bengali politicians have been terming outsider campaigners as ‘bargis’.
Bargis: Etymology of the term
- The term ‘Bargi’is of special significance in Bengal’s history.
- It is a reference to the several Maratha invasions of West Bengal between 1741 and 1751, which resulted in looting, plundering and massacres of what was then Mughal territory.
- The happenings of this specific period have affected Bengal’s consciousness so much that they have an established presence in Bengali folklore and literature.
- Today this term is used as a casual reference to troublesome outsider forces.
Who were the bargis?
- Simply speaking, the word bargi referred to cavalrymen in Maratha and Mughal armies.
- The word comes from the Persian “bargir”, literally meaning “burden taker”, notes historian Surendra Nath Sen in his 1928 work The Military System Of The Marathas.
- But in the Mughal and Maratha armies, the term signified a soldier who rode a horse furnished by his employer.
- In the Maratha cavalry, any able-bodied person could enlist as a bargir, unless he had the means to buy a horse and military outfit.
- Both the bargirs and silhedars were under the overall control of the Sarnobat (Persian for “Sar-i-Naubat”, or Commander in Chief).
Why did the Marathas raid Bengal?
- Maratha incursions into the Mughal province of Bengal (which included the regions of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa) between 1741 and 1751 came at a time of intense political uncertainty of then Mughal India.
- At the Maratha capital in Satara, Chhatrapati Shahu was trying in vain to resolve the differences between his two top power centres– the Peshwa dynasty of Pune and Raghoji I Bhonsale of Nagpur.
- As the Mughal Empire was crumbling by the 18th century, the two Maratha chieftains were scrambling to secure taxation rights in its far-flung regions, and violently disagreed over their spheres of influence.
- In Bengal – a Mughal Subah (subdivision) during this era– Nawab Subahdar Sarfaraz Khan had been overthrown by his deputy Alivardi Khan.
Try this PYQ:
What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Stir within the Maratha empire
- After Khan’s inauguration, the provincial governor of Orissa, Zafar Khan Rustam Jung, more commonly known as Murshid Quli II, rebelled against the usurper.
- The revolt failed, and Jung enlisted Raghoji’s help to oust Khan.
- Raghoji was also motivated by internal politics within the Maratha camp, fearful as he was of Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao, also known as of Nana Saheb who trying to establish his claim over Bengal first at this time of political disturbance in the province.
Maratha invasions of Bengal
- The Marathas first entered the Mughal province in August 1741, when Raghoji’s infantry troops accompanied Mirza Baqar Ali, the son-in-law of Jung, to conquer Orissa.
- In 1743, the Bengal province faced the wrath of two Maratha armies – both, as it happened, at loggerheads with each other.
- The Peshwa forces proceeded further, committing all sorts of atrocities on the way in a land which they had ostensibly come to protect.
- Raghoji’s armies were also doing the same, but at least he had openly arrived as an invader.
Ousting the ‘local’ invaders
- Finally, in 1751, after remaining encamped in western Bengal for a significant amount of time, the Marathas reached an agreement with Alivardi Khan.
- The Nawab promised an annual tribute of 12 lakh rupees and the cession of Orissa to the Marathas. In return, the Bhonsales gave word to not return to Bengal.
Damage caused
- Ten years of Maratha invasions had crippled Bengal’s economy.
- The Dutch believed that 400,000 people had been killed. Losses of weavers, silk winders and those who cultivated mulberry were particularly high.
- Historian P J Marshall noted that people were so distressed that they would take flight even on imaginary alarms, and wander around.
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Symbolic significance of the Red Fort and Delhi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red Fort
Mains level: Red Fort and its symbolic significance for the nation
Newsfeeds on Republic Day were dominated by scenes of protests on the ramparts of the Red Fort.
Mob stormed and vandalized the national flag and the mast of Red Fort in guise of peaceful farmers protest! What did this act signify?
To unravel some of these strands of meaning, one must go back in history, to a time centuries before the Red Fort was even constructed.
The History of Capital
- Before the 13th century, Delhi — or ‘Dilli’ — was, politically speaking, a moderately significant town.
- It was for long the capital of the modestly sized kingdom of the Rajput Tomar dynasty.
- By the mid 12th century it was conquered by the Rajput Chauhans who, however, ruled from Ajmer.
- It was the conquest by Ghurid Turks in the late 12th century that put Delhi on the map as a centre of power.
- As the capital of the Sultanate, Delhi gradually developed an aura of power — in the popular imagination, it came to be associated with a dominant power in the subcontinent.
- Babur, having defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, headed for Delhi, which he described as “the capital of all Hindustan”, even though the Lodis had ruled from Agra for the previous two decades.
Sultanate period
- There was another important feature of the Delhi of these two centuries.
- From the 13th century, the capital had been located at a number of different sites – Mehrauli, Kilugarhi, Siri, Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, Firozabad, and Dinpanah.
- Now it came to be settled permanently in Shahjahanabad, with the emperor’s seat being in the Red Fort.
Seat of the Mughal power
- During the first century or so of Mughal rule, Agra was the capital for longer than Delhi.
- Still, the Mughals continued to be seen as rulers of Delhi.
- A Sanskrit inscription from 1607 refers to Akbar as “Dillishvara”, the lord of Delhi, though he had ruled from Delhi for a very short time.
- In a Persian inscription dated 1621 on the Salimgarh Bridge adjoining the Red Fort, Jahangir, who never reigned from Delhi, was described as “Shahanshah e Dehli”, the emperor of Delhi.
Construction of Red Fort
- It was only in the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-58) that the Mughal connection to Delhi was given concrete form, with the founding of the city of Shahjahanabad and the inauguration of its palace citadel, the Red Fort, in 1648.
- From that date to the end of Mughal rule in 1857, Delhi would be the formal capital of the Mughal Empire.
Fading centre
- The significance of Delhi and the Red Fort was thrown into sharp relief by political developments in the 18th century, once the Mughal Empire started on the long road to decline.
- Erstwhile Mughal provinces such as Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad broke away, and new forces like the Sikhs and the Marathas arose.
- Not only did the Mughal territories shrink, but the Mughal emperor also became increasingly ineffectual even within them.
A takeover by the East India Company
- The control over the emperor and of Delhi was, therefore, a prize worth fighting for.
- Safdar Jang, the Nawab of Awadh, fought a civil war in an attempt to keep his position as PM of the Mughal emperor.
- The Sikhs had their ambitions and came up to the walls of the city in 1783 before retreating.
- The Marathas met with greater success the following year when Mahadji Sindhia became the power behind the throne.
- Finally, the East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in 1803 and went on to control Delhi and the emperor for the next 54 years.
Shifting of capital
- Delhi was officially announced as the capital of British Raj by the then-Emperor George V, on December 12, 1911.
- The capital was shifted from Calcutta as Delhi was the financial and political seat of many earlier empires and was located closer to the geographical centre of India.
- The rising nationalist movement in Calcutta was also responsible for the shift.
Symbolic importance then
- In the popular imagination, the legitimate rule was associated with the Mughal emperor to the extent that when the country broke out in revolt in 1857, the mutinous soldiers made their way to Delhi, seeking his leadership.
- When the revolt in Delhi had been crushed, the British army occupied the Red Fort and the officers drank to their Queen’s health in the Diwan-e-Khas, where the Mughal emperors had held court.
- It was in this same hall that Bahadur Shah was put on trial, convicted, and exiled.
- Nearly ninety years later, in 1945-46, the memory of that trial foreshadowed another historic trial in the fort.
- The personnel of the Indian National Army were tried there, which generated an immense wave of nationalist sentiment in the run-up to Independence.
Symbol of the nation, now
- With the coming of Independence, it was necessary that the site of the Red Fort, over which the British colonial government had sought to inscribe its power and might, be symbolically reclaimed for the Indian people.
- It was for this reason, that after the first hoisting of the national flag at India Gate on August 15, 1947, the next day, the PM hoisted it on the ramparts of the Red Fort.
- This was to then become India’s lasting Independence Day tradition.
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[pib] 125 Years of Prabuddha Bharata Journal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Prabuddha Bharat
Mains level: Not Much
PM will address the 125th-anniversary celebrations of ‘Prabuddha Bharata’, a monthly journal of the Ramakrishna Order, started by Swami Vivekananda in 1896.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?
(a) Mimamsa and Vedanta
(b) Nyaya and Vaisheshika
(c) Lokayata and Kapalika
(d) Sankhya and Yoga
Prabuddha Bharata
- The journal ‘Prabuddha Bharata’ has been an important medium for spreading the message of India’s ancient spiritual wisdom.
- It is India’s longest-running English language journal (wiki).
- Its publication was started from Chennai (erstwhile Madras), where it continued to be published for two years, after which it was published from Almora.
- Later, in April 1899, the place of publication of the Journal was shifted to Advaita Ashrama and it has been continuously published from there since then.
- Some of the greatest personalities have left their imprint on the pages of ‘Prabuddha Bharata’ through their writings on Indian culture, spirituality, philosophy, history, psychology, art, and other social issues.
- Luminaries like Netaji SC Bose, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Sister Nivedita, Sri Aurobindo, Former President Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, among others, have contributed to the Journal over the years.
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Patharughat Uprising of Assam (1894)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Patharughat uprising
Mains level: Peasants movements in colonial India
Twenty-five years before the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, more than a hundred peasants fell to the bullets of the British on January 28, 1894, in Patharughat, a small village in Assam’s Darrang district.
Make a note of all breakthrough peasants’ revolt in the nineteenth century. Also, try this PYQ:
Q.The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for-
(a) The reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third
(b) The grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land
(c) The uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom
(d) Writing off all peasant debts
Patharughat uprising
- After the British annexation of Assam in 1826, surveys of the vast lands of the state began.
- On the basis of such surveys, the British began to impose land taxes, much to the resentment of the farmers.
- In 1893, the British government decided to increase agricultural land tax reportedly by 70- 80 per cent.
- Up until then the peasants would pay taxes in kind or provide service in lieu of cash.
- Across Assam, peasants began protesting the move by organising Raij Mels, or peaceful peoples’ conventions.
The day of the massacre
- The unarmed peasants were protesting against the increase in land revenue levied by the colonial administration when the military opened fire.
- Despite these gatherings being democratic, the British perceived them as “breeding grounds for sedition”.
- On January 28, 1894, when the British officers were refusing to listen to the farmers’ grievances, things heated up.
- There was a lathi charge, followed by an open firing which killed many of the peasants present.
- Official records, as mentioned in the Darrang District Gazette, 1905, edited by BC Allen, placed the casualties in the Patharughat incident as 15 killed and 37 wounded.
Why was the incident significant?
- The incident was one of the most tragic and inspiring episodes in the saga of the Indian freedom movement.
- However, it rarely features in the mainstream historical discourse of the freedom struggle.
- For the larger Assamese community, Patharughat comes second only to the Battle of Saraighat, when the Ahoms defeated the Mughals in 1671.
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Celebration of Parakram Diwas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SC Bose and his legacy
Mains level: Freedom struggle
The Union Culture Ministry has announced that January 23, birth anniversary of Subhash Chandra Bose, would be celebrated as “Parakram Diwas” — the day of courage — every year.
Try this PYQ
Q.Highlight the difference in the approach of Subhash Chandra Bose and Mahatma Gandhi in the struggle for freedom. (150 W)
Subhash Chandra Bose (1897-1945)
- Bose was an Indian revolutionary prominent in the independence movement against British rule of India.
- He also led an Indian national force from abroad against the Western powers during World War II.
- He was a contemporary of Mohandas K. Gandhi, at times an ally and at other times an adversary.
- He was highly influenced by a socialist ideology that acquired popularity as consequences of the Russian Revolution.
Forget not that the grossest crime is to compromise with injustice and wrong. Remember the eternal law: You must give if you want to get.
– Netaji
Association with INC
- In 1927, after being released from prison, Bose became general secretary of the Congress and worked with Jawaharlal Nehru for independence.
- In late December 1928, Bose organised the Annual Meeting of the Indian National Congress (INC) in Calcutta.
- Subsequently, Bose wanted to get elected as Congress President in a subsequent session of 1939 convened at Tripuri.
- However, his candidature was challenged by Mahatma Gandhi who wanted to prevent socialist orientation to the Indian National Movement.
- Gandhi proposed Pattabhi Sitaramaya for this candidature.
- In this election, Bose emerged victorious by a huge margin which was not acceptable to Mahatma Gandhi.
- Congress leader supported Mahatma Gandhi and forced Subhash Chandra Bose to step down from Presidentship.
- Under such collective pressure, Bose not only resigned from the Congress members. Thereafter he established a separate political party known as “Forward Bloc”.
Escape to Germany
- On the outbreak of WW-II, Bose advocated a campaign of mass civil disobedience to protest against Linlithgow’s decision to declare war on India’s behalf without consulting the Congress leadership.
- Having failed to persuade Gandhi of the necessity of this, he was house arrested from where he escaped to Germany.
- He then went to several countries of Europe and finally landed in a region of Singapore in “South East Asia”.
Azad Hind Fauj
- The SE Asia region was under the control of Japan where a large number of “Indian Prisoners of War” was confined.
- When Subhash Chandra Bose reached Singapore in1943 this army was led by a prominent revolutionary Ras Behari Bose whose cadre was known as “Indian National Army”.
- Subhash Chandra Bose reorganized and expanded this force in order to liberate India. This force was renamed as “Azad Hind Fauj” by him.
The Azad Hind Government
- The Provisional Government of Free India, or, more simply, Free India (Azad Hind), was an Indian provisional government established in occupied Singapore in 1943.
- C. Bose was the leader of Azad Hind Government (AHG) and also the Head of State of this Provisional Indian Government-in-exile.
- It was a part of the freedom movement, originating in the 1940s outside India with a purpose of allying with Axis powers to free India from British rule.
Its collapse and INA Trials
- INA under the leadership of Bose got defeated severely at Rangoon due to lack of support of Japanese.
- Bose was suggested to leave Burma to continue his struggle for Indian independence and returned to Singapore before the fall of Rangoon.
- The AHG govt in the islands collapsed when the island garrisons of Japanese and Indian troops were defeated by British troops and the islands themselves retaken.
- The Provisional Government of Free India ceased to exist with the deaths of the Axis, the INA, and Bose in 1945.
- It was followed by the Famous Trials at Red Fort.
Also read:
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1776 Commission report of the White House
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: World History: American decolonization
The White House has released the 1776 Commission report, just days before president-elect Joe Biden would take his oath in office.
Read about anti-apartheid movement from your World History sources.
What is the news?
- Earlier, Trump has signed an executive order to set up a “national commission to promote patriotic education” in the country.
- The initiative dubbed the ‘1776 Commission’, is an apparent counter to The 1619 Project, a Pulitzer Prize-winning collection of essays on African American history of the past four centuries.
- It explores the Black community’s contribution to nation-building since the era of slavery to modern times.
- The name marks the independence of 13 US colonies from the British Empire in 1776.
What is Trump’s 1776 Commission?
- With this move, Trump sought to activate his right-wing supporters by doubling down on what he described as “cancel culture”, “critical race theory” and “revisionist history”.
- Looking at the racial attacks, trump had said that Americans are inundated with critical race theory.
- This was a Marxist doctrine holding that America is a wicked and racist nation, that even young children are complicit in oppression.
- Trump wanted to reform this idea and wanted to portray himself as a defender of traditional American heritage against “radical” liberals.”
What was the 1619 Project?
- The Project is a special initiative of The New York Times Magazine, launched in 2019 to mark the completion of 400 years since the first enslaved Africans arrived in colonial Virginia’s Jamestown in August 1619.
- The project aimed to reframe US history by considering what it would mean to regard 1619 as America’s birth year.
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Places in the news: New Anubhava Mantapa
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kalyana Chalukya Style of Architecture
Mains level: Temple Architecture of India
Karnataka CM has laid the foundation stone for the ‘New Anubhava Mantapa’ in Basavakalyan, the place where 12th-century poet-philosopher Basaveshwara lived for most of his life.
Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two most profound strands of Bhakti Movement in Indian history. Enlist all the Bhakti Saints and their theistic philosophy and teachings. Try to spot the minute differences between them.
Who was Basaveshwara?
- Basaveshwara or Basavanna was an Indian 12th-century statesman, philosopher, a poet and Lingayat saint in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti movement and a social reformer in Karnataka.
- He lived during the reign of the Kalyani Chalukya/Kalachuri dynasty.
- He was active during the rule of both dynasties but reached his peak of influence during the rule of King Bijjala II in Karnataka, India.
Founder of Lingayat cult
- The traditional legends and hagiographic texts state Basava to be the founder of the Lingayats.
- However, modern scholarship relying on historical evidence such as the Kalachuri inscriptions state that Basava was the poet-philosopher who revived, refined and energized an already existing tradition.
His Philosophy
- Basava’s Lingayat theology was a form of qualified nondualism, wherein the individual Atman (soul) is the body of God, and that there is no difference between Shiva and Atman (self, soul).
- Basava’s views find places in Vedanta school, in a form closer to the 11th-century Vishishtadvaita philosopher Ramanuja.
Famous works
- Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
- Basavanna rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions and rituals but introduced Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Liṅga to every person regardless of his or her birth.
- As the chief minister of his kingdom, he introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”) which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds.
The New Anubhava Mantapa
- The New Anubhava Mantapa, as envisaged now, will be a six-floor structure in the midst of the 7.5-acre plot and represent various principles of Basaveshwara
- It will showcase the 12th Century Anubhava Mantapa (often referred to as the “first Parliament of the world”) established by him in Basavakalyan where philosophers and social reformers held debates.
- The building will adopt the Kalyana Chalukya style of architecture.
- The grand structure supported by 770 pillars will have an auditorium with a seating capacity of 770 people.
- It is believed that 770 Sharanas (followers of Basaveshwara) led the Vachana reformist movement in the 12th Century.
- The basement is designed for a Dasoha Bhavana (dining hall) where around 1,500 people eat together. On its top, the structure would have a Linga placed on a large pedestal.
- The project also envisages a state-of-the-art robotic system, open-air theatre, modern water conservation system, terrace garden, library, research centre, prayer hall, yoga centre and so on.
Back2Basics: Kalyana Chalukya Style of Architecture
- It is the distinctive style of ornamented architecture that evolved during the rule of the Western Chalukya Empire in the Tungabhadra region of modern central Karnataka.
- These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing Dravida (South Indian) temples, form a climax to the wider regional temple architecture tradition called Vesara or Karnata Dravida.
- They are either Ekakuta (one mandapa of one shrine) or Dvikuta (a common hall attached to two shrines).
- The style has characters of both the Northern as well as Dravidian temple architecture.
- This combination of both of these styles is known as Vesara Style, also Central Indian Style, which is represented by the Hoysala Temples.
- Most of the temples of the Western Chalukyas are dedicated to Shiva, some of them dedicated to Vishnu and Jain Tirthankars also.
Examples: Truketshwara Temple, Gadag; Kasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi
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The Battle of Bhima-Koregaon (1818)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Bhima-Koregaon
Mains level: British annexation of India
The history of the Bhima-Koregaon battle should be taught in schools, said the Union Minister of State for Social Justice and Empowerment.
Try this PYQ:
What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal
(Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Battle of Bhima-Koregaon
- The 1818 battle of Bhima-Koregaon, one of the last battles of the Third Anglo-Maratha War culminated in the Peshwa’s defeat.
- It was fought on 1 January 1818 between the British East India Company (BEIC) and the Peshwa faction of the Maratha Confederacy, at Koregaon at the banks of River Bhima.
- A 28,000-strong force led by Peshwa Baji Rao II while on their way to attack the company-held Pune were unexpectedly met by an 800-strong Company force of which 500 belonged to the Dalit community.
- The battle was part of the Third Anglo Maratha war, a series of battles that culminated in the defeat of the Peshwa rule and subsequent rule of the BEIC in nearly all of Western, Central, and Southern India.
Mahars under Shivaji
- Back in the seventeenth century, the community was particularly valued by the ruler Shivaji, under whom Maratha caste identities were far more fluid.
- The value of the Mahars for military recruitment under Shivaji was noted by the social reformer Jyotirao Phule.
- The Mahars were not only beneficiaries of the attempt at caste unity under Shivaji but were in fact valued for their martial skills, bravery, and loyalty.
Mahars after Shivaji
- The position occupied by the Mahars under Shivaji, however, was short-lived and under later Peshwa rulers, their status deteriorated.
- The Peshwas were infamous for their Brahmin orthodoxy and their persecution of the untouchables.
- The Mahars were forbidden to move about in public spaces and punished atrociously for disrespecting caste regulations.
- Stories of Peshwa atrocities against the Mahars suggest that they were made to tie brooms behind their backs to wipe out their footprints and pots on their necks to collect their spit.
Why is the battle significant?
- The battle resulted in losses to the Maratha Empire, then under Peshwa rule, and control over most of western, central, and southern India by the British East India Company.
- The battle has been seen as a symbol of Dalit pride because a large number of soldiers in the Company forces were the Mahar Dalits, the same oppressed community to which Babasaheb Ambedkar belonged.
- After centuries of inhumane treatment, this battle was the first time that Mahars had been included in a battle in which they won.
Dr. Ambedkar’s association
- It was Babasaheb Ambedkar’s visit to the site on January 1, 1927, that revitalized the memory of the battle for the Dalit community.
- He led to its commemoration in the form of a victory pillar, besides creating the discourse of Dalit valor against Peshwa ‘oppression’ of Dalits.
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Foreign architects of Indian cities
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Indian architecture
Mains level: Indian architecture and foreign influence
A controversy has been playing out over the last several days over a decision by the IIM Ahmedabad to bring down 18 dormitories built by legendary American architect Louis Kahn on the old campus.
This newscard is full of facts. But one must note the features of present-day Indian Architecture and the western influence on it.
Kahn, in fact, is one among several foreign architects whose work defines several Indian cities. Take a glimpse of all important architects and their works:
Antonin Raymond & George Nakashima
- Golconde, one of India’s first modernist buildings, was conceptualized in Puducherry by the founders of the experimental township of Auroville.
- Tokyo-based Czech architect Antonin Raymond was invited to design this space as a universal commune, and Japanese-American woodworker George Nakashima would complete it after Raymond left India.
- It is possibly India’s first reinforced concrete buildings, built between 1937 and 1945.
- Its façade creates the impression that one could open or shut these concrete blinds, without compromising on privacy, while the ascetic interiors helped provide a meditative atmosphere.
Otto Koenigsberger
- Berlin-bred Koenigsberger was already working for the Maharaja of Mysore in the late 1930s when he was commissioned by Tata & Sons to develop the industrial township of Jamshedpur in the early 1940s.
- He would later design the masterplan for Bhubhaneswar (1948) and Faridabad (1949).
- Having seen children and women walk large distances to reach schools and workplaces, he planned for schools and bazaars in the city center and for a network of neighborhoods.
- His friends Albert Mayer and Mathew Nowicki would go on to design Chandigarh.
- However, much before Koenigsberger, there was the Scottish biologist and geographer Patrick Geddes, who wrote town planning reports, from 1915 to 1919, for 18 Indian cities, including Bombay and Indore.
Frank Lloyd Wright
- Though the legendary American architect never built a structure in India, his influence was unmistakable.
- Two of his students, Gautam and Gira Sarabhai, founders of the National Institute of Design, Ahmedabad, requested him to design the administration building for Sarabhai Calico Mills in 1946.
- It would possibly have been the city’s first high-rise with terraces and a podium.
- Padma Vibhushan Charles Correa, one of India’s finest architects and urban planners, was hugely influenced by Wright.
Le Corbusier
- Before Swiss-French painter-writer-architect Corbusier came on the scene in Chandigarh, there was Polish architect Mathew Nowicki, an admirer of Frank Lloyd Wright and American developer Albert Mayer.
- Nowicki’s death in a plane crash ended the commission, and Corbusier came on board.
- With English architect Maxwell Fry and his wife Jane Drew, Corbusier with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret would design many of Chandigarh’s civic buildings, from courts to housing.
- Corbusier’s modernist approach, without decoration, gave India its brutalist, bare concrete buildings.
- He won favour with the Sarabhai’s of Ahmedabad and built the Sarabhai House, Shodhan House, Mill Owner’s Association Building and Sankar Kendra. He is often called the “father of modern Indian architecture”.
Joseph Allen Stein
- He was invited by Vijayalakshmi Pandit in 1952 to come to India and establish the Department of Architecture and Planning at the West Bengal Engineering College.
- Though he also practiced briefly in Orissa and West Bengal, it’s in New Delhi where Stein left the deepest imprint.
- From the Triveni Kala Sangam, the High Commissioner’s Residence and Chancery for Australia, where his polygon-shaped masonry with local stone made its first appearance to ‘Steinabad’.
Louis Kahn
- The importance of being Kahn is never more real than now, as the American architect’s only project in India faces bulldozers.
- The design for IIM Ahmedabad (1962-1974) carried the essence of learning in the humility of its material, and the way spaces were managed.
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Who was freedom fighter Udham Singh?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Udham Singh
Mains level: Jallianwala Bagh massacre and its aftermath
December 26 was the birth anniversary of freedom fighter Udham Singh, who is known for avenging the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a –
(a) Revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco.
(b) Nationalist organization operating from Singapore
(c) Militant organization with headquarters at Berlin
(d) Communist movement for India’s freedom with head-quarters at Tashkent
Who was Udham Singh?
- Singh, born in Sunam in Punjab’s Sangrur district in 1899, was a political activist who got associated with the Ghadar Party while in the US.
- The multi-ethnic party was believed to have communist tendencies and was founded by Sohan Singh Bhakna in 1913.
- Headquartered in California, the party was committed to the ouster of the British from India.
- In 1934, Singh made his way to London with the purpose of assassinating O’Dwyer, who in 1919 had been the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.
Why did he consider O’Dwyer responsible for the massacre?
- O’Dwyer ordered Brigadier Reginald Dyer to Amritsar before the massacre; he was worried that there might be a second Indian mutiny, given the Hindu-Muslim unity and the demonstrations and strikes.
- Instead of Dyer, O’Dwyer is considered to be the actual perpetrator, since Dyer could not have executed it without his permission.
- On March 13, 1940, Udham Singh shot O’Dwyer at a meeting of the East India Association and the Royal Central Asian Society at Caxton Hill.
- He was immediately arrested and held in Brixton prison and was sentenced to death and was hanged on July 31, 1940, at Pentonville Prison.
A legend in India
- For avenging the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Singh is seen by many as a hero. Gandhi, though, had famously called Singh’s revenge as an “act of insanity”.
- While being on trial, he referred to himself as Mohamed Singh Azad, to symbolize Hindu-Sikh-Muslim unity in the fight for India’s freedom.
- In 1974, his remains were sent back to India and he was cremated in his village in Sunam.
- There have been several demands in the past few years for Udham Singh’s statue to be installed in Jallianwala Bagh and the Parliament complex.
- In 2018, his statue was installed at Jallianwala Bagh during Baisakhi.
- Udham Singh Nagar district in Uttarakhand is named after the freedom fighter.
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Places in news: Rahim’s Tomb
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Navratnas of Akbar
Mains level: Medieval arts and culture
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.
Try this PYQ:
Q.With reference to Mian Tansen, which one of the following statements is not correct?
(a) Tansen was the title given to him by Emperor Akbar.
(b) Tansen composed Dhrupads on Hindu gods and goddesses.
(c) Tansen composed songs on his patrons.
(d) Tansen invented many Ragas.
Who was Rahim?
- Dating back to 1598, during the rule of Akbar, Abdur Rahim Khan I Khanan was one of the Navratna in the court.
- Winning wars with his military training and hearts with his dohas and translated texts — he was a man who survived despite his father Bairam Khan’s assassination when he was just four.
- Meant to be a dedication of a husband to his wife, the tomb ended up housing his own remains too when he died in 1627.
His works
- Apart from writing various dohas, Rahim translated Babar’s memoirs, Baburnama from Chagatai language to the Persian language, which was completed in 998 (1589–90) AD.
- He had an excellent command over the Sanskrit language.
- In Sanskrit, he wrote two books on astrology, Khetakautukam and Dwatrimshadyogavali.
Why in news?
- The tomb is in a run-down situation but undergoing renovation.
- The historical and cultural significance is more than the archaeological and architectural significance, so restoring the dignity of the burial place has been very important.
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History: Visva-Bharati University
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Visva-Bharati University
Mains level: Nationalist education during freedom struggle
The Visva-Bharati University established by Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore has completed its centenary.
Do you remember the scheme of education by Gandhi Ji, called Nai Talim?
Visva-Bharati University
- The university was set up by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore in 1921 at Santiniketan, Bolpur in West Bengal’s Birbhum district.
- It was founded by Rabindranath Tagore who called it Visva-Bharati, which means the communion of the world with India.
- Until independence, it was a college. Soon after independence, the institution was given the status of a central university in 1951 by an act of the Parliament.
Its establishment
- The origins of the institution date back to 1863 when Debendranath Tagore was given a tract of land by the zamindar of Raipur, the zamindar of Kirnahar.
- He set up an ashram at the spot that has now come to be called chatim tala at the heart of the town.
- The ashram was initially called Brahmacharya Ashram, which was later renamed Brahmacharya Vidyalaya.
- It was established with a view to encouraging people from all walks of life to come to the spot and meditate.
- In 1901 his youngest son Rabindranath Tagore established a co-educational school inside the premises of the ashram.
What makes it special?
- Rabindranath Tagore believed in open-air education and had reservations about any teaching done within four walls.
- This was due to his belief that walls represent the conditioning of the mind.
- Tagore did not have a good opinion about the Western method of education introduced by the British in India; on this subject, Tagore and Gandhiji’s opinion matched.
- So he devised a new system of learning in Visva-Bharati. He allowed students to continue their course till the student and his teacher both are satisfied.
- At Visva-Bharati, if a course demanded by a student is not available, then the university will design a course and bring teachers for that course.
- The university would not be bothered by the consideration of whether there is a demand for the course.
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Significance and History of National Farmers’ Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Farmers’ Day
Mains level: Not Much
National Farmers’ Day, or Kisan Diwas, is celebrated across the country on December 23 to honour India’s farmers.
Do you think that the extraordinary haste with which the farm bills were pushed through both the Houses has created the present crisis?
National Farmers’ Day
- It marks the birth anniversary of the nation’s fifth PM Choudhary Charan Singh.
- In 2001, the government decided to recognise Choudhary Charan Singh’s contribution to the agriculture sector and welfare of farmers by celebrating his birth anniversary as Kisan Diwas.
- Since then, December 23 has been observed as National Farmers’ Day.
- Generally, awareness campaigns and drives are organised across the country to educate people on the role of farmers and their contribution to the economy.
Who was CCS and what was his connection with farmers?
- Chaudhary Charan Singh, who briefly served as PM between 1979 and 1980, is widely regarded as one of the country’s most famous peasant leaders.
- He was known for his pioneering work to promote the welfare of farmers and the agricultural sector.
- Charan Singh was no stranger to the struggles faced by the Indian farmer. He was born into a middle-class peasant family in Uttar Pradesh on December 23, 1902.
- Greatly influenced by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, he took an active part in the fight for independence.
- After that, his political career largely focused on socialism in rural India.
Major legislations
- He was behind several major farmer-forward Bills, including the Land Utilization Bill of 1939 and the Debt Redemption Bill in 1939.
- While serving as agriculture minister in 1952, he led UP in its efforts to abolish the Zamindari system.
- In fact, he went on to draft the UP Zamindari and Land Reforms Bill himself.
- On 23 December 1978, he founded the Kisan Trust — a non-political, non-profit making body — with the aim of educating India’s rural masses against injustice, and fostering solidarity among them.
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Who was Khudiram Bose?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Khudiram Bose
Mains level: Various revolutionary activities
Union Home Minister has visited the native village of Bengali revolutionary Khudiram Bose in Midnapore, West Bengal.
One of the youngest leaders of the Independence movement, Khudiram Bose is highly regarded in Bengal for his fearless spirit. He was just 19 when he was hanged!
Who was Khudiram Bose?
- Bose was born in 1889 at a small village in Midnapore district.
- From his adolescent years, he was drawn towards revolutionary activities, being inspired by a series of public lectures given by Sri Aurobindo and Sister Nivedita, when the duo visited Midnapore in the early 1900s.
- In 1905, when Bengal was partitioned, he actively participated in protests against the British.
- At the age of 15, Bose joined the Anushilan Samiti, an early 20th-century organisation that propounded revolutionary activities in Bengal.
- Within a year, he had learnt how to make bombs and would plant them in front of police stations.
Revolutionary activities
- The deciding moment of Bose’s life came in 1908 when he along with another revolutionary, Prafulla Chaki was assigned the task of assassinating the district magistrate of Muzaffarpur, Kingsford.
- Before being transferred to Muzaffarpur, Kingsford was a magistrate in Bengal.
- His tortuous clamping down on revolutionaries had earned him the ire of this young group of nationalists who decided to hurl a bomb on him.
Kingsford’s assassination attempt
- There were multiple attempts to assassinate Kingsford.
- Initially, the plan was to throw the bomb in the court. However, after much deliberation, it was decided to avoid the court since a lot of civilians might get injured.
- Thereafter, on April 30, 1908, Bose threw a bomb on a carriage which he suspected was carrying Kingsford.
- But it turned out that it was carrying the wife and daughter of a barrister named Pringle Kennedy, who lost their lives, as Kingsford escaped.
Arrest and execution
- By midnight the entire town was aware of the incident and the Calcutta police were summoned to catch the duo.
- Bose was arrested from a railway station called Waini where he had reached the next morning after having walked 25 miles.
- Chaki on the other hand, killed himself before he could get arrested.
- As Bose was brought handcuffed to the police station at Muzaffarpur, the entire town crowded around to take a look at the teenaged boy.
- On July 13, 1908, he was finally sentenced to death.
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Person in news: Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Tegh Bahadur
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has paid tributes to Sri Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji on his Martyrdom Day.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)
- Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He was born at Amritsar in 1621 and was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
- His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- There are several accounts explaining the motive behind the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur on Aurangzeb’s orders.
- He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
- He was publicly killed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for himself refusing Mughal rulers and defying them.
- Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of his body.
Impact of his martyrdom
- The execution hardened the resolve of Sikhs against religious oppression and persecution.
- His martyrdom helped all Sikh Panths consolidate to make the protection of human rights central to its Sikh identity.
- Inspired by him, his nine-year-old son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, eventually organized the Sikh group into a distinct, formal, symbol-patterned community came to be known as Khalsa (Martial) identity.
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Koothambalam of Guruvayur Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Koothambalam
Mains level: Keralan Architecture
The renovated Koothambalam of the Sreekrishna temple, Guruvayur, has been selected for the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Award for cultural heritage conservation.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Building ‘Kalyana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of-
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
What is Koothambalam?
- Koothambalam meaning temple theatre is a closed hall for staging Koothu, Nangiar koothu and Koodiyattam, the ancient ritualistic art forms of Kerala.
- Koothambalams are said to be constructed according to the guidelines given in chapter 2 of Nātyasāstra of Bharata Muni.
- The stage within the hall is considered to be as sacred as the temple sanctum.
Its’ construction
- It is constructed within the cloister of the Temple; more precisely within the pancaprakaras of the temple. The prescribe location is between the prakaras of bahyahara and maryada.
- In Kerala tradition, it is considered as one among the panchaprasadas of a temple complex.
- Its dimension varies from temple to temple.
- A square platform with a separate pyramidal roof supported by pillars in the centre called natyamandapam is constructed as s separate structure within the large hall of Koothampalam.
- The floor of the hall is divided into two equal halves and one part is for performance (including stage, instruments, green room etc.) and another half for seating audience.
About Guruvayur Temple
- It is a Hindu temple dedicated to the Hindu lord, Guruvayurappan (a four-armed form of the Lord Vishnu), located in the town of Guruvayur in Kerala.
- It is one of the most important places of worship for Hindus in Kerala and is often referred to as Bhuloka Vaikunta (Holy Abode of Vishnu on Earth).
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Places in news: Temple architecture of Hampi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vijayanagara architecture
Mains level: Vijayanagara architecture
Tourists can no longer get too close to the iconic stone chariot in front of the Vijaya Vittala Temple due to a protective ring by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
Try this question from CSP 2019:
Q.Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
The Vijayanagara Capital: Hampi
- Hampi or Hampe, also referred to as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in east-central Karnataka.
- Hampi was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.
- The old city of Hampi was a prosperous, wealthy and grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with numerous temples, farms and trading markets.
- By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world’s second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India’s richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal.
- The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in ruins.
Major attractions
- The Krishna temple complex, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta group of temples, Achyutaraya temple complex, Vitthala temple complex, Pattabhirama temple complex, Lotus Mahal complex, can be highlighted.
- Suburban townships (puras) surrounded the large temple complexes contains subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas and tanks applying the unique hydraulic technologies.
- The Vitthla temple is the most exquisitely ornate structure on the site and represents the culmination of Vijayanagara temple architecture.
- It is a fully developed temple with associated buildings like Kalyana Mandapa and Utsava Mandapa within a cloistered enclosure pierced with three entrance Gopurams.
- In addition to the typical spaces present in contemporary temples, it boasts of a Garuda shrine fashioned as a granite ratha and a grand bazaar street.
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[pib] Who was Lachit Borphukan?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lachit Borphukan
Mains level: Not Much
The Prime Minister has paid tribute to Lachit Borphukan on Lachit Diwas.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade and fight the Third Battle of Panipat:
(a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore
(b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg khan invited him to invade Punjab
(c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujrat Aurangabad, Sialkot and Pasrur)
(d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab upto borders of Delhi to his kingdom
Who was Lachit Borphukan?
- The year was 1671 and the decisive Battle of Saraighat was fought on the raging waters of the Brahmaputra.
- On one side was Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb’s army headed by Ram Singh of Amer (Jaipur) and on the other was the Ahom General Lachit Borphukan.
- He was a commander in the Ahom kingdom, located in present-day Assam.
- Ram Singh failed to make any advance against the Assamese army during the first phase of the war.
- Lachit Borphukan emerged victorious in the war and the Mughals were forced to retreat from Guwahati.
Lachit Diwas
- On 24 November each year, Lachit Divas is celebrated statewide in Assam to commemorate the heroism of Lachit Borphukan.
- On this day, Borphukan has defeated the Mughal army on the banks of the Brahmaputra in the Battle of Saraighat in 1671.
- The best passing out cadet of National Defence Academy has conferred the Lachit gold medal every year since 1999 commemorating his valour.
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[pib] Person in news: Guru Teg Bahadur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Guru Teg Bahadur
Mains level: NA
The President of India’s has delivered a special message on the eve of ‘Martyrdom Day’ of Guru Teg Bahadur.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Guru Teg Bahadur (1621-1675)
- Guru Teg Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion.
- One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
- He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against the imposition jizya tax.
- He was publicly killed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for refusing to convert.
- In the words of Noel King of the University of California, “Guru Teg Bahadur’s martyrdom was the first-ever martyrdom for human rights in the world.
- He is fondly remembered as ‘Hind di Chaadar’.
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Punjab Connection of the Irish freedom movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Irish mutiny in India
Mains level: Decolonization (World History)
Ireland is commemorating 100 years of the mutiny by a British Army battalion stationed in Jalandhar and Solan in Punjab in support of the Irish freedom movement.
Try this PYQ:
Q.With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, consider the following events:
- Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy
- Quit India Movement launched
- Second Round Table Conference
What is the correct chronological sequence of the above events?
(a) 1-2-3
(b) 2-1-3
(c) 3-2-1
(d) 3-1-2
Irish mutiny in India
- The Connaught Rangers were raised during the British Army reforms of 1881.
- A British Army battalion belonging to the Connaught Rangers was the one in which Irish soldiers mutinied in Jalandhar and Solan in Punjab.
- Solan now lies in Himachal Pradesh but in 1920 it was part of Punjab. The Ist Battalion of the Connaught Rangers was stationed in Jalandhar since January 1920 after it had taken part in the First World War.
Why did the mutiny take place?
- The troops were protesting against the behaviour of the ‘Black and Tans’ during the Irish War of Independence (1919-22).
- The Black and Tan were members of the Irish constabulary which had been recruited from Great Britain and mostly comprised demobilized soldiers who had fought in the First World War.
- The Irish soldiers felt that they must rise in solidarity with their compatriots back in Ireland and hence in June and July 1920 some of the regiment’s men mutinied.
- Some of the mutinied soldiers were later put through a court-martial.
Who were the Black and Tans?
- They were constables recruited into the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) as reinforcements during the Irish War of Independence.
- Recruitment began in Great Britain in January 1920 and about 10,000 men enlisted during the conflict.
- The vast majority were unemployed former soldiers from Great Britain who fought in the First World War, although some were from Ireland.
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Who was Maharani Jindan Kaur?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Maharani Jindan Kaur, Anglo-Sikh Wars
Mains level: Not Much
Maharani Jindan Kaur, the last wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, is in news for the auction of some of her jewellery in London.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:
- Dadu Dayal
- Guru Nanak
- Tyagaraja
Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?
(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2
Who was Rani Jindan (1817-1863)?
- She was the youngest wife of Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh empire, whose boundaries stretched from Kabul to Kashmir and the borders of Delhi.
- She was also the mother of Duleep Singh, the last ruler of the empire, who was raised by the British.
- Duleep Singh was five years old when he was placed on the throne in 1843 after the death of two heirs to Ranjit Singh. Since he was just a child, Maharani Jindan was made the regent.
- Not a rubber stamp, she took an active interest in running the kingdom, introducing changes in the revenue system.
Anglo-Sikh War and Jindan
- The British declared war on the Sikh empire in December 1845. After their victory in the first Anglo-Sikh war, they retained Duleep Singh as the ruler but imprisoned Jind Kaur.
- She escaped and arrived at Kathmandu on April 29, 1849, where she was given asylum by Jung Bahadur, the prime minister.
- She was given a house on the banks of river Bhagmati. She stayed in Nepal till 1860, where she continued to reach out to rebels in Punjab and Jammu-Kashmir.
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[pib] Architectural Heritage of Bundi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bundi architecture
Mains level: Not Much
A recent episode of the Ministry of Tourism’s Dekho Apna Desh Webinar series has focused on the architectural heritage of Bundi, Rajasthan.
Try this PYQ:
Q.With reference to Dhrupad, one of the major traditions of India that has been kept alive for centuries, which of the following statements are correct?
- Dhrupad originated and developed in the Rajput kingdoms during the Mughal period.
- Dhrupad is primarily a piece of devotional and spiritual music.
- Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables from Mantras.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above
About Bundi
- Bundi erstwhile capital of Hada Rajput province known as Hadauti located in south-eastern Rajasthan is one such place.
- Bundi is also known as City of step walls, blue city and also as Chotti Kashi.
- In ancient times, the area around Bundi was apparently inhabited by various local tribes, of which the Parihar Tribes, Meena was prominent.
- Later the region was governed by Rao Deva, who took over Bundi from Jaita Meena in 1242, renaming the surrounding area as Haravati or Haroti.
- For the next two centuries, the Hadas of Bundi were the vassals of the Sisodias of Mewar and ruled by the title of Rao until 1569, after Emperor Akbar.
Important architecture
- The City of Bundi grew outwards Taragarh hill. A small habitat developed at the foothills of the fort itself.
- The location of the royal palace was on a steep slope overlooking the valley below, providing a view of the vast surrounding hinterland.
- Garh Mahal became the focus and an imposing landmark on the skyline of Bundi was visible from the valley below. In the next 200 years, the entire cluster was built.
- The best example of medieval Indian city exhibiting water harvesting methods adopted at settlement level as well as the finest examples of water architecture.
- Location of Baoris and Kunds outside the walled city was also influenced by social considerations as access to baoris and kunds were located within the walled city was controlled.
Architectural heritage of Bundi can be classified as:
1) Garh (Fort): Taragarh
2) Garh Mahal (Royal Palace)
- Bhoj Mahal
- Chattar Mahal
- Ummed Mahal
3) Baori (Step well)
- Khoj Darwaja ki Baori
- Bhawaldi Baori
4) Kund (Stepped tank)
- Dhabhai ji ka Kund
- Nagar Kund & Sagar Kund
- Rani Kund
5) Sagar mahal (Lake Palace)
- Moti Mahal
- Sukh Mahal
- Shikar Burj
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‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ Movement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ajit Singh , Pagri Sambhal Movement
Mains level: Peasants movements in colonial India
Sardar Ajit Singh Sandhu, the brain behind the ‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ movement is now being remembered in the ongoing agrarian resentments in Punjab.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement?
(a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon.
(b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak.
(c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab Colonization Bill.
(d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekar brothers.
‘Pagri Sambhal Jatta’ Movement
- In 1879, the British constructed the Upper Bari Doab canal to draw water from the Chenab river and take it to Lyallpur (now in Pakistan and renamed Faisalabad) to set up settlements in uninhabited areas.
- Promising to allot free land with several amenities, the government persuaded peasants and ex-servicemen from Jalandhar, Amritsar and Hoshiarpur to settle there.
- In 1907, in Lyallpur, Ajit Singh Sandhu also Bhagat Singh’s uncle headed the movement that articulated this discontent.
- The catchy slogan, Pagdi Sambhal Jatta, the name of the movement, was inspired by the song by Banke Lal, the editor of the Jang Sayal newspaper.
- The agitated protestors ransacked government buildings, post offices, banks, overturning telephone poles and pulling down telephone wires.
Who was Ajit Singh?
- He was a revolutionary and a nationalist during the time of British rule in India.
- With compatriots, he organised agitation by Punjabi peasants against anti-farmer laws known as the Punjab Colonization Act (Amendment) 1906 and administrative orders increasing water rate charges.
- He was an early protester in the Punjab region of India who challenged British rule and openly criticized the Indian colonial government.
- In May 1907, with Lala Lajpat Rai, he was exiled to Mandalay in Burma.
- Due to great public pressure and apprehension of unrest in the Indian Army, the bills of exile were withdrawn and both men were released in November 1907.
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Personality in news: Shyamji Krishna Varma
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various social reformers
Mains level: NA
PM has paid rich tributes to revolutionary freedom fighter Shyamji Krishna Varma on his birth anniversary.
Try this PYQ:
Q. The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a –
(a) Revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco.
(b) Nationalist organization operating from Singapore
(c) Militant organization with headquarters at Berlin
(d) Communist movement for India’s freedom with head-quarters at Tashkent
About Shyamji Krishna Varma
- SK Varma (1857–1930) was an Indian revolutionary fighter, a patriot, lawyer and journalist who founded the Indian Home Rule Society, India House and The Indian Sociologist in London.
- He was a noted scholar in Sanskrit and other Indian languages.
- He pursued a brief legal career in India and served as the Divan of a number of Indian princely states in India.
- He had, however, differences with Crown authority, was dismissed following a supposed conspiracy of local British officials at Junagadh and chose to return to England.
- An admirer of Dayanand Saraswati’s approach of cultural nationalism, and of Herbert Spencer, Krishna Varma believed in Spencer’s dictum: “Resistance to aggression is not simply justified, but imperative”.
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Who was Kanaklata Barua ?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Kanaklata Barua
Mains level: Role of women in Indian National Movement
A Fast Patrol Vessel (FPV) named ICGS Kanaklata Barua was commissioned in the Indian Coast Guard on Wednesday, in Kolkata. It is named after a teenage freedom fighter who was shot dead in Assam during the Quit India Movement.
Who was Kanaklata Barua ?
- One of the youngest martyrs of the Quit India Movement, Kanaklata Barua has iconic status in Assam. Barua.
- Then 17, led the Mukti Bahini, a procession of freedom fighters to unfurl the Tricolour at Gohpur police station on September 20, 1942. When police did not let them move forward, an altercation led to firing, killing Barua at the head of the procession.
- She had joined the Mrityu Bahini [a kind of a suicide squad] just two days before the incident. The squad strictly admitted members aged 18 and above but Kanaklata was an exception. She wanted to lead the procession and after much persuasion she was allowed to.
- Even as Barua fell to bullets, she did not let go of the flag. She did not want it to touch the ground. Another woman volunteer behind her — Mukunda Kakoty — came and held the flag, and she, too, was shot.
How important is her legacy ?
- 1940’s was a time where you saw a lot of women coming to the fore, leading processions, patriotic fervour was at its peak — and Kanaklata was a product of this time.
- There are schools named after her, there are two statues, there is a ship. While we see her as an icon now, people in her village hated her then — she was a rebel, who questioned patriarchy.
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Eden Gardens: India’s oldest cricketing ground
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Eden Gardens
Mains level: NA
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in TH.
UPSC may ask a question like this:
Q. In which Governor-General/Viceroy’s term was the famous cricketing ground ‘Eden Gardens’ was built?
Eden Gardens
- The first cricket club outside Britain was the Calcutta Cricket Club founded in 1792, and the first match was played 12 years later between the Etonians, senior civil servants and other company officials.
- In 1825 the club got a plot of land on the ground between Government House and Fort William to be used as a cricket ground.
- In 1841, the club was permitted to enclose the ground with a fence. But the Army at Fort William described the club as an “encroacher”.
- Cricket Club of Calcutta authorities then looked for an alternative ground and at ₹1,000, found a new one, fenced it and made it playable.
- In 1864, the land was laid out for a ground for Calcutta Cricket Club in the extended part of Eden Gardens.
Deriving its name
- Eden Gardens made its first appearance during the time of Governor-General Lord Auckland (1836-42).
- According to the achieves, a local landlord gifted this land to Lord Auckland and his sisters Emily Eden and Fanny Eden helped him save his third daughter from a deadly disease.
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[pib] Who was Pritilata Waddedar?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pritilata Waddedar
Mains level: Not Much
The government of Bangladesh is financing a film on the life of revolutionary freedom fighter Pritilata Waddedar.
Try this PYQ:
Q.The Ghadr (Ghadar) was a –
(a) Revolutionary association of Indians with headquarters at San Francisco.
(b) Nationalist organization operating from Singapore
(c) Militant organization with headquarters at Berlin
(d) Communist movement for Pritilata Waddedar
Pritilata Waddedar (1911-1932)
- She was a Bengali revolutionary nationalist from the Indian subcontinent who was influential in the Indian independence movement.
- After completing her education in Chittagong and Dhaka, she attended Bethune College in Kolkata.
- She graduated in philosophy with distinction and became a school teacher.
- Pritilata joined a revolutionary group headed by Surya Sen. She is known for leading fifteen revolutionaries in the 1932 armed attack on the Pahartali European Club, during which one person was killed and eleven injured.
- The revolutionaries torched the club and were later caught by the British police. To avoid arrest, Pritilata consumed cyanide and died.
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Who was Subramania Bharatiyar?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Subramania Bharati and his works
Mains level: Not Much
This newscard is an excerpt from an article originally published in TH.
Try this question from CSP 2016:
Q.A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of-
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Subramania Bharati
- Bharati was a Tamil writer, poet, journalist, Indian independence activist, social reformer and polyglot.
- Popularly known as “Mahakavi Bharathi”, he was a pioneer of modern Tamil poetry and is considered one of the greatest Tamil literary figures of all time.
- His numerous works included fiery songs kindling patriotism during the Indian Independence movement.
Literary works
- As a working journalist, Bharati necessarily employed prose to communicate, and his writings in Swadesamitran and India made an important contribution to Tamil political vocabulary.
- He wrote stories, commentaries, and was also the pioneer of column writing in Tamil.
- Active participation in the day-to-day politics of the nationalist movement notwithstanding, Bharati never lost sight of the future, the dream of how a free India should look like.
- Aspects of this dream form part of his fantasy story, Gnanaratham (The Chariot of Wisdom), written when he was still in his late 20s.
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Dictionary of Martyrs of India’s Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: “Dictionary of Martyrs” Project
Mains level: India's freedom struggle
Four martyrs of Communist movement of Kerala will be added to the ‘Dictionary of Martyrs India’s Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)’, if an earlier review report to the Indian Council for Historical Research (ICHR) is accepted.
Communist revolutionaries of Kerala
- The four who may make it to the list include Aboobacker and Chirukandan of Kayyur, “who walked to the gallows shouting Inquilab Zindabad and Communist Party Zindabad” and “died as brave communists,” as mentioned in the fifth volume of the dictionary.
- Abu of Mambram, a Communist and active partner in the nationalist and anti-imperialist movements, and Chattukutty, an active Communist cadre involved in the agitations for price control, wage hike, and relief to peasants, who were killed in the Tellichery police firing on September 15, 1940, would also qualify.
- The report had suggested the deletion of the martyrs of Punnapra-Vayalar, Karivelloor, and Kavumbayi agitations as they were rioters against the interim government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
Back2Basics: “Dictionary of Martyrs” Project
- The project for the compilation of “Dictionary of Martyrs” of India’s Freedom Struggle was commissioned by the Ministry of Culture, to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the uprising of 1857.
- In this dictionary, a martyr has been defined as a person who died or who was killed in action or in detention, or was awarded capital punishment while participating in the national movement for the emancipation of India.
- It includes ex-INA or ex-military personnel who died fighting the British.
- Information of about 13,500 martyrs has been recorded in these volumes.
Who are included?
- It includes the martyrs of 1857 Uprising, Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919), Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22), Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-34), Quit India Movement (1942-44), Revolutionary Movements (1915-34), Kissan Movements, Tribal Movements, Agitation for Responsible Government in the Princely States (Prajamandal), Indian National Army (INA, 1943-45), Royal Indian Navy Upsurge (RIN, 1946), etc.
Five Volumes
- Volume 1: In this volume, more than 4400 martyrs of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh have been listed.
- Volume 2: In this volume, more than 3500 martyrs of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan and Jammu & Kashmir have been listed.
- Volume 3: The number of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 1400. This volume covers the martyrs of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Sind.
- Volume 4: The numbers of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 3300. This volume covers the martyrs of Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.
- Volume 5: The number of martyrs covered in this volume is more than 1450. This volume covers the martyrs of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
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US Presidents who have won Nobel Peace Prize
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Persons mentioned in the news, Nobel Prize
Mains level: Not Much
A Norwegian legislator has nominated US President Donald Trump for the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts towards furthering peace in the Middle East.
Take a look at the Presidents and Vice-Presidents who have won the Nobel Peace Prize:
These trivial facts are too unlikely to be asked in the CS prelims, but may hold importance for CAPF and other exams.
(1) Theodore Roosevelt (1906)
- Roosevelt, the 26th occupant of the White House (1901-09), was not only the first American president but also the world’s first statesman to win the honour, five years after the Peace Prize was instituted in 1901.
- He was given the prize for negotiating peace between imperial Russia and Japan after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05.
- He was also praised for his efforts in resolving a dispute between the US and Mexico through arbitration, and for extending the use of arbitration as a means for settling international disputes.
- At home, Roosevelt launched radical social and economic reform policies and earned a reputation as a “trust buster” for breaking up monopolies.
(2) Woodrow Wilson (1919)
- Wilson (1913-21) was given the award for his efforts in ending World War I, and for being the key architect of the League of Nations– born out of his famous ‘Fourteen Points’.
- Although the League faltered in a few years, it served as a blueprint for the United Nations after World War II.
- At home, Wilson saw the reduction of import duties, started America’s central bank and a national business oversight body, and strengthened anti-monopoly and labour laws.
- In his second term, the US passed its 19th constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote.
(3) Jimmy Carter (2002)
- The 39th President was awarded the Peace Prize “for his decades of untiring effort to find peaceful solutions to international conflicts, to advance democracy and human rights, and to promote economic and social development”.
- During his presidency (1977-81), Carter earned praise for his role in bringing about a peace agreement between Israel and Egypt.
- His later years were more fraught, including foreign policy failures such as the conflict with Iran and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, culminating in him losing re-election to the conservative Ronald Reagan in 1980.
- Post his presidency, Carter pursued peace and mediation efforts independently and co-founded the Carter Center, a non-profit that chiefly works to advance human rights.
(4) Barack Obama (2009)
- The country’s 44th President (2009-2017) was given the Nobel Peace Prize “for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples”.
- Cited among Obama’s achievements were his promotion of nuclear non-proliferation, and bringing a “new climate” in international relations.
- Obama donated the full prize money – 10 million Swedish kronor (around $1.4 million) – to charity.
(5) Al Gore (1993-2001)
- Apart from the four Presidents, one Vice President– Al Gore (1993-2001) – has been given the Nobel Peace Prize.
- He shared the honour in 2007 with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for their joint efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change.
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Centenary of Aligarh Muslim University
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AMU, Sir Saiyad Ahmad Khan
Mains level: Not Much
In its centenary year, Aligarh Muslim University is planning to bury a time capsule, containing its history and achievements for posterity.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following:
- Calcutta Unitarian Committee
- Tabernacle of New Dispensation
- Indian Reforms Association
Keshab Chandra Sen is associated with the establishment of which of the above?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Aligarh Muslim University
- AMU is a public central university in Aligarh, India, which was originally established by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875.
- Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920, following the Aligarh Muslim University Act.
- It has three off-campus centres in Malappuram (Kerala), AMU Murshidabad centre (West Bengal), and Kishanganj Centre (Bihar).
Its establishment
- The university was established as the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College in 1875 by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, starting functioning on 24 May 1875.
- The movement associated with Syed Ahmad Khan and the college came to be known as the Aligarh Movement, which pushed to realize the need for establishing a modern education system for the Indian Muslim populace.
- He considered competence in English and Western sciences necessary skills for maintaining Muslims’ political influence.
- Khan’s vision for the college was based on his visit to Oxford University and Cambridge University, and he wanted to establish an education system similar to the British model.
About Syed Ahmad Khan
- He was an Islamic pragmatist, reformer, and philosopher of nineteenth-century British India.
- Born into a family with strong debts to the Mughal court, Ahmed studied the Quran and Sciences within the court.
- He was awarded an honorary LLD from the University of Edinburgh in 1889.
- In 1838, Syed Ahmed entered the service of East India Company and went on to become a judge at a Small Causes Court in 1867, retiring from 1876.
- During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, he remained loyal to the British Raj and was noted for his actions in saving European lives.
- In 1878, he was nominated to the Viceroy’s Legislative Council.
- He supported the efforts of Indian political leaders Surendranath Banerjee and Dadabhai Naoroji to obtain representation for Indians in the government and civil services.
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[pib] Heritage of Punjab
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heritage of Punjab
Mains level: Not Much
The Ministry of Tourism’s DekhoApnaDesh Webinar series titled “Punjab- A historic perspective” has recently gone live.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Rivers that passes through Himachal Pradesh are: (CSP 2012)
(a) Beas and Chenab only
(b) Beas and Ravi only
(c) Chenab, Ravi, and Satluj only
(d) Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satluj, and Yamuna
Heritage of Punjab
- Punjab means ‘the land of Five Waters’ referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.
- Much of the Frontier was occupied by Maharaja Ranjit Singh also known as Sher-e-Punjab in the early 19th century and then taken over by the East India Company when it annexed Punjab in 1849.
- The state is divided into three parts- Majha, Doaba and Malwa.
- It’s many festivals–Teej, Lohri, Basant Panchami, Baisakhi and Hola Mahalla to name some are celebrations that mirror the farming ethos.
- Historically, Punjab has played host to a number of ethnicities, including the Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Afghans and Mongols, thus bestowed with a rich tangible heritage.
- The southeastern city of Punjab, Patiala was once a princely state established under Baba Ala Singh, a Jat Sikh chieftain. He laid the foundation of the fort and now, is located in the region around Qila Mubarak or the Fortunate Castle.
- Important tourist attractions are Kali Temple, Baradari Garden, Sheesh Mahal, Gurudwara Dukh Niwaran Sahib, Qila Mubarak complex etc.
Holy shrines
- The most sacred of Sikh shrines, the Golden Temple, is a major pilgrimage destination for devotees from around the world, as well as, an ever-increasing popular tourist attraction.
- Construction of the Amrit Sarovar (pool of nectar) was initiated by Guru Amar Das, the third Guru, in 1570 and was completed by Guru Ram Das, the fourth Guru.
- His successor, Guru Arjan Dev began work on the building after inviting Mian Mir, the Sufi saint, to lay its foundation stone in 1588.
- Three years later, the Harimandar Sahib, or Darbar Sahib got completed.
- In step with Sikhism’s basic tenet of universal brotherhood and all-inclusive ethos, the Golden Temple can be accessed from all directions.
Legend of Banda Bahadur
- The city of Fatehgarh Sahib is of special significance to Sikhs. The word “Fatehgarh”, means “Town of Victory”.
- It is so-called because, in 1710, Sikhs under the leadership of Baba Banda Singh Bahadur conquered the area and destroyed the Mughal fort.
- Banda Bahadur announced the establishment of the Sikh rule in the city and an end to the tyranny of the Mughal rule which had spread terror and injustice.
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In news: Malabar Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Malabar Rebellion
Mains level: Not Much
A report submitted to the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR) in 2016 has termed the Malabar Rebellion leaders as ‘rioters’.
Try this question from CSP 2015:
Q. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for a tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century?
(a) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation- of tribal products
(b) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas
(c) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas
(d) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities
What is the Malabar Rebellion?
- The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule and the feudal system in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
- There were a series of clashes between Mappila peasantry and their landlords, supported by the British, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defence of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
- The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
Why is it contentious?
- It largely took the shape of guerrilla-type attacks on janmis (feudal landlords, who were mostly upper-caste Hindus) and the police and troops.
- Mappilas had been among the victims of oppressive agrarian relations protected by the British.
- But the political mobilization in the region in the aftermath of the Khilafat agitation and Gandhi’s non-cooperation struggle served as an opportunity for an extremist section to invoke a religious idiom to express their suffering.
- There were excesses on both sides — rebels and government troops. Incidents of murder, looting and forced conversion led many to discredit the uprising as a manifestation of religious bigotry.
- Moderate Khilafat leaders lamented that the rebellion had alienated the Hindu sympathy.
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Person in news: Noor Inayat Khan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Noor Inayat Khan
Mains level: Not Much
World War II spy Noor Inayat Khan is now the first woman of Indian origin to be commemorated by the distinct blue London plaque.
Try this PYQ:
Q.A recent movie titled “The Man Who Knew Infinity” is based on the biography of-
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Noor Inayat Khan
- A descendant of Tipu Sultan, Noor Inayat Khan became a secret agent during the Second World War.
- She was the first woman radio operator to be infiltrated into occupied France in 1943 and worked under the code name ‘Madeleine’.
- Renowned for her service in the Special Operations Executive, an independent British secret service set up by Winston Churchill in 1940.
- Noor was Britain’s first Indian Muslim war heroine in Europe and the first female radio operator sent into Nazi-occupied France.
- She was killed at the Dachau concentration camp in 1944 and was posthumously awarded the George Cross in 1949.
What are Blue Plaques?
- The idea of placing commemorative plaques on historically significant buildings was first mooted in 1863.
- The idea was to honour important people and organisations that have lived or worked in London buildings.
- Currently, the blue plaque scheme is being run by the charity organisation, English Heritage that takes care of historic sites and buildings in England.
- While Khan is the first woman of Indian origin to be honoured with a blue plaque, it has been erected on houses and venues associated with several Indian men including Mahatma Gandhi, Raja Ram Mohun Roy, B R Ambedkar, Sardar Patel and Swami Vivekananda among others.
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Who was Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dr Kotnis and his legacy
Mains level: NA
A bronze statue of Indian doctor Dwarkanath Kotnis is set to be unveiled in China.
Try this PYQ:
Q.A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Dr. Dwarkanath Kotnis
- He is revered in China for his contributions during the Chinese revolution headed by its founder Mao Zedong and World War II.
- He hailed from Sholapur in Maharashtra came to China in 1938 as part of a five-member team of doctors sent by the Indian National Congress to help the Chinese during World War II.
- He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in 1942 and died the same year at the age of 32.
- Kotnis’ medical assistance during the difficult days of the Chinese revolution was praised by Chinese leader Mao Zedong.
- His statues and memorials were also set in some of the Chinese cities in recognition of his services.
A revered personality in China
- Late Chinese leader Mao Zedong was deeply affected by his death.
- Mao wrote in his eulogy that “the army has lost a helping hand; the nation has lost a friend. Let us always bear in mind his internationalist spirit”.
- Kotnis is remembered not only as a symbol inspiring medical students to work hard, but also an eternal bond between the people of China and India.
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[pib] Cultural heritage of Hyderabad
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various cultural sites in Hyderabad
Mains level: Cultural site in Hyderabad
Ministry of Tourism’s DekhoApnaDesh Webinar Series in its 50th session held a webinar on “Cultural heritage of Hyderabad”.
Note various cultural sites mentioned in the newscard. The entire DekhoApnaDesh series is a potential hotspot for the coming Prelims.
The story of Hyderabad City
- Hyderabad is popularly known as the “City of Pearls” and the “City of Nizams”, and has been the centre of a vibrant historical legacy, ever since its inception by the Qutub Shahi dynasty.
- The city was later conquered by Mughal Empire and finally falling in the hands of Asaf Jahi dynasty.
- Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah established Hyderabad in 1591 to extend the capital beyond the fortified Golconda. In 1687, the city was annexed by the Mughals.
- In 1724, Mughal governor Nizam Asaf Jah I declared his sovereignty and founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty, also known as the Nizams.
- Hyderabad served as the imperial capital of the Asaf Jahis from 1769 to 1948.
- As capital of the princely state of Hyderabad, the city housed the British Residency and cantonment until Indian independence in 1947.
Cultural sites of Hyderabad:
1) Golconda Fort, Hyderabad: A massive fortress whose ruins stand proudly even today displaying the glory of its rich past and some untold sagas of the city’s history. The place oozing charm is a must visit historical place in Hyderabad. Mohammed Quli understood the need of a new City and made Bhagnagar (after the name of his beloved Bhagmati) with Charminar in its centre.
2) Chowmahalla Palace: Once the seat of the Asaf Jahi Dynasty, the Chowmahalla Palace was built in Hyderabad and is located near the famous monument, Charminar and Laad Bazar. The palace is designed very intricately and holds that Nawabi Charm in itself. Palace, the seat of power of Nizams, has bagged the UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Merit Award for Culture Heritage Conservation.
3) Charminar: The monument was erected when Quli Qutab Shah shifted his capital from Golconda to Hyderabad. The monument got its name from its structure as it consists of four minarets.
4) Mecca Masjid: One of the oldest and the largest mosques of India is the grandest historical places in Hyderabad was completed by Aurangzeb in 1693.The bricks used here are believed to be from Mecca, and hence the name.
5) Paigah tombs: Located in the suburbs of Pisal Banda in Hyderabad, Paigah Tombs are a group of tombs of the Paigah royal family. Although now in a derelict and dilapidated state, the tombs still boast of striking architecture and marvellously carved marble panels.
6) Salar Jung Museum: Is an art museum established in the year 1951 and located at Dar-ul-Shifa, on the southern bank of the Musi River in the city of Hyderabad. The Salar Jung family is responsible for its collection of rare art objects from all over the world. The family is one of the most illustrious families in Deccan history, five of them having been prime-ministers in the erstwhile Nizam rule of Hyderabad-Deccan.
7) Warangal Fort: This fort appears to have existed since at least the 12th century when it was the capital of the Kakatiya dynasty. The fort has four ornamental gates, known as Kakatiya Kala Thoranam, that originally formed the entrances to a now ruined great Shiva temple.
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Story of our National Flag
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National flag
Mains level: NA
The final design of the Indian National Flag, hoisted by PM Nehru on August 16, 1947, at Red Fort, had a history of several decades preceding independence.
Note various personalities involved in the development of our National flag. It may be no wonder to accept a personality-based question on such topics.
Story of our National Flag: A timeline
(1) Public display for first time
- Arguably the first national flag of India is said to have been hoisted on August 7, 1906, in Kolkata at the Parsee Bagan Square (Green Park).
- It comprised three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green, with Vande Mataram written in the middle.
- Believed to have been designed by freedom activists Sachindra Prasad Bose and Hemchandra Kanungo, the red stripe on the flag had symbols of the sun and a crescent moon, and the green strip had eight half-open lotuses.
(2) In Germany
- In 1907, Madame Cama and her group of exiled revolutionaries hoisted an Indian flag in Germany in 1907 — this was the first Indian flag to be hoisted in a foreign land.
(3) During the Home Rule Movement
- In 1917, Dr Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement.
- It had five alternate red and four green horizontal stripes, and seven stars in the saptarishi configuration.
- A white crescent and star occupied one top corner, and the other had Union Jack.
(4) Final version by Pingali Venkayya
- The design of the present-day Indian tricolour is largely attributed to Pingali Venkayya, an Indian freedom fighter.
- He reportedly first met Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa during the second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), when he was posted there as part of the British Indian Army.
- Years of research went into designing the national flag. In 1916, he even published a book with possible designs of Indian flags.
- At the All India Congress Committee in Bezwada in 1921, Venkayya again met Gandhi and proposed a basic design of the flag, consisting of two red and green bands to symbolise the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims.
(5) During Constituent Assembly
- On July 22, 1947, when members of the Constituent Assembly of India, the first item on the agenda was reportedly a motion by Pandit Nehru, about adopting a national flag for free India.
- It was proposed that “the National Flag of India shall be horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (Kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion.”
- The white band was to have a wheel in navy blue (the charkha being replaced by the chakra), which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka.
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How Quit India movement gave a new direction to India’s freedom struggle?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Quit India Movement
Mains level: India's freedom struggle
On August 8, 78 years ago, Mahatma Gandhi gave the call for British colonizers to “Quit India” and for the Indians to “do or die” to make this happen.
Try this PYQ:
Q.With reference to the Indian freedom struggle, consider the following events:
- Mutiny in Royal Indian Navy
- Quit India Movement launched
- Second Round Table Conference
What is the correct chronological sequence of the above events?(CSP 2017)
(a) 1-2-3
(b) 2-1-3
(c) 3-2-1
(d) 3-1-2
What led to the events of August 1942?
- While factors leading to such a movement had been building up, matters came to a head with the failure of the Cripps Mission.
- World War II was raging, and a beleaguered British needed the cooperation of their colonial subjects in India.
- To this end, in March 1942, a mission led by Sir Stafford Cripps arrived in India to meet leaders of the Congress and the Muslim League.
- The idea was to secure India’s whole-hearted support in the war, in return for self-governance.
- However, despite the promise of “the earliest possible realization of self-government in India”, the offer Cripps made was of dominion status, and not freedom.
A final blow
- The failures of the Cripps Mission made Mahatma Gandhi realize that freedom would be had only by fighting tooth and nail for it.
- Though initially reluctant to launch a movement that could hamper Britain’s efforts to defeat Fascist forces in the World War, Congress eventually decided to launch a mass civil disobedience.
- At the Working Committee meeting in Wardha in July 1942, it was decided the time had come for the movement to move into an active phase.
The Gowalia Tank address and Gandhiji’s arrest
- On August 8, Gandhiji addressed the people from Mumbai’s Gowalia Tank maidan with the ‘Do or Die’ mantra.
- By August 9, Gandhi and all other senior Congress leaders had been jailed.
- He was kept at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune, and later in the Yerawada jail.
- It was during this time that Kasturba Gandhi died at the Aga Khan Palace.
The slogan ‘Quit India’
- While Gandhi gave the clarion call of Quit India, the slogan was coined by Yusuf Meherally, a socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Mumbai.
- A few years ago, in 1928, it was Meherally who had coined the slogan “Simon Go Back”.
Outcome: A people’s movement
- The arrest of the leaders, however, failed to deter the masses. With no one to give directions, people took the movement into their own hands.
- In Bombay, Poona and Ahmedabad, lakhs of people clashed with the police on August 9. On August 10, protests erupted in Delhi, UP and Bihar.
- There were strikes, demonstrations and people’s marches in defiance of prohibitory orders in Kanpur, Patna, Varanasi, and Allahabad.
- The protests spread rapidly into smaller towns and villages.
- Till mid-September, police stations, courts, post offices and other symbols of government authority were attacked.
- Railway tracks were blocked, students went on strike in schools and colleges across India, and distributed illegal nationalist literature.
- Mill and factory workers in Bombay, Ahmedabad, Poona, Ahmednagar, and Jamshedpur stayed away for weeks.
- In some places, the protests were violent, with bridges blown up, telegraph wires cut, and railway lines taken apart.
Outcome
- The Quit India movement was violently suppressed by the British – people were shot, lathi-charged, villages burnt and enormous fines imposed.
- In the five months up to December 1942, an estimated 60,000 people had been thrown in jail.
Significance
- Soon after, Gandhi and almost the entire top Congress leadership was arrested and thus began a truly people-led movement in our freedom struggle.
- Eventually dispersed violently by the British, it left behind a clear message that the British would have to leave India, and no other solution would be acceptable to its masses.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Nagara Architecture of Ayodhya’s Ram Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Features of the Nagara Temple Architecture
Mains level: Temple Architecture of India
The grand temple at Rama Janmabhoomi in Ayodhya will follow the Nagara style of temple architecture.
Note the various features of the Nagara and Vesara style of temple architecture from your basic references.
What is Nagara style of temple architecture?
The basic form of a Hindu temple contains the following architectural elements:
- Garbhagriha – the small room where the principal deity/deities of the temple reside
- Mandapa – the portico or hall at the entrance of the temple generally designed to house a large number of people
- Shikhara – the mountain like spire which can have different shapes from pyramidal to curvilinear
- Vahana – the mount of the main deity placed generally in line of sight from Garbhagriha
- In this style, the temple is generally constructed on an upraised platform called Jagati.
- Mandapas are present in front of the These are adorned with the Shikhara, the tallest one being above the Garbhagriha.
- The shikhara over the mandapas in the pictures of the Ayodhya Ram temple can be seen having a square base, and a rectilinear outline.
- This is called the phamsana-style shikhara. Note that the mandapa shikhara right at the entrance has an octagonal base.
Similar to Khajuraho Temple
- There are different types of Shikhara found in Indian temples.
- A comparison with Khajuraho Vishwanath temple, also built in Nagara style, shows the similarity between the two.
- Note that the main shikhara of the two are remarkably similar.
- They rise upward in a curved pyramidal fashion, ending in a horizontal fluted disc called an Amalaka topped with a Kalasha. This is called the Latina-style shikhara.
Note: This newscard is an excerpt from an original article published in Swarajya Magazine.
Back2Basics: The Ramjanmabhoomi Case
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
William Jones and his linguistic studies
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Asiatic Society William Jones
Mains level: Linguistic study of ancient India
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Indian Express.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2016:
Q.Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka?
(a) Georg Buhier
(b) James Prinsep
(c) Max Muller
(d) William Jones
William Jones
- William Jones was appointed as a judge on the Supreme Court of Judicature at Fort William in Bengal,
- In the next couple of years, Jones established himself as an authority on ancient Indian language and culture, a field of study that was hitherto untouched.
- He is particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indo-Aryan languages, which he coined as Indo-European.
- He is also credited for establishing the Asiatic Society of Bengal in the year 1784.
His linguistic studies
- Jones’ was the first to suggest that Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages had a common root and that indeed they may all be further related, in turn, to Gothic and the Celtic languages, as well as to Persian.
- He also suggested that Sanskrit ‘was introduced to India by conquerors from other kingdoms in some very remote age’ displacing ‘the pure Hindi’ of north India
- His claim rested on the evidence of several Sanskrit words that had similarities with Greek and Latin.
Some examples of his propositions
- As he studied the languages further, it became clearer that apart from Greek and Latin, Sanskrit words could be found in most other European languages.
- For instance, the Sanskrit word for ‘three’, that is ‘trayas’, is similar to the Latin ‘tres’ and the Greek ‘treis’. Similarly, the Sanskrit for ‘snake’, is ‘sarpa’, which shares a phonetic link with ‘serpens’ in Latin.
- For instance, ‘mata’ or mother in Sanskrit, is ‘mutter’ in German. ‘Dan’ or ‘to give’ in Sanskrit is ‘donor’ in Spanish.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What is Black Rain?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Black Rain
Mains level: Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings by US
Ahead of the 75th anniversary of Hiroshima, a Japanese court has recognised 84 survivors of the post-nuclear explosion “black rain” as the atomic bomb survivors. This would enable them to avail free medical benefits.
Try this question from CSP 2011:
Q.Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment by:
(a) Carbon dioxide and nitrogen
(b) Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
(c) Ozone and carbon dioxide
(d) Nitrous oxide and Sulphur dioxide
What is Black Rain?
- An estimated 69 per cent of the buildings in Hiroshima were destroyed by the atomic bomb.
- The debris and soot from this, mixed with the radioactive fallout from the bomb, raised high into the atmosphere in the form of a mushroom cloud.
- This material combined with the vapour in the atmosphere and came down as dark drops of liquid that have been called black rain.
- Survivors of the black rain described it as consisting of large, greasy drops that are much heavier than normal raindrops.
- It is full of highly radioactive material, and studies have shown that exposure to it can result in serious illnesses.
What was its effect?
- A study conducted in the year 1945 itself showed that black rain had come down as far as 29 km away from ground zero.
- The rain contaminated everything it came in contact with, and dead fish were reported floating in water bodies and severely ill cattle were seen lying in the fields.
- It has caused acute radiation symptoms (ARS) in many who were exposed to it, with reports of people suffering from nausea and diarrhoea for weeks.
- Other ARS include fever, sore throat and loss of hair. Over time, many people who were exposed to black rain have developed cancer.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What is the Gandhi-King Initiative?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi in India's freedom struggle
Mains level: World History: American Civil Rights Movement
A Bill to promote Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr’s legacies has been passed in American Senate.
Practice question for mains:
Q. Discuss how the civil rights movement in America is paralleled by India’s freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi.
Gandhi-King Initiative
- The initiative is an exchange program between India and the U.S. to study the work and legacies of Gandhiji and civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.
- It will establish annual scholar and student exchange programs for Indians and Americans to study the leaders’ legacies and visit historic sites in India and the U.S.
- The visits will be relevant to India’s freedom struggle and the U.S.’s civil rights movement.
Gandhi-King Global Academy
- The bill also seeks to establish the Gandhi-King Global Academy, a conflict resolution initiative based on the principles of nonviolence.
- It proposes the establishment of the United States-India Gandhi-King Development Foundation set up by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and the GoI, organized under Indian law.
- The Foundation, which has a proposed budget authorized of up to $ 30 million per year for five years through 2025.
- It is tasked with administering grants to NGOs that work in health, pollution and climate change, education and empowerment of women.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Rosalind Franklin: the unsung heroine of DNA
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: DNA/RNA
Mains level: Not Much
The famous British scientist and virologist Rosalind Franklin is remembered across the world on her birth centenary who worked to construct the double-helix structure of DNA.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2019:
DNA/RNA has been an all-time favourite of UPSC!
Q.‘RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?
- It is used in developing gene-silencing therapies.
- It can be used in developing therapies for the treatment of cancer.
- It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
- It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 1 and 4 only
Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)
- She was an English chemist and X-ray crystallographer whose work was central to the understanding of the molecular structures of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), RNA (ribonucleic acid), viruses, coal, and graphite.
- Although her works on coal and viruses were appreciated in her lifetime, her contributions to the discovery of the structure of DNA were largely recognised posthumously.
DNA breakthrough
- In 1952, Raymond Gosling, a graduate student at King’s College London, took a historic X-ray photograph under Franklin’s supervision.
- Photo 51, as it is called, demonstrates the now-familiar, double-helix structure of DNA.
Why is she remembered now?
- The world is currently gripped in a pandemic, and her pioneering research in virology provided a crucial early step in the search for cures, vaccinations and tests.
- During the Second World War, Franklin carried out research into coal and graphite that proved important for gas-masks, the PPE of that time.
- It is because of Franklin, her collaborators and successors, that today’s researchers are able to use tools such as DNA sequencing and X-ray crystallography to investigate viruses such as COVID-10.
Back2Basics: DNA/RNA 
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are perhaps the most important molecules in cell biology, responsible for the storage and reading of genetic information that underpins all life.
- They are both linear polymers, consisting of sugars, phosphates and bases, but there are some key differences which separate the two.
- These distinctions enable the two molecules to work together and fulfil their essential roles.
- DNA encodes all genetic information and is the blueprint from which all biological life is created. And that’s only in the short-term.
- In the long-term, DNA is a storage device, a biological flash drive that allows the blueprint of life to be passed between generations.
- RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. This reading process is multi-step and there are specialized RNAs for each of these steps.
Three types of RNA
- Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code; a process called transcription and transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular factories that facilitate the production of proteins from this code.
- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein building blocks, to these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions introduced by the mRNA. This protein-building process is called translation.
- Finally, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself without which protein production would not occur.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
How the US’ Trinity Test led to the dawn of the atomic age?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: Manhattan Project, WW2 and related stories
On this day, exactly 75 years ago, US scientists tested ‘Gadget’— the world’s first atomic bomb — in what was dubbed as the ‘Trinity Test’.
Practice question for mains:
Q.What is the Manhattan Project? Describe its consequences on the post-world war scenario.
The Trinity Test
- The super bomb, nicknamed ‘Gadget’, was built by a team of scientists at a top-secret site in Los Alamos, New Mexico.
- It was developed as part of the US-led Manhattan Project, which sought to build nuclear weapons to give the allied forces an edge over Germany, Japan and Italy in World War 2.
- Very soon after the Trinity test, an identical nuclear bomb called ‘Fat Man’ was dropped on the Japanese city of Nagasaki, killing tens of thousands of people.
- Before it detonated, the scientists had placed bets on what could happen. Some believed that the bomb would be a dud and would fail to explode.
What was the Manhattan Project?
- Germany initiated World War II by invading Poland.
- A letter signed by Nobel prize-winning physicist Albert Einstein warned then-US President Franklin D Roosevelt of the potential threat posed by an atomic weapon being developed by Adolf Hitler.
- Soon after, the US launched a secret atomic research undertaking, code-named the Manhattan Project, which sought to develop an atomic weapon to end the war.
Execution of the project
- The Project remained a relatively small-scale initiative for the next two years.
- It was only after the bombing of Pearl Harbour the project was officially kicked into gear.
- By December 1942 facilities were established in remote locations across the US, as well as in Canada.
- However, the superbomb was finally designed and conceptualized by a team of scientists at a top-secret laboratory in Los Alamos.
- The Los Alamos team developed two types of bombs — one was uranium-based, which was later code-named ‘the Little Boy’ before it was dropped on Hiroshima; the other had a plutonium core.
Looping-in nuclear physicists
- The project brought together some of the country’s leading atomic experts as well as exiled scientists and physicists from Germany and other Nazi-occupied nations.
- The team at Los Alamos was headed by J Robert Oppenheimer, a physics professor at the University of California, Berkeley.
- Oppenheimer later came to be known as the “father of the atomic bomb”.
- His team included famous Danish scientist Niels Bohr and Italian scientists Enrico Fermi.
What were the repercussions of the Trinity Test?
- New Mexico residents were pointedly not warned before the test, to ensure that it was carried out secretly.
- Data collected by the New Mexico health department, which showed the adverse impact of radiation caused by the detonation, was ignored for years after the test.
- A sudden rise in infant mortality was reported in the months after the explosion. Several residents also complained that the number of cancer patients went up after the Trinity Test.
- The dust outfall from the explosion was expected to have travelled nearly 100 miles from the test site, posing a serious threat to residents in the area.
- Many families complained that their livestock suffered skin burns, bleeding and loss of hair.
Impact of bombing on Japan
- The Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings are known to have killed well over 200,000 people — many of whom succumbed to radiation poisoning in the weeks after the blasts.
- The uranium bomb in Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, destroyed around 70 per cent of all buildings and caused around 140,000 deaths by the end of 1945.
- The plutonium bomb explosion over Nagasaki, which took place three days later, killed 74,000 people that year, according to International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICANW) data.
- After seeing the destruction caused to the two Japanese cities, Oppenheimer publicly admitted that he regretted building a bomb that could cause an apocalypse.
Nuclearisation of the world thus began
- Seventy-five years after the Trinity Test, as many as nine countries around the world are currently in possession of nuclear weapons.
- These include the US, the UK, Russia, France, India, China, Israel, Pakistan and North Korea.
- At least eight countries have detonated over 2,000 nuclear test explosions since 1945.
- The most recent instance of nuclear bomb test explosions conducted by India, were the series of five explosions done as part of the Pokhran-II tests in May 1998.
- The first test, code-named Smiling Buddha, took place in May 1974.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Herbert Kleber?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Herbert Kleber and his work
Mains level: NA
With today’s doodle, Google is remembering Dr Herbert David Kleber, who reframed the field of addiction treatment.
Try this question from CSP 2016:
A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of-
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Herbert Kleber
- Born on June 19, 1934, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Dr Kleber studied medicine, where he discovered that psychology was his calling.
- He viewed addiction as a medical condition rather than a moral failure.
- He spent years treating people with drug addiction and realized that the treatment needed a new approach backed by scientific research.
- His new methods of treatment gained an appreciation and he was appointed as the deputy director for demand reduction at the Office of National Drug Control Policy by the then U.S. President George H. W. Bush.
- He headed many projects on developing new methods to treat individuals with alcohol, cocaine, heroin and alcohol addictions.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Remembering P C Mahalanobis
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Achievements of Indians
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, India’s ‘Plan Man’ and the architect of the country’s statistical system is more relevant now in times of Covid pandemic when we grapple with the lack of data.
Analysing 1944 Bengal famine
- He conducted a large-scale sample survey of Bengal’s famine between July 1944 and February 1945.
- Sample survey helped in causal analysis and to assess the extent of the disaster and an estimate of the number of people affected.
Relevance today
- Bengal’s famine survey reminds us that we need estimates of the millions who will lose jobs or livelihoods in today’s pandemic.
- The extent of feasibility, success and problem of online access also needs to be properly estimated in this new dawn.
- Mahalanobis is perhaps more relevant today when the accuracy of different sorts of data is under the scanner.
- Mahalanobis envisaged large-scale sample surveys as statistical engineering rather than pure theory of sampling.
- He was instrumental in establishing the National Sample Survey (NSS) in 1950 and the Central Statistical Organization in 1951.
Data accuracy
- Mahalanobis was very careful about data accuracy in his surveys.
- In Kautilya’s Arthashastra, there is mention of the need for cross-checking by an independent set of agents for data collection.
- This, according to Mahalanobis, was the “striking feature in the Arthashastra”.
- This might have prompted him to have an independent supervisory staff during the conduct of field operations by the NSS.
- His initial training in Physics might have made him conscious about errors in measurement and observation.
- The desire to have built-in cross-checks and to get an estimate of errors in sampling led him to introduce the Inter-Penetrating Network of Subsamples.
- The network is considered as the curtain-raiser for re-sampling procedures like Bootstrap.
- Bootstrap is a revolutionary concept of statistics.
Difficulties in conducting surveys
- Even Mahalanobis could have faced hardship had he wished to conduct surveys now.
- First, even in pre-COVID-19 India, it’s widely reported that surveyors were facing tremendous resistance from people due to some sociopolitical reasons.
- Pronab Sen, Chairman of the Standing Committee on Economic Statistics, and former Chief Statistician, expressed his concern that the survey system is already in “deep trouble”.
- Conducting household surveys with the Census as the frame would be “very tough” going ahead.
- The problem will intensify due to COVID-19.
Use of technology for survey
- Mahalanobis never shied away from technology.
- He was instrumental in bringing computers to India.
- The Mahalanobis-led Indian Statistical Institute procured India’s first computer in 1956 and the second in 1959.
Consider the question asked in 2019 “How was India benefitted from the contributions of Sir M.Visvesvaraya and Dr M. S. Swaminathan in the fields of water engineering and agricultural science respectively?”
Conclusion
Mahalanobis wrote: “Statistics are a minor detail, but they do help.” This is an eternal truth. What Mahalanobis didn’t spell out is that one needs a top statistician for listening to the heartbeats of data and for framing data-based policy decisions for human welfare and national development.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Sindhu Darshan Puja
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Art and culture
Mains level: Not much
During his day-long whirlwind visit, PM Narendra performed Sindhu Darshan Puja at Nimu, the forward brigade place in Ladakh.
Sindhu Darshan Puja.
⦁ Sindhu Darshan Festival is a festival of India held every year on full moon day (on Guru Purnima) in the month of June.
⦁ It is held at Leh, in Ladakh District of Ladakh. It stretches for three days.
⦁ It was first started in the October by veteran politician L.K. Advani, 1997 and continues to be held every year since then, attracting large number of foreign and domestic tourists.
⦁ The main reason behind the celebration of Sindhu Darshan Festival is to endorse the Indus River (Sindhu River) as an icon of the communal harmony and unity of India.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What is the Hagia Sophia?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hagia Sophia
Mains level: World History: Turkish renaissance under Ottoman Empire
Turkey’s highest court this week convened to decide whether Istanbul’s iconic Hagia Sophia museum can be turned into a mosque.
Try this question:
Q. The iconic Hagia Sophia, a UNESCO World Heritage site was recently in news. It is situated in:
a) Greece b) Turkey c) Israel d) Iran
What is the Hagia Sophia?
- The construction of this iconic structure in Istanbul started in 532 AD during the reign of Justinian I, the ruler of the Byzantine Empire when the city was known as Constantinople.
- The structure was originally built to become the seat of the Patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church and remained so for approximately 900 years.
- In 1453, when Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II’s Ottoman forces, the Hagia Sophia was ransacked by the invading forces and turned into a mosque shortly after.
- For a long time, the Hagia Sophia was Istanbul’s most important mosque.
- The 1,500-year-old structure, listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site, was originally a cathedral before it was turned into a mosque.
What is the controversy about?
- In the 1930s, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, shut down the mosque and turned it into a museum in an attempt to make the country more secular.
- There have been calls for long from extremists groups to convert the Hagia Sophia back into a mosque.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Santhal Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Santhal Rebellion
Mains level: Tribal uprisings in colonial India
Covid-19 pandemic has led to the cancellation of annual public observance of Hul in Jharkhand.
Try this question from CSP 2018:
Q.After the Santhal uprising subsided, what was/ were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government?
- The territories called ‘Santhal Paraganas’ were created.
- It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Hul Divas
- Hul Divas is observed annually on June 30 in memory of tribals — Sidho and Kanhu Murmu — who led the Santhal Hul (rebellion) on June 30, 1855, at Bhognadih in Sahebganj district.
About Santhal Rebellion
- The Santhals of Rajmahal Hills resented the oppression by revenue officials, police, money-lenders, and landlords—in general, by the “outsiders’ (whom they called diku).
- The Santhals under Sido and Kanhu rose up against their oppressors, declared the end of the Company’s rule and asserted themselves independent in 1854.
- It was only in 1856 after extensive military operations that the situation was brought under control. Sido died in 1855, while Kanhu was arrested in 1866.
- A separate district of Santhal Parganas was created by the Government to pacify the Santhals.
Must read:
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Statistics Day and P.C. Mahalanobis
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PC Mahalanobis
Mains level: NA
Statistics Day will be celebrated today on 29th June 2020 to popularize the use of Statistics in everyday life and sensitize the public as to how Statistics helps in shaping and framing policies.
Try this question from CSP 2016:
A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of-
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Who was P.C. Mahalanobis?
- Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972) was an Indian scientist and statistician.
- He is best remembered for the Mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure, and for being one of the members of the first Planning Commission of free India.
- He made pioneering studies in anthropometry (the science of obtaining systematic measurements of the human body) in India.
- He founded the Indian Statistical Institute and contributed to the design of large-scale sample surveys.
- For his contributions, Mahalanobis has been considered the father of modern statistics in India.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
The spirit of ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’ in Indian History
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lal-Bal-Pal
Mains level: Swadeshi Movement and its pioneers
To commemorate the death centenary of Tilak, a Pune based NGO is set to revive the Independence-era spirit of the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’, named after nationalists Lala Lajpat Rai, ‘Lokmanya’ Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2010:
Q. What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement?
(a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon.
(b) A sentence of 18 months of rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak.
(c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab ColonizationBill.
(d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekarbrothers.
About Lal-Bal-Pal
- Lal Bal Pal was a triumvirate of assertive nationalists in British-ruled India in the early 20th century, from 1906 to 1918.
- They advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all imported items and the use of Indian-made goods in 1907 during the anti-Partition agitation in Bengal which began in 1905.
- The final years of the nineteenth century saw a radical sensibility emerge among some Indian intellectuals.
- This position burst onto the national all-India scene in 1905 with the Swadeshi movement – the term is usually rendered as “self-reliance” or “self-sufficiency”.
Their Legacy
- Lal-Bal-Pal mobilized Indians across the country against the Bengal partition, and the demonstrations, strikes and boycotts of British goods that began in Bengal soon spread to other regions in a broader protest against the Raj.
- The nationalist movement gradually faded with the arrest of its main leader Bal Gangadhar Tilak and retirement of Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh from active politics.
- While Lala Lajpat Rai suffered from injuries, due to British police superintendent, James A. Scott, ordered the British Indian police to lathi charge and personally assaulted Rai; he died on 17 November 1928.
Back2Basics:
Lala Lajpat Rai
- Born in undivided Punjab on 28 January 1865, Lala Lajpat Rai grew up in a family that allowed the freedom of faith.
- Even before he focused his efforts towards a self-sufficient India, Rai believed in the principle.
- In 1895, he started the Punjab National Bank—the first Indian bank to begin solely with Indian capital, and that continues to function till date.
- Rai had travelled to America in 1907 and immediately caught up similarities between the ‘colour-caste’ practised there and the caste system prevalent in India.
- In 1917, he even founded the Indian Home Rule League of America there.
- His proactive, brave participation in the protest earned him the title of the Lion of Punjab or Punjab Kesari.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak (23 July 1856 – 1 August 1920) was an Indian nationalist, teacher, and an independence activist
- In 1884, he founded the Deccan Education Society in Pune, and under the banner, opened the New English School for primary studies and Fergusson College for higher education.
- His involvement in the educational institutions was to emphasise on the cultural revival of young Indian minds.
- For the British, Tilak was the “Father of the Indian Unrest.”
- When the Indian National Congress was divided among moderates and extremes—the stand that each member took against the British government—there was no doubt which side Tilak supported.
- Literary works: Kesari and Maratha newspapers
Bipin Chandra Pal
- The father of revolutionary thoughts, Bipin Chandra Pal, was born to a wealthy family in Sylhet, Bengal Presidency (now in Bangladesh).
- Pal was a journalist by profession and often contributed to several newspapers.
- He used his literary expertise to write against the use of British goods, advocating Indians to start using Swadeshi goods instead.
- He was of a strong opinion that a mass reliance on Swadeshi goods would help people get rid of their poverty.
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Why Russia celebrates WWII triumph on a different date?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: WW2 and related stories
Raksha Mantri is on a three-day trip to Russia to attend the 75th Victory Day. India has sent a tri-services contingent to participate in the Victory Day Parade.
Try these questions from CS Mains:
Q.To what extent can Germany be held responsible for causing the two World Wars? Discuss critically. (CSM 2015)
Q.The New Economic Policy – 1921 of Lenin had influenced the policies adopted by India soon after independence. Evaluate. (CSM 2014)
What is Victory Day?
- Victory Day marks the end of World War II and the victory of the Allied Forces in 1945.
- Adolf Hitler had shot himself on April 30. On May 7, German troops surrendered, which was formally accepted the next day and came into effect on May 9.
- In most European countries, it is celebrated on May 8 and is called the Victory in Europe Day.
Why does Russia not celebrate Victory Day on the same date?
- The erstwhile Soviet Union had not wanted the surrender to take place in the west and wanted that such a significant event should reflect the contribution of the Red Army and the Soviet population.
- According to historians, Joseph Stalin, premier of the Soviet Union, wanted Germany to also sign surrender in Berlin.
- Since crowds were already gathering in London to celebrate, Victory in Europe Day celebration in Britain would take place on 8 May, as they did in the United States.
- This did not convince Stalin, who argued that Soviet troops were still fighting the German forces in many areas.
- German soldiers did not surrender in East Prussia, Courland Peninsula, Czechoslovakia till later. Hence victory celebration could therefore not begin in the Soviet Union even after May 9.
If May 9 is Victory Day, why is it being celebrated on June 24?
- This year, the celebrations this year were pushed to June because of the Covid-19 pandemic.
- After winning the war and having its own Victory Day on May 9, Stalin wanted to commemorate the victory with a military parade.
- On June 22, 1945, he ordered the commemoration of the victory over Germany to hold the victory parade on June 24, 1945, in Moscow’s Red Square.
- Hence the first Victory Day Parade took place on June 24 in Moscow. However, since then, the Parades have taken place on May 9.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
100 Years of Malabar Rebellion
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Malabar Rebellion 1921
Mains level: Peasants revolts in the colonial period
With the 1921 Malabar Rebellion turning 100 next year, several movies have been announced back-to-back.
Try this question from CSP 2015:
Q. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century?
(a.) Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation- of tribal products
(b.) Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas
(c.) Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas
(d.) The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities
What is the Malabar Rebellion?
- The Malabar Rebellion in 1921 started as resistance against the British colonial rule and the feudal system in southern Malabar but ended in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims.
- There were a series of clashes between Mappila peasantry and their landlords, supported by the British, throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries.
- It began as a reaction against a heavy-handed crackdown on the Khilafat Movement, a campaign in defence of the Ottoman Caliphate by the British authorities in the Eranad and Valluvanad taluks of Malabar.
- The Mappilas attacked and took control of police stations, British government offices, courts and government treasuries.
Also in news:
Variyankunna Kunjahammed Haji
- He was one of the leaders of the Malabar Rebellion of 1921.
- He raised 75000 natives, seized control of large territory from the British rule and set up a parallel government.
- In January 1922, under the guise of a treaty, the British betrayed Haji through his close friend Unyan Musaliyar, arresting him from his hideout and producing him before a British judge.
- He was sentenced to death along with his compatriots.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Sukapha: The founder of Ahom kingdom
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ahom Kingdom
Mains level: Not Much
Recently, Assam CM ordered the arrest of a political commentator who had described Chaolung Sukapha as a “Chinese invader”.
Practice question for mains:
Q. Who are the Ahoms? Describe the role of Ahom Kingdom in cultural assimilation of modern-day Assam.
Who was Chaolung Sukapha?
- Sukapha was a 13th-century ruler who founded the Ahom kingdom that ruled Assam for six centuries. Contemporary scholars trace his roots to Burma.
- He reached Brahmaputra valley in Assam from upper Burma in the 13th century with around 9,000 followers.
- Sukapha is said to have left a place called Maulung ( in Yunnan, China ) in AD 1215 with eight nobles and 9,000 men, women and children — mostly men.
- In 1235, Sukapha and his people settled in Charaideo in upper Assam after wandering about for years, defeating those who protested his advance and temporarily staying at different locations.
- It was in Charaideo (in Assam) that Sukapha established his first small principality, sowing the seeds of further expansion of the Ahom kingdom.
Who are the Ahoms today?
- The founders of the Ahom kingdom had their own language and followed their own religion.
- Over the centuries, the Ahoms accepted the Hindu religion and the Assamese language, scholars say.
- The Ahoms embraced the language, religion and rituals of the communities living here — they did not impose theirs on those living here.
- Today, the Ahom community is estimated to number between 4 million and 5 million.
Why is Sukapha important in Assamese culture?
- Sukapha’s significance — especially in today’s Assam — lies in his successful efforts towards the assimilation of different communities and tribes.
- He developed very amicable relationships with the tribal communities living here — especially the Sutias, the Morans and the Kacharis.
- Intermarriage also increased assimilation processes. He is widely referred to as the architect of “Bor Asom” or “greater Assam”.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Purandara Dasa and his legacy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Purandara Dasa
Mains level: Bhakti Saints of South India
The Department of Archaeology, Karnataka has commenced field research work regarding the birthplace of Purandara Dasa who is held as the father figure of Carnatic music.
Recently there was a news on Lord Basaveshwara. Now comes the other popular saint.
Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two most profound strands of Bhakti Movement in Indian history. Enlist all the Bhakti Saints and their theistic philosophy and teachings. Try to spot the minute differences between them.
Purandara Dasa
- Purandara Dasa (1484 –1565) was a Haridasa, a renowned composer of Carnatic music, a great devotee of the Supreme Lord Krishna, a Vaishnava poet, a saint and a social reformer.
- He was a disciple of the Dvaita philosopher-saint Vyasatirtha, and a contemporary of yet another Haridasa, Kanakadasa.
- He was a composer, singer and one of the chief founding-proponents of South Indian classical music (Carnatic music).
- In honour of his significant contributions to Carnatic music, he is widely referred to as the Pitamaha (lit. “father” or “grandfather”) of Carnatic music.
- He is respected as an Avatara (incarnation) of the great sage Narada (a celestial being who is also a singer).
Confusions over his birthplace
- As ‘Purandara Vithala’ was the pen name of his compositions, it was widely believed that the mystic poet was born in Purandar (near Pune), Maharashtra.
- However, many in Malnad claimed that he hailed from this region.
- According to historians, Araga in Malnad was a buzzing commercial centre during the Vijayanagar rule, the period to which the poet belonged to.
- Prior to his initiation to Haridasa tradition, Purandara Dasa was a rich merchant and was called as Srinivasa Nayaka.
Back2Basics: Bhakti Movement
- The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism.
- It originated in eighth-century south India and spread northwards.
- It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.
- It has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one’s birth or gender
- The salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Person in news: Ramkinkar Baij
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ramkinkar Baij and his artworks
Mains level: Modern artforms in India
Ministry of Culture’s has organised virtual tour titled “Ramkinkar Baij | Journey through silent transformation and expressions” to commemorate his 115th Birth Anniversary.
We can expect a description based question in prelims like-
Q. “In 1925, he made his way to Kala Bhavana, the art school at Santiniketan and was under the guidance of Nandalal Bose. Encouraged by the liberating, intellectual environment of (Tagore’s) Santiniketan, his artistic skills and intellectual horizons blossomed, thus acquiring greater depth and complexity. One of the earliest modernists in Indian art, he assimilated the idioms of the European modern visual language and yet was rooted in his own Indian ethos.”
Who is the imminent personality discussed?
Who was Ramkinkar Baij?
- Ramkinkar Baij (1906-1980), one of the most seminal artists of modern India, was an iconic sculptor, painter and graphic artist.
- He was born in Bankura, West Bengal, into a family of little economic and social standing and grew by his sheer determination into one of the most distinguished early modernists of Indian art.
- In 1925, he made his way to Kala Bhavana, the art school at Santiniketan and was under the guidance of Nandalal Bose.
- Encouraged by the liberating, intellectual environment of (Tagore’s) Santiniketan, his artistic skills and intellectual horizons blossomed, thus acquiring greater depth and complexity.
His works
- One of the earliest modernists in Indian art, he assimilated the idioms of the European modern visual language and yet was rooted in his own Indian ethos.
- His themes were steeped in a deep sense of humanism and an instinctive understanding of the symbiotic relationship between man and nature.
- Both in his paintings and sculptures, he pushed the limits of experimentation and ventured into the use of new materials.
- For instance, his use of unconventional material, for the time, such as cement concrete for his monumental public sculptures set a new precedent for art practices.
- The use of cement, laterite and mortar to model the figures, and the use of a personal style in which modern western and Indian pre-classical sculptural values were brought together was equally radical.
Popular recognition
- Although his work was passed over for quite a while, gradually it began to get both national and international attention.
- He was invited to participate in the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles in 1950 and in the Salon de Mai in 1951.
- In the national honours began to come his way one after the other.
- In 1970, the Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan for his irrefutable contribution to Indian art.
- In 1976 he was made a Fellow of the Lalit Kala Akademi.
- In 1976, he was conferred the honorary Doctoral Degree of ‘Desikottama’ by Visva Bharati, and in 1979 an honorary D. Litt by Rabindra Bharati University.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Person in news: Gopal Krishna Gokhale
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GK Gokhale
Mains level: Gokhale and his contribution in freedom struggle
The Prime Minister has paid tributes to Gopal Krishna Gokhale on his birth anniversary.
These days, personality-based prelims questions are quite prevalent.
Q.) He wrote biographies of Mazzini, Garibaldi, Shivaji and Shri Krishna; stayed in America for some time; and was also elected to the Central Assembly. He was – (CSP 2018)
a) Aurobindo Ghosh
b) Bipin Chandra Pal
c) Lala Lajpat Rai
d) Motilal Nehru
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915)
- Gokhale was a liberal political leader and a social reformer during the Freedom Movement.
- Gokhale was a senior leader of the Indian National Congress (INC) and the founder of the Servants of India Society.
- Through the Society as well as the Congress and other legislative bodies he served in, Gokhale campaigned for Indian self-rule and for social reforms.
Gokhale and INC
- Gokhale became a member of the INC in 1889, as a protégé of social reformer MG Ranade.
- He was the leader of the moderate faction of the Congress party that advocated reforms by working with existing government institutions.
Quest for political reforms
- Gokhale’s mentor, justice M.G. Ranade started the Sarvajanik Sabha Journal.
- Gokhale’s deposition before the Welby Commission on the financial condition of India won him accolades.
- He played a leading role in bringing about Morley-Minto Reforms (1909), the beginning of constitutional reforms in India.
Servants of India Society
- In 1905, when Gokhale was elected president of the INC and was at the height of his political power, he founded the Servants of India Society.
- It aimed to specifically further one of the causes dearests to his heart: the expansion of Indian education.
- The Society took up the cause of promoting Indian education in earnest, and among its many projects organised mobile libraries, founded schools, and provided night classes for factory workers.
Involvement in the government
- In 1899, Gokhale was elected to the Bombay Legislative Council.
- He was also elected to the Imperial Council of the Governor-General of India as a non-officiating member representing Bombay Province.
Mentor to Gandhi
- Gokhale was famously a mentor to Mahatma Gandhi in the latter’s formative years.
- In 1912, Gokhale visited South Africa at Gandhi’s invitation.
- As a young barrister, Gandhi returned from his struggles and received personal guidance from Gokhale, including a knowledge and understanding of India and the issues confronting common Indians.
- By 1931, Gandhi emerged as the leader of the Indian Independence Movement. In his autobiography, Gandhi calls Gokhale his mentor and guide.
His literary works
- In 1908, Gokhale founded the Ranade Institute of Economics.
- He started the English weekly newspaper, The Hitavad (The people’s paper).
- He also published a daily newspaper titled Jnanaprakash, which allowed him to voice his reformist views on politics and society.
With inputs from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopal_Krishna_Gokhale
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Florence Nightingale and her legacy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Florence Nightingale
Mains level: Not Much
The 200th birth anniversary of Florence Nightingale, founder of modern nursing, falls tomorrow on May 12.
Personality based questions sometimes find their way in the Prelims. For example:
Q) A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of – (CSP 2016)
(a) S. Ramanujan
(b) S. Chandrasekhar
(c) S. N. Bose
(d) C. V. Raman
Who was Florence Nightingale?
- Nightingale (1820-1910), who had considerable mathematical skills, is credited with being the first healthcare professional to use data to show that infection control improves health outcomes.
- Through her career, she stressed a practice that is relevant as ever today — handwashing.
Nurse and mathematician
- Her signature effort came during the Crimean War (1854-56), when she answered a government call for nurses and took a posting in Turkey.
- This is where she earned the name ‘Lady with the Lamp’, for walking around patients’ beds at night, holding a lamp. Here she did her pioneering work with statistics.
- When she arrived, diseases such as cholera and typhus were rife in the hospitals.
- Nightingale collected data, calculated the mortality rate, and showed that an improvement of sanitary methods would reduce the number of deaths.
- The mortality rate dropped from 60% to 42.7% by February 1855, and to 2.2% by the spring.
- She used her data to create graphics, the most famous of which is a polar area diagram (pictured) that used areas to represent variations in death rate.
- The blue wedges from the center of the circle represent area for the deaths from Preventable or Mitigable diseases, the red wedges measured from the center is deaths from wounds, & the black wedges measured from the center is the deaths from all other causes.
- The blue wedges, representing death by sickness, are far bigger than those representing wounds.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Attack on Pearl Harbor (1941)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: World History: Pearl Harbor Attack and its aftermath
US President Mr Trump has said the COVID-19 pandemic is a worse “attack” on the U.S. than either Pearl Harbor or 9/11.
Practice Question :
Discuss how the world order changed post Pearl Harbour attack with context to the US hegemony in Asia-Pacific.
Attack on Pearl Harbor
- The December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbour was among the most significant moments of the World War II.
- It signalled the official entry of the US into the hostilities, which eventually led to the dropping of nuclear bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.
- Significantly, in December 2016, Shinzo Abe became the first sitting Japanese Prime Minister to visit Pearl Harbour.
What led up to the attack on Pearl Harbour?
- Before Japan attacked Pearl Harbour in 1941, relations between the US and Japan were already worsening.
- In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and, in 1937, it invaded China, sending alarm bells ringing in the US and other Western powers about Japan’s manifest expansionist agenda.
- Between December 1937 and January 1938, an episode which is referred to as the “Nanking Massacre” or the “Rape of Nanking”, occurred — Japanese soldiers killed and raped Chinese civilians and combatants.
- Japanese historians estimate that anywhere between tens of thousands and 200,000 Chinese were killed.
- The US was against Japan’s aggression in China, and imposed economic sanctions and trade embargoes after its invasion.
Immediate causes
- Japan was reliant on imports for oil and other natural resources — this was one of the reasons why it invaded China and later French Indo-China (present-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia).
- The intention was to take control of the major Chinese ports to have access to resources such as iron, rubber, tin, and most importantly, oil.
- In July 1941, the US ceased exporting oil to Japan.
- Negotiations between the two countries ended with the “Hull Note”, the final proposal delivered to Japan by the US. Essentially, the US wanted Japan to withdraw from China without any conditions.
- Ultimately, the negotiations did not lead to any concrete results, following which Japan set its task for Pearl Harbour in the last week of November 1941.
- Japan considered the attack to be a preventive measure against the US interfering with Japan’s plans to carry out military operations in some parts of Southeast Asia.
What happened at Pearl Harbour?
- About 7.55 am on December 7, 1941, about 180 aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked the US Naval base at Pearl Harbour on the island of Oahu in Hawaii.
- The bombing killed over 2,300 Americans and destroyed the battleships USS Arizona and USS Oklahoma.
- Roughly 160 aircraft were destroyed, and 150 were damaged.
Impact on the US
- In the short term, the American naval presence in the Pacific was severely weakened.
- However, the Japanese had largely ignored the harbour’s infrastructure, and many of the damaged ships were repaired on-site and returned to duty.
- American opinion immediately shifted to favouring war with Japan, a course that would conclude with Japan’s unconditional surrender less than four years later.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
What is Cinco de Mayo and why is it celebrated?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cinco de Mayo , Battle of Puebla
Mains level: World History - Napoleonic assertion in Europe
Cinco de Mayo, or fifth of May in Spanish, also called Battle of Puebla Day, is an annual celebration observed in Mexico and the US that marks the former’s military victory on its soil over French forces in 1862.
Possible mains question:
Q. The French colonization attempts went beyond India and had a global reach. Comment.
French advent in Mexico
- In the 1860s, Mexico had been severely weakened by lengthy wars over the previous two decades – the Mexican-American War (1846-48) and the internal Reform War (1858-61).
- As a result, in 1861, the then President Benito Juárez announced a temporary moratorium of two years on repaying Mexico’s foreign debts.
- In response, troops from Britain, Spain, and France invaded Mexico, demanding reimbursement.
- By April 1862, Britain and Spain negotiated with Mexico and withdrew.
- France, which at the time was led by Emperor Napoleon III, decided to establish an empire in Mexican territories with the support of the local landowning classes.
- France also intended to curb US power in North America.
The Battle of Puebla
- In late 1861, a French fleet attacked the Mexican port of Veracruz on the country’s eastern coast and landed a large army that drove the Juárez government into retreat.
- As they moved from Veracruz to capital Mexico City, the French encountered stiff resistance from Mexican forces.
- At Puebla, over 100 km ahead of Mexico City, a poorly equipped and outnumbered Mexican force decisively defeated the advancing French troops on May 5, 1862, killing over a thousand.
- The event marked a significant political victory of Mexican republicans and President Juárez and helped establish a sense of national unity in the country.
Cinco de Mayo: Present-day significance
- In Puebla, Cinco de Mayo is celebrated annually with speeches, parades, and by reenacting episodes of the 1862 battle.
- The city today houses a museum dedicated to the battle, and the actual battlefield is maintained as a park.
- In the US, in the mid-20th century, the celebration became a way for immigrants from Mexico to express pride in their heritage.
- Later, Cinco de Mayo also became popular with other demographics in the country when the festivities were linked with Mexican alcoholic beverages.
- As the celebration assumed greater importance in the country, many have criticised the negative stereotypes of Mexicans that were perpetuated as a result, as well as the promotion of excessive drinking.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Significance of UK labor party’s remarks on Kashmir
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: India in Labour Party (UK) manifestos
Mains level: Not Much
The UK Labour party’s newly appointed leader Keir Starmer said Kashmir was a bilateral issue for India and Pakistan to resolve peacefully. These remarks were seen as an attempt to re-position his party’s stance on Kashmir and reach out to the Indian community in Britain.
What was the Labour party’s stance before?
- The party’s relations with the Indian diaspora have been strained, especially after its delegates passed an emergency policy motion in September 2019 criticizing India’s decision to revoke Article 370.
- It maintained that the people of Kashmir should have self-determination rights.
Why is the Labour Party’s relationship with the Indian diaspora important?
- Indians are the largest ethnic community in the UK, numbering over 1.5 million people or accounting for over 2.3 per cent of the country’s population.
- Therefore, they form a significant vote share for any party.
- In the 2017 general elections, 50 per cent of the Indians living in the UK had voted for Labour.
India in Labour Party (UK) manifestos
Over the years, issues relating to India have found various mention in many election manifestos in the UK:
- 1945: India’s freedom had been a campaign promise of the Labour party, its manifesto pledging “the advancement of India to responsible self-government”.
- 1947: The Indian Independence Act, 1947, was passed when Attlee was Prime Minister.
- 1949: all the Commonwealth Prime Ministers welcomed the free choice of India, Pakistan and Ceylon to join the Commonwealth as full and equal members.
- 2019: Issue a formal apology for the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Why May 1 is observed as Labour Day?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: The Haymarket incident, Singaravelu Chettiar, Self Respect Movement
Mains level: Labour reforms in India before and after independence
Today (May 1) is May Day, also known as International Workers’ Day and as Labour Day in different parts of the world. It is an occasion that commemorates the contributions of workers and the historic labour movement.
Personality based history question in the UPSC CSE prelims is on the way to become the new normal. Kindly note all such phenomena in the news which tend to invoke some aspects of the modern Indian history. You can find all such news here.
The Haymarket incident
- While observed as an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival, May 1 became associated with the labour movement in the late 19th century, after trade unions and socialist groups designated it as a day in support of workers.
- It was decided to do so in memory of the Haymarket affair of 1886, in Chicago in the United States, in which a peaceful rally in support of workers led to a violent clash with the police, leading to the deaths of 4 civilians and 7 police officers.
- Many of the agitationists, who were protesting workers’ rights violations, straining work hours, poor working conditions, low wages and child labour, were arrested and served terms of life imprisonment, death sentences, etc., and those who died were hailed as “Haymarket Martyrs”.
- The incident is believed to have given the workers’ movement a great impetus.
Linked to the Russian Revolution
- In 1889, The Second Communist International, an organisation created by socialist and labour parties, declared that May 1 would be commemorated as International Workers’ Day from then on.
- Finally, in 1916, the US began to recognise eight-hour work timings after years of protests and uprisings.
- In 1904, the International Socialist Congress at Amsterdam called on to demonstrate energetically on the First of May for the legal establishment of the 8-hour day.
- After the Russian Revolution in 1917, the celebration was embraced by the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc nations during the Cold War– becoming a national holiday in many of them.
- Parades were a part of the celebration– the one at Moscow’s Red Square was attended by top Communists leaders and displayed Soviet military might.
Indian Case
- In India, May Day was first celebrated on May 1, 1923, after the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan initiated and Comrade Singaravelar (Singaravelu Chettiar) helmed the celebrations.
- Chettiar was known for being one of the leaders of Self Respect Movement in the Madras Presidency and for his fight for the rights of backward classes.
- In one of his meetings, Chettiar passed a resolution stating the government should allow everybody a national holiday on Labour Day.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Who was Lord Basaveshwara?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lord Basaveshwara and his philosophy
Mains level: Six schools of Indian Philosophy
Prime Minister has offered his homage to the 12th-century social reformer Basaveshwara on his birth anniversary.
Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two most profound strands of Bhakti Movement in Indian history. Enlist all the Bhakti Saints and their theistic philosophy and teachings. Try to spot the minute differences between them.
Lord Basaveshwara
- Basaveshwara or Basavanna was an Indian 12th-century statesman, philosopher, a poet and Lingayat saint in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti movement and a social reformer in Karnataka.
- He lived during the reign of the Kalyani Chalukya/Kalachuri dynasty.
- He was active during the rule of both dynasties but reached his peak of influence during the rule of King Bijjala II in Karnataka, India .
Founder of Lingayat cult
- The traditional legends and hagiographic texts state Basava to be the founder of the Lingayats.
- However, modern scholarship relying on historical evidence such as the Kalachuri inscriptions state that Basava was the poet-philosopher who revived, refined and energized an already existing tradition.
His Philosophy
- Basava’s Lingayat theology was a form of qualified nondualism, wherein the individual Atman (soul) is the body of God, and that there is no difference between Shiva and Atman (self, soul).
- Basava’s views finds places in Vedanta school, in a form closer to the 11th century Vishishtadvaita philosopher Ramanuja.
Famous works
- Basavanna spread social awareness through his poetry, popularly known as Vachanaas.
- Basavanna rejected gender or social discrimination, superstitions and rituals but introduced Ishtalinga necklace, with an image of the Shiva Liṅga to every person regardless of his or her birth.
- As the chief minister of his kingdom, he introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”) which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic backgrounds.
Back2Basics: Bhakti Movement
- The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism.
- It originated in eighth-century south India and spread northwards.
- It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.
- It has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one’s birth or gender
- Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre and the Khudai Khidmatgars
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red Shirts, Khudai Khidmmatgars
Mains level: Various non-violent movements in the freedom struggle
- Qissa Khwani Bazaar is a renowned market place in the city of Peshawar.
- Before the Partition, the marketplace was also the site of a massacre perpetrated by British soldiers against non-violent protesters of the Khudai Khidmatgar movement on April 23, 1930.
We can expect a possible mains question inspired from this newscard. The question could be like- “Discuss the role of Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgar in infusing the Gandhian principle of non-violence in the Frontiers of India “.
The Red Shirts: Khudai Khidmatgars
- The Khudai Khidmatgar was a non-violent movement against the British occupation of the Indian subcontinent led by Abdul Ghaffar Khan, a Pashtuns freedom fighter, in the North-West Frontier Province.
- Over time, the movement acquired a more political colour, leading to the British taking notice of its growing prominence in the region.
- Following the arrest of Khan and other leaders in 1929, the movement formally joined the Indian National Congress after they failed to receive support from the All-India Muslim League.
- Members of the Khudai Khidmatgar were organised and the men stood out because of the bright red shirts they wore as uniforms, while the women wore black garments.
Why did the massacre happen?
- Abdul Ghaffar Khan and other leaders of the Khudai Khidmatgar were arrested on April 23, 1930 by British police after he gave a speech at a gathering in the town of Utmanzai in the North-West Frontier Province.
- A respected leader well-known for his non-violent ways, Khan’s arrest spurred protests in neighbouring towns, including Peshawar.
- Protests spilled into the Qissa Khwani Bazaar in Peshawar on the day of Khan’s arrest. British soldiers entered the market area to disperse crowds that had refused to leave.
- In response, British army vehicles drove into the crowds, killing several protesters and bystanders. British soldiers then opened fire on unarmed protestors, killing even more people.
- Historical records suggest the British attempted to deploy the Garhwal Regiment against the civilians in the marketplace, but two platoons of this respected regiment refused to shoot at unarmed protesters.
- In retaliation, British officials court-martialled the platoon members with upto eight years of imprisonment.
Aftermath of the massacre
- The British ramped up the crackdown on Khudai Khidmatgar leaders and members following the Qissa Khwani Bazaar massacre.
- In response, the movement began involving young women in its struggle against the British, a decision in line with tactics adopted by revolutionaries across undivided India.
- Women were able to move undetected with more ease than men.
- According to accounts by Khudai Khidmatgar activists, the British subjected members of the movement to harassment, abuse and coercive tactics adopted elsewhere in the subcontinent.
- This included physical violence and religious persecution. Following the recruitment of women in the movement, the British also engaged in violence, brutality and abuse of women members.
Khudai Khidmatgars gets wasted into history
- British adopted their tactic of sowing divisions on religious grounds in the North-West Frontier Province as well, in an attempt to weaken the Khudai Khidmatgar.
- In a move that surprised the British government, in August 1931, the Khudai Khidmatgar aligned themselves with the Congress party, forcing the British to reduce the violence they were perpetrated on the movement.
- The Khudai Khidtmatgar opposed Partition, a stance that many interpreted as the movement not being in favour of the creation of the independent nation of Pakistan.
- Post 1947, the Khudai Khidmatgar slowly found their political influence decreasing to such an extent that the movement and the massacre 90 years ago in the Bazaar has been wiped out from collective memory (of Pakistan).
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Ambedkar and the Poona Pact
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Poona Pact, Communal Award
Mains level: Read the attached story
Yesterday was the birth anniversary of Dr B.R. Ambedkar, the chief architect of our constitution. On that occasion, author of the news (originally published in TH) highlights the significance of Poona Pact in the formation of our Constitution.
The Poona Pact of 1932 is a landmark event in India’s struggle for independence. It marked the start of social justice movement in the country under the leadership of Dr. Ambedkar.
What is Poona Pact?
- In late September 1932, B.R. Ambedkar negotiated the Poona Pact with Mahatma Gandhi.
- The background to the Poona Pact was the Communal Award of August 1932, which, among other things, reserved 71 seats in the central legislature for the depressed classes.
- The Award was made by then British PM Ramsay MacDonald on 16 August 1932 to extended separate electorate.
- It aimed to grant separate electorates in British India for the Forward Caste, Lower Caste, Muslims, Buddhists, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans and then Untouchables.
- Gandhi, who was opposed to the Communal Award, saw it as a British attempt to split Hindus, and began a fast unto death to have it repealed.
How Poona Pact defeated the Communal Award?
- Reserved seats: In a settlement negotiated with Gandhi, Ambedkar agreed for depressed class candidates to be elected by a joint electorate.
- More representation: On his insistence, slightly over twice as many seats (147) were reserved for the depressed classes in the legislature than what had been allotted under the Communal Award.
- Doors opened for Public Services: In addition, the Poona Pact assured a fair representation of the depressed classes in the public services while earmarking a portion of the educational grant for their uplift.
- Social acceptance: The Poona Pact was an emphatic acceptance by upper-class Hindus that the depressed classes constituted the most discriminated sections of Hindu society.
- Increased political say: It was also conceded that something concrete had to be done to give them a political voice as well as a leg-up to lift them from backwardness they could not otherwise overcome.
Significance of the pact
- The concessions agreed to in the Poona Pact were precursors to the world’s largest affirmative programme launched much later in independent India.
- It would also not have been lost on him that Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with the separatist tendencies strongly backing him, was watching and waiting to take advantage of the evolving situation.
- A slew of measures was initiated later to uplift Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Major outcomes
- The Poona Pact emphatically sealed Ambedkar’s leadership of the depressed classes across India.
- He made the entire country, and not just the Congress Party, morally responsible for the uplift of the depressed classes.
- Most of all he succeeded in making the depressed classes a formidable political force for the first time in history.
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Who are the Nihangs?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nihang cult
Mains level: Not Much
The Patiala incident in which a group of Nihangs attacked a Punjab police officer has put the spotlight on the Nihangs.
This newscard focuses on Nihang cult of Sikhism. Though in news for a different purpose, it is significant for prelims.
Who is a Nihang?
- Nihang is an order of Sikh warriors, characterized by blue robes, antiquated arms such as swords and spears, and decorated turbans surmounted by steel quoits.
- Etymologically the word Nihang stems more from the Sanskrit word nihshank which means without fear, unblemished, pure, carefree and indifferent to worldly gains and comfort.
- The word Nihang also occurs in a hymn in the Guru Granth Sahib, where it alludes to a fearless and unrestrained person.
When was the order formed?
- Formation of Nihang order can be traced back to the creation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.
How were Nihangs different from other Sikhs, and other Sikh warriors?
- As per an account by the East India Company’s Colonel James Skinner (1778-1841), Khalsa Sikhs were divided into two groups.
- Those who put on blue attire which Guru Gobind Singh used to wear at the time of battle and those who do not follow any restrictions on the colour of their dress.
- Both of them follow the profession of soldiery and are brave without peer in the art of musketry and chakarbazi, and the use of quoits.
- Nihangs observe the Khalsa code of conduct in its strictest sense.
- They do not profess any allegiance to an earthly master. Instead of saffron they hoist a blue Nishan Sahib (flag) atop their shrines.
What is their role in history?
- Nihangs had a major role in defending the Sikh panth after the fall of the first Sikh rule (1710-15) when Mughal governors were killing Sikhs, and during the onslaught of Afghan invader Ahmed Shah Durrani (1748-65).
- Nihangs also took control of the religious affairs of the Sikhs at Akal Takht in Amritsar.
- They did not consider themselves subordinate to any Sikh chief and thus maintained their independent existence.
- At Akal Takht, they held the grand council (Sarbat Khalsa) of Sikhs and pronounced the resolution (Gurmata) passed.
- During Operation Bluestar in June 1984, some Nihangs, namely Ajit Singh Poohla, collaborated with the Punjab police to eliminate militants.
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What is Windrush Scandal?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Windrush Generation
Mains level: Windrush Scandal
The British government has apologised for its treatment of Britons of Caribbean origin, which were wrongly detained or deported for being illegal immigrants, after the publication of a devastating official report.
What is the scandal?
- The Windrush scandal is a 2018 British political scandal concerning people who were wrongly detained, denied legal rights, threatened with deportation, and, in at least 83 cases wrongly deported from the UK.
- Many of those affected had been born British subjects and had arrived in the UK before 1973, particularly from Caribbean countries as members of the “Windrush generation”.
- As well as those who were wrongly deported, an unknown number were wrongly detained, lost their jobs or homes, or were denied benefits or medical care to which they were entitled.
- A number of long-term UK residents were wrongly refused re-entry to the UK, and a larger number were threatened with immediate deportation by the Home Office.
- The scandal also prompted a wider debate about British immigration policy and Home Office practice.
Windrush Generation
- The Windrush generation is named after one of the many vessels that ferried some half a million people from the Caribbean islands to the U.K. in the late 1940s.
- The “Empire Windrush” ship had brought one of the first groups of West Indian migrants to the UK in 1948.
- The generation refers to migrants from the Caribbean Commonwealth who had come to the U.K. at a time when they had the right to remain indefinitely in Britain but had had their rights questioned under a toughened immigration regime.
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Persons in news: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sheikh Mujib and his legacy
Mains level: NA
March 17 is the birth anniversary of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (1920-1975), the founding leader of Bangladesh and the country’s first Prime Minister.
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
- Before joining politics, Rahman studied law and political science in Kolkata and Dhaka and agitated for Indian independence.
- He is referred to as Sheikh Mujib or simply Mujib, the title ‘Bangabandhu’ meaning ‘friend of Bengal’.
- In 1949, he joined the Awami League, a political party which advocated greater autonomy for East Pakistan.
- A popular leader in East Pakistan, Rahman played an important role in the six-point movement and the Anti-Ayub movement.
Role in Bangladesh liberation
- In 1970, his party secured an absolute majority in the Pakistani general elections; the country’s first, winning more seats than all parties in West Pakistan, including Zulfikar Ali Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s Party.
- The election results were not honoured; leading to a bloody civil war, and Sheikh Mujib declared Bangladesh’s independence from Pakistan on March 26, 1971.
- The declaration coincided with a ruthless show of strength by the Pakistani military, in which tanks rolled out on the streets of Dhaka and several students and intellectuals were killed.
- India under then PM Indira Gandhi provided full support to Rahman and Bangladesh’s independence movement, resulting in the creation of a sovereign government at Dhaka in January 1971.
His legacy
- Rahman, who had been arrested and taken to West Pakistan, returned to Bangladesh after being freed in January 1972.
- For the next three years, Rahman held the new country’s prime ministerial post, and became a celebrated icon in India as well, admired for his moving speeches and charismatic personality.
- On 15 August 1975, Rahman was killed in a military coup along with his wife and three sons, including 10-year-old Sheikh Russel.
- His daughters, the current Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina and her younger sister Sheikh Rehana, survived as they were abroad at the time.
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Pyramid of Djoser
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pyramid of Djoser
Mains level: NA
Last week, Egypt reopened the Pyramid of Djoser, the first pyramid ever built, after a 14-year restoration. The structure is believed to be designed by Imhotep, described by some as the first architect of the world.
The Pyramid of Djoser
- The 4,700-year-old pyramid is 60 metres tall, and consists of six stacked steps over a burial shaft tomb 28 metres deep and seven metres wide.
- It is located at the Saqqara archaeological site, 24 km southwest of Cairo, outside the royal capital of Memphis. A complex of halls and courts is located around the pyramid.
- It is the world’s oldest monumental stone building.
- Today a UNESCO world heritage site, the pyramid was constructed during the era of Pharaoh Djoser, the second king of Ancient Egypt’s Third Dynasty (2650 BC– 2575 BC).
- The Pharaoh’s 19-year reign saw significant technical innovations in stone architecture.
- The pyramid’s architect, Imhotep, was also a physician and astrologer, and served as Djoser’s minister.
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Who were the Marakkars?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marakkars
Mains level: Various conquests during colonial expansion
The big-budget Malayalam film Marakkar: The Lion of the Arabian Sea is set to be released. It is a war film depicting the heroics of the Marakkar clan, whose leaders were naval chieftains of the Zamorin of Calicut during the 16th and 17th centuries.
Who were the Marakkars?
- By some accounts, they were of Arab origin and had migrated from Tunisia to Panthalayani near Koyilandy in present-day Kozhikode, and later moved to the region around present-day Kottakkal and Thikkodi near Payyoli.
- By other accounts, the Marakkars were descendants of affluent businessman from the Cochin kingdom who migrated later to Calicut.
- Historians say the name ‘Marakkar’ could have originated from maram or marakkalam, meaning ship, as these families lived along the coast and used ships.
- Alternatively, it could have originated from the Arabic word markaba, meaning those who migrated via ships.
- The Marakkars were mostly Muslims, but in some parts, they have been found to be Hindus as well.
What was the war against the Portuguese about?
- The Zamorin, Samoothiri in Malayalam, was the title given to rulers of the Calicut kingdom on the Malabar coast.
- Faced with invading Portuguese ships, the Zamorin reached out to the Marakkars to defend the coast. The Marakkars fought against Portuguese invaders for nearly a century.
- They were led in succession by four Marakkars, chief admirals who were appointed by the Zamorin with the title of Kunjali.
- Related by bloodline, they were Kuttyali Marakkar (Kunjali Marakkar I, appointed in 1507), Kutty Pokker (Kunjali Marakkar II), Pathu Marakkar (Kunjali Marakkar III) and Muhammad Ali Marakkar (Kunjali Marakkar IV, appointed in 1595).
- Their strategy was similar to guerrilla warfare. The Portuguese had massive ships which could not make easy manoeuvres in the sea.
- The Marakkars used small ships which could easily surround the Portuguese ships, enabling the fighters to attack at will.
Who is depicted the ‘Lion of the Arabian Sea’?
- Kunjali Marakkar IV earned his reputation with his fierce onslaught on Portuguese ships, the favours he gave those who fought against the Portuguese, and his efforts to strengthen the fort at Kottakkal.
- When he took charge in 1595, relations between the Zamorin and the Marakkars were deteriorating.
- The Zamorin was feeling threatened by Kunjali Marakkar IV’s popularity, and by reports (said to be spread by the Portuguese) that he was planning to create a Muslim empire.
- In 1597, the Zamorin signed a peace treaty with the Portuguese and attacked Kottakkal fort. For months, the Marakkars resisted the attack by the Zamorin’s Nair soldiers and the Portuguese fleet.
- Eventually, as Portugal sent more forces and the Zamorin mounted his effort, Marakkar surrendered to the Zamorin on the assurance that their lives would be spared. But the Portuguese violated the terms, arrested him, took him to Goa and beheaded him.
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Persons in news: Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Amrit Kaur
Mains level: Not Much
Former PM Indira Gandhi and freedom fighter Rajkumari Amrit Kaur are mentioned in TIME magazine’s list of the 100 most powerful women who defined the last century in a new project that aims to feature those women who were “often overshadowed”.
Who was Amrit Kaur?
- Amrit Kaur was the first woman in independent India who joined the Cabinet as the Health Minister and remained in that position for 10 years.
- Born into the Kapurthala royal family, she was educated in Oxford and returned to India in 1918, and began to be drawn towards the work and teachings of MK Gandhi.
Her contributions
- Before taking up the position of a Health Minister, Kaur was Mahatma Gandhi’s secretary.
- During these 10 years, she founded the Indian Council for Child Welfare.
- She also laid the foundation of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) and Lady Irwin College in Delhi in the following years.
- Apart from joining the nationalist freedom struggle, Kaur also began work on a number of other social and political issues such as the purdah system, child marriage and the Devadasi system.
- She passed away in 1964, at the age of 75.
Role in the freedom struggle
- In 1936, hoping that more women would join the freedom struggle, Gandhiji invited her.
- In the following years, as Kaur started interacting with other freedom fighters such as Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mahatma Gandhi, she gave up her princely comforts and began to discipline herself by responding to the Gandhian call.
- When the civil disobedience movement took off in the 1930s, Kaur dedicated her life to it.
- Kaur was jailed after the Quit India movement and carried to the jail a spinning wheel, the Bhagwat Gita and the Bible.
- Further, while Kaur advocated for equality, she was not in favour of reservations for women and believed that universal adult franchise would open the doors for women to enter into the legislative and administrative institutions of the country.
- In light of this, she believed that there was no place left for reservation of seats.
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Biju Patnaik: The flying ace who helped Indian and foreign freedom movements
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biju Patnaik
Mains level: Not Much
Recently, 104th birth anniversary of former Odisha chief minister Biju Patnaik was celebrated. He was a decorated freedom fighter. PM tweeted an Intelligence Bureau document from 1945 to show how Patnaik bravely lent his flying skills to rescue freedom fighters like Ram Manohar Lohia.
Biju Pattnaik
- Bijayananda Patnaik (1916-1997), popularly known as Biju Patnaik, was an Indian politician, aviator and businessman. As politician, he served twice as the Chief Minister of the State of Odisha.
- It is well known that Biju Patnaik actively helped freedom fighters in the 1940s.
- His daring was evident as he actively joined the Quit India movement in 1942 and collaborated with the underground leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asif Ali and Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia, even while in the British service.
- Patnaik was imprisoned by the British Government for three years later.
Role in foreign freedom struggles
- As an officer in the Royal Indian Air Force in the early 1940s, Patnaik flew innumerable sorties to rescue British families fleeing the Japanese advance on Rangoon, the capital of Burma.
- He also dropped arms and supplies to Chinese troops fighting the Japanese and later to the Soviet army struggling against Hitler’s onslaught near Stalingrad.
- On the 50th anniversary of the end of the war, Patnaik was honoured by the Russians for his help,” the obit noted.
- Interestingly, Nehru entrusted Patnaik with rescuing Indonesian resistance fighters who were fighting their Dutch colonisers.
- Accompanied by wife Gyanwati, “the lanky pilot flew an old Dakota aircraft to Singapore en route to Jakarta where the rebels were entrenched” in 1948.
- Dodging the Dutch guns, he entered Indonesian airspace and landed on an improvised airstrip near Jakarta.
- Using left-over fuel from abandoned Japanese military dumps, Patnaik took off with prominent rebels, including Sultan Shariyar and Achmad Sukarno, for a secret meeting with Nehru at New Delhi.
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[pib] India’s nominations for 2020 World Heritage List
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Heritage Sites
Mains level: Not Much
Government of India has submitted two nomination dossiers namely ‘Dholavira: A Harappan City’ and ‘Monuments and Forts of Deccan Sultanate’ for inclusion in the World Heritage List for the year 2020. Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has submitted the proposal of ‘Group of Monuments at Mandu’ in the year 2019.
What are World Heritage Sites?
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
- Recently, its 42nd meeting in 2018 was held in Manama Bahrain.
Also read:
https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/pib-india-gets-its-37th-unesco-world-heritage-site/
https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/jaipur-gets-unesco-world-heritage-tag/
https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/orchha-on-unesco-world-heritage-sites-tentative-list/
Read more about the Tentative lists from India at:
http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/IN
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Taj Mahal Complex
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Taj Mahal
Mains level: Conservation of historical monuments
The Taj Mahal complex has been spruced up for the visit of US President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania Trump.
About Taj
- The Taj Mahal is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the city of Agra.
- It was commissioned in 1632 by Shah Jahan (reigned from 1628 to 1658) to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal; it also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan himself.
- The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall.
- The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million rupees, which in 2015 would be approximately 52.8 billion rupees (U.S. $827 million).
- The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by the court architect to the emperor, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri.
- The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being “the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world’s heritage”.
Various threats to Taj
- The Supreme Court had earlier expressed concern over the marble of the Taj changing colour, and asked how the white marble, which had first become yellowish, was now turning brownish and greenish.
- Firstly, the polluting industries and the vehicular emissions in the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ) area are a major source of pollution.
- The second reason is that the Yamuna River, which flows behind the Taj, has become highly polluted.
- There is no aquatic life in it, and has caused insect and algae infestation on the Taj Mahal and other monuments situated on its banks.
Use of mud packs
- Increasing pollution in the air over the Gangetic Valley affecting the Taj has been a reason for concern for archaeologists and conservationists for long now.
- Mud packs were applied on the surface of the monument first in 1994, and then again in 2001, 2008, and, most recently, beginning 2014.
- Mud packs have been one of the ASI’s favoured ways to remove the yellow stains that have appeared over the years on the Taj Mahal’s white marble facade.
- The clay is applied in the form of a thick paste that absorbs the grime, grease and bird droppings on the marble, before being washed off using distilled water.
- The process is slow and tortuous, but is believed to leave the marble cleaner and shinier.
- The intricate parts are applied with special “multani mitti’ (Fuller’s clay) treatment.
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In news: 1946 Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: RIN Mutiny
Mains level: Significance of the Mutiny
Seventy-four years ago on February 18, 1946, some 1,100 Indian sailors or “ratings” of the HMIS Talwar and the Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Signal School in Bombay declared a hunger strike, triggered by the conditions and treatment of Indians in the Navy.
RIN Mutiny
- A “slow down” the strike was also called, which meant that the ratings would carry out their duties slowly.
- The morning after February 18, somewhere between 10,000-20,000 sailors joined the strike, as did shore establishments in Karachi, Madras, Calcutta, Mandapam, Visakhapatnam, and the Andaman Islands.
- One of the triggers for the RIN strike was the arrest of a rating, BC Dutt, who had scrawled “Quit India” on the HMIS Talwar.
- The day after the strike began, the ratings went around Bombay in lorries, waving the Congress flag, and getting into scraps with Europeans and policemen who tried to confront them.
Their demands
While the immediate trigger was the demand for better food and working conditions, the agitation soon turned into a wider demand for independence from British rule. The protesting sailors demanded:
- release of all political prisoners including those from Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose’s Indian National Army (INA),
- action against the commander for ill-treatment and using insulting language,
- revision of pay and allowances to put RIN employees on a par with their counterparts in the Royal Navy,
- demobilisation of RIN personnel with provisions for peacetime employment,
- release of Indian forces stationed in Indonesia, and better treatment of subordinates by their officers
Upsurge of nationalism
- The RIN strike came at a time when the Indian nationalist sentiment had reached fever pitch across the country.
- The winter of 1945-46 saw three violent upsurges: in Calcutta in November 1945 over the INA trials; in February 1946, also in Calcutta, over the sentencing of INA officer Rashid Ali; and, in that same month, the ratings’ uprise in Bombay.
- This chain of events led to the “mounting fever of excitement affecting the whole political climate”.
- Soon, ordinary people joined the ratings, and life came to a virtual standstill in both Bombay and Calcutta. There were meetings, processions, strikes, and hartals.
- In Bombay, labourers participated in a general strike called by the Communist Party of India and the Bombay Students’ Union. In many cities across India, students boycotted classes in solidarity.
- The response of the state was brutal. It is estimated that over 220 people died in police firing, while roughly 1,000 were injured.
Significance of the events
- The RIN revolt remains a legend today. It was an event that strengthened further the determination among all sections of the Indian people to see the end of British rule.
- Deep solidarity and amity among religious groups was in evidence, which appeared to run counter to the rapidly spreading atmosphere of commuanal hatred and animosity.
- However, communal unity was more in the nature of organisational unity than a unity among the two major communities.
- Within months, India was to be devoured by a terrible communal conflagration.
Final nail in the coffin
- This revolt was different from the other revolts in the sense that, after 1857 it was the first time that the British realized that the Royal Indian forces were no more obedient to the British commands and were in concurrence with the overall defiant nationalist sentiments prevailing in the entire country.
- Mutinies are usually confined to a particular station, establishment or ship. However, this was the first instance when the entire service joined the revolt.
- Most striking feature was that it was directed against the British government and not against superior officers – not a single officer, British or Indian, was harmed.
- Fearless action by the masses was an expression of militancy in the popular mind. Revolt in the armed forces had a great liberating effect on the minds of people.
- It displayed that the armed forces no longer obeyed the British authority rather it was the nationalist leaders who held sway over them. The RIN revolt was seen as an event marking the end of British rule.
Aftermath
- The leaders realized that any mass uprising would inevitably carry the risk of not being amenable to centralized direction and control. Besides, now that independence and power were in sight, they were eager not to encourage indiscipline in the armed forces.
- It was immediately after this revolt that PM Atlee dispatched the Cabinet Mission to India, so it is also inferred that the mutiny hastened the process of transfer of power to India.
- It is also important to mention that the revolt came to an end after the nationalist leaders, Sardar Patel and Mohammad Ali Jinnah on receiving a request to intervene by the British, issued a statement calling upon the mutineers to surrender.
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Battle of Çanakkale/Gallipoli
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Battle of Çanakkale/Gallipoli
Mains level: Paper 1: World History
India issued a strong demarche to Turkey over its outspoken President Erdogan’s comments in Pakistan. Erdogan has criticised India’s policy in Jammu and Kashmir and compared it with that of Turkey during World War I.
Gallipoli campaign
- The Battle of Çanakkale, also known as the Gallipoli campaign or the Dardanelles campaign, is considered to be one of the bloodiest of World War I, during which the Ottoman army faced off against the Allied forces, leading to the slaughter of tens of thousands of soldiers on both sides.
- In March 1915, with the war in Europe stalemated in the trenches, Winston Churchill, then Britain’s First Lord of the Admiralty, devised a plan to take control of the Dardanelles.
- The plan was to capture strategic strait connecting the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, and thus reach Constantinople (today’s Istanbul) at the mouth of the Bosporus.
- By taking Constantinople, the Allies hoped to break the Turks, who had recently entered the war on the side of Germany.
The massacre
- The Allies carried out a heavy naval bombardment of Turkish forts along the shores of the Dardanelles, and when that failed, followed up with what was the biggest amphibious landing in military history at the time.
- However, what the British and their allies had hoped would be the turning point in the war ended up as a catastrophe.
- In the nine months upto January 1916, when the Allies called off the campaign and evacuated, more than 40,000 British soldiers had been killed, along with 8,000 Australians. On the Turkish side, some 60,000 had perished.
Legacy of the battle
- The battle resulted in a demotion for Churchill and the emergence on the Turkish side of the young military hero, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
- But the legacy of Gallipoli goes far beyond its military aspects — the event is today one of the central pillars of the modern Turkish identity.
- The campaign is also seen to have seeded Australian and New Zealand national consciousness — April 25, the anniversary of the Gallipoli landings, is observed as ANZAC Day, the day of national remembrance for the war dead.
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Erstwhile State of Rampur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: State of Rampur
Mains level: Post independence consolidation and reorganization
Erstwhile royals of the state of Rampur in Uttar Pradesh are fighting over the assets and legacy of Nawab Raza Ali Khan, who acceded to the Indian Union at the time of Independence. The Supreme Court ended India’s longest-running civil dispute last year, and the process of evaluating the inheritance is currently ongoing.
The state of Rampur
- The state of Rampur was founded by Nawab Ali Muhammad Khan, the adopted son of Sardar Daud Khan, the chief of the Rohillas in Northern India.
- The Rohillas were Afghans who entered India in the 18th century as the Mughal Empire was in decline, and took control of Rohilkhand, at the time known as Katehr.
- In 1737, Nawab Muhammad Khan received the territory of Katehr from Emperor Muhammad Shah, only to lose everything to Nawab Wazir of Oudh in 1746.
- Two years later, he assisted Ahmad Shah Durrani in his conquest of India, recovering all his former possessions.
- Over the next two centuries the Rampur royals, earlier a warring clan, struck deep roots, and with the blessings of the British, began to build one of the richest principalities in the country.
Patrons of the arts, culture
- The Rampur royals have played an important role in the socio-cultural history of the Ganga-Yamuna belt.
- They run the Amir Raza library in Rampur, once known as the official darbar of the Nawab, which is home to some 15,000 manuscripts in Arabic, Urdu, Persian and Turkish, as well as a seventh-century Quran.
- The library also houses 2,500 specimens of Islamic calligraphy, 5,000 miniature paintings, and 60,000 printed books, besides the extremely rare Persian translation of Valmiki’s Ramayana, which is believed to have been Emperor Aurangzeb’s personal copy.
- In the 19th century, the royals established courts of law and a standing army, and built irrigation works. In the 20th century, they set up sugar and textile mills.
- Many Hindus were employed in senior administrative positions in the state. Nawab Raza Ali Khan was known to have written poetry in Bhojpuri for Holi.
- The Rampur court was also a great patron of the arts, and is known to have patronised Ghalib and Begum Akhtar, as well as the tabla player Ahmad Jan Thirakwa, sarangi player Bundu Khan, sarod player Fida Hussein Khan, been player Wazir Khan, and the kathak dancers Acchan Maharaj and Kalka Prasad.
After Independence
- Rampur, under Nawab Raza Ali, was the first kingdom to accede to India in 1949, becoming the only Muslim-majority district in Uttar Pradesh.
- Soon after accession, the Nawab handed over the official royal residence, the Rampur Qila or Fort, built in 1775, to the Indian government, along with several other properties.
- In return, the Indian government bestowed two key rights to the Nawab — he was granted full ownership of the properties, and guaranteed succession to the gaddi or rulership of the state based on customary law, which gave exclusive property rights to the eldest son.
- When Raza Ali Khan died in 1966, he had three wives, three sons, and six daughters.
- His eldest son Murtaza Ali Khan succeeded him as head of the state, as per custom.
- The government recognised him as the sole inheritor of all his father’s private properties and issued a certificate to this effect. But his brother challenged this in the civil court.
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Person in news: Dara Shikoh
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Dara Shikoh and his legacy
Mains level: Secular trends in Mughal Administration
The Ministry of Culture recently set up a panel of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to locate the grave of the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh (1615-59) nearby Humayun’s Tomb complex in Delhi.
Dara Shikoh’s legacy
- The eldest son of Shah Jahan, Dara Shikoh was killed after losing the war of succession against his brother Aurangzeb.
- Dara Shikoh is described as a “liberal Muslim” who tried to find commonalities between Hindu and Islamic traditions.
- He translated into Persian the Bhagavad Gita as well as 52 Upanishads.
Antithesis to Aurangzeb
- Some historians argue that if Dara Shikoh had ascended the Mughal throne instead of Aurangzeb, it could have saved thousands of lives lost in religious clashes.
- Dara Shukoh was the total antithesis of Aurangzeb, in that he was deeply syncretic, warm-hearted and generous — but at the same time, he was also an indifferent administrator and ineffectual in the field of battle.
The remains of Dara Shikoh
- According to the Shahjahannama, after Aurangzeb defeated Dara Shikoh, he brought the latter to Delhi in chains.
- His head was cut off and sent to Agra Fort, while his torso was buried in the Humayun’s Tomb complex.
- Italian traveller Niccolao Manucci gave a graphic description of the day in Travels of Manucci, as he was there as a witness to the whole thing. That is the basis of the thesis.
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Conservation plan for Konark Sun Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Konark Sun Temple
Mains level: Temple architecture of India
A plan to restore and preserve the nearly 800-year-old Konark Sun Temple in Odisha would be drawn up soon. Among the potential choices before the government would be to fill in more sand or to remove all the sand andput in place alternate support.
Konark Sun Temple
- Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century CE Sun temple at Konark about 36 kilometres northeast from Puri on the coastline of Odisha, India.
- The temple is attributed to king Narasinga Deva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250 CE.
- Dedicated to the Hindu Sun God Surya, what remains of the temple complex has the appearance of a 100-foot (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved from stone.
- Once over 200 feet (61 m) high, much of the temple is now in ruins, in particular the large shikara tower over the sanctuary; at one time this rose much higher than the mandapa that remains.
- The structures and elements that have survived are famed for their intricate artwork, iconography, and themes, including erotic kama and mithuna scenes.
- Also called the Surya Devalaya, it is a classic illustration of the Odisha style of Architecture or Kalinga Architecture.
- Declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984 it remains a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, who gather here every year for the Chandrabhaga Mela around the month of February.
Earlier restoration efforts
- It had been filled with sand and sealed by the British authorities in 1903 in order to stabilize the structure, a/c to ASI.
- A scientific study was carried out by the Roorkee-based Central Building Research Institute from 2013 till 2018 to ascertain the temple’s structural stability as well as the status of the filled-in sand.
- The sand filled in over 100 years ago had settled, leading to a gap of about 17 feet. However the structure was found to be stable.
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Kumbhabishegam at Brahadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Brahadeeswarar Temple
Mains level: Temple Architecture
- Tens of thousands of pilgrims thronged Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu’s Cauvery delta to witness the Kumbhabishegam (consecration) ceremony at the Sri Brahadeeswarar Temple.
- This enormously significant event was held after 23 years — and after the Madras High Court had settled an old argument over the ritual purification process only five days previously.
- The judgment delivered by the Madurai Bench of the court addressed the struggle for supremacy between the Sanskrit and Tamil traditions.
Sri Brahadeeswarar Temple and Kumbhabishegam ceremony
- The Sri Brahadeeswarar Temple (also spelt Brihadisvara, and called Peruvudaiyar Koyil, which translates simply to ‘Big Temple’) is the most famous of the many temples in Thanjavur.
- The temple, one of the world’s largest and grandest, was built between 1003 AD and 1010 AD by the great Chola emperor Raja Raja I (c. 985-1014 AD).
Before the High Court
- The court, in a dispute over which language should be used in the slokas at the kumbhabishegam, agreed with the state government’s affidavit that the ceremony should be in both Sanskrit and Tamil.
- The Temple committee had demanded that the Kumbhabishegam should be held only in Tamil.
- The court ruled the choice to be vested with the devotees to seek for their archanas to be performed at their wishes by chanting the manthras either in Tamil or in Sanskrit.
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Poets quoted in Budget Speech
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Mains level: Not Much
Finance Minister has quoted four poets in her Budget speech: Pt. Dinanath Nadim, Avvaiyar, Thiruvalluvar and Kalidas, a sweep from Tamil Nadu to Kashmir, from ancient to contenporary India.
Dinanath Nadim
- The Kashmiri nationalist poet Dinanath Nadim was at the centre of Kashmir’s progressive movement, especially in the 1930s, 40s and 50s.
- Nadim was born in 1916, and passed away in 1988. Nadim wrote in Kashmiri, Hindi and Urdu, and inspired a powerful tradition of Kashmiri poetry.
- Nadim received the Sahitya Akademi award in 1986 for his opera Shuhul Kull (The Shady Tree).
- Among his other well known works are Vitasta (Jhelum River), Safar Taa Shehjaar (The Journey And The Shade), Heemaal Taa Naaegrai (Heemaal and Naagraaj), and Bombur Taa Yamberzal (The Bumble Bee And The Narcissus Flower).
Avvaiyar
- Avvaiyar translates to “Respected Woman”, and the title was used by several woman poets who contributed to Tamil literature during different periods of time.
- In the Budget’s section on “Aspirational India”, Sitharaman said, “Our government shall encourage balanced use of all kinds of fertilizers including the traditional organic and other innovative fertilizers.
- This is a necessary step to change the prevailing incentive regime, which encourages excessive use of chemical fertilisers.”
- She quoted from Aaathichoodi’s verse 81 which translate to “first tend to till one’s land and then eat. One must eat only after work.”
Thiruvalluvar
- Thiruvalluvar is fondly referred to as Valluvar by Tamils. His ‘Tirukkural’, a collection of 1,330 couplets (‘kurals’ in Tamil), are an essential part of every Tamil household.
- It holds importance in the same way the Bhagavad Gita or the Ramayana are in traditional North Indian Hindu households.
- He is an essential anchor for Tamils in tracing their cultural roots; Tamils are taught to learn his couplets word-for-word, and to follow his teachings in their day-to-day living.
- FM quoted Thiruvalluvar: “Pini Inmai Selvam Vilaivu Inbam Emam Ani Enba”, which loosely translates to having the “five jewels” required for a country that is without illness, with wealth, with good crops, with happiness, as well as safety and security.
Kalidas
- Kalidas, the legendary Sanskrit scholar, is believed to have lived during the middle of the fourth and early fifth centuries AD, during the reigns of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya and Kumaragupta.
- Raghuvamsa, from which FM quoted, is one of two long epic poems written by Kalidas.
- She mentioned the 18th verse: “Surya, the Sun, collects vapour from little drops of water. So does the King. They give back copiously. They collect only for people’s wellbeing.”
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Liberation of Auschwitz
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not Much
Mains level: Liberation of Auschwitz
- Yesterday on January 27th survivors of the Holocaust and international heads of state marked the 75th anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz.
- During the Second World War, the government of Nazi Germany killed approximately 17 million people across Europe in half a dozen camps specifically designated for killings.
- Of these seven killing centers, the camp at Auschwitz, perhaps the most well known, was the largest in size.
Why is January 27 an important date in Holocaust history?
- During the final stages of the Second World War, months before the fall of Nazi Germany, Nazi officials began forcibly moving prisoners between the camps spread across Europe.
- Called ‘Death Marches’, this forcible displacement on foot over long distances in the bitter cold, with little to no food resulted in many deaths.
- Some researchers believe that prisoners were moved from camps to prevent the liberation of prisoners held inside these camps and to also remove evidence of crimes against humanity perpetrated by Nazi officials.
- Prisoners who were very ill and disabled were left to die in the abandoned camps.
Rescue of Auschwitz
- Allied forces advanced from the West while soldiers belonging to the Red Army of the Soviet Union began entering concentration camps and killing centers across Europe, liberating survivors.
- The first camp that the Red Army soldiers liberated was the Majdanek camp in Poland in July 1944.
- The Army entered Auschwitz on January 27, 1945, finding hundreds of sick, starving and exhausted prisoners, who had somehow survived.
- In 2005, the UN-designated January 27 as the International Holocaust Remembrance Day.
What occurred during the liberation of Auschwitz?
- Along with surviving prisoners, the Red Army also found hordes of items belonging to the prisoners that had been stripped from them by Nazi officials when they first arrived at Auschwitz.
- The prisoners were so weak after having been starved for prolonged periods of time, that despite medical intervention, many died days after their rescue.
- Several soldiers in the Red Army and in the Allied troops later gave testimonies concerning the sights that awaited them when they first entered the camps in Auschwitz and elsewhere.
- Although Nazi officials had destroyed many warehouses and crematoria where property looted from prisoners had been stored and where bodies had been disposed, liberating troops still found evidence of the crimes and brutality perpetrated against the prisoners.
What made Auschwitz unique?
- Historical records show that despite attempts by Nazi officials to obliterate prisoners, particularly those at Auschwitz, there were survivors who lived to provide testimony against Nazi officials.
- Several factors set Auschwitz apart from other camps across Europe.
- The camp at Auschwitz had originally been built to hold Polish political prisoners but by March 1942, it became one of the main centres for the Nazi’s Final Solution to the Jewish Question.
Aftermath of the Holocaust
- Trials were held against Nazi officers and people who worked inside the camps in various capacities and perpetrated crimes against humanity in the camps of Auschwitz and elsewhere in Europe.
- These individuals included both men and women, many who escaped accountability for their crimes after the fall of Nazi Germany.
- To evade justice, many SS officers changed their identities and escaped to other parts of Europe, the US and to other parts of the world.
- The camps at Auschwitz have become an important reminder of the horrors of the Holocaust and in 1947 the government of Poland made the site a state memorial.
- In 1979, UNESCO added the Auschwitz memorial to its list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Operation Alberich
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Operation Alberich
Mains level: Treaty of Versailles and WWI
The recently released ‘1917’ movie tells the story of two British soldiers during the WWI in Operation Alberich, the strategic retreat in which their troops were taken back to the Hindenburg Line in 1917.
What was Operation Alberich?
- Operation Alberich is considered among Germany’s most important operations on the Western Front in 1917, as well as one of its most extreme due to the ‘scorched earth’ policy employed.
- In World War I (1914-18), the Allied Powers — principally France, the British Empire, Russia, Italy, Japan, and the US (after 1917) — fought and defeated the Central Powers — mainly Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey.
- The war caused destruction and suffering on unprecedented levels, and only led to a bigger conflict, World War II, two decades later in 1939.
- The war manoeuvre involved the systematic destruction of 1,500 square kilometres of French territory by the German army after it decided to retreat to a newly constructed defence line.
- The German army leadership had decided that the war must shift temporarily to the shorter and more easily defensible Hindenburg Line. The Operation took place in February and March 1917.
Course of action
- The shortening of the war front was drastic, and is considered the war’s biggest military construction project.
- The planning for the approximately 130-km Hindenburg Line began in September 1916, and much of it was completed in four months from October — using 5,00,000 tonnes of rocks and gravel, over 1,00,000 tonnes of cement, and 12,500 tonnes of barbed wire.
- The scorched earth policy, which laid to waste entire villages, roads, and bridges, was meant to destroy anything that the Allies could find useful.
- The Operation saw the complete evacuation of the area’s civilian population.
Aftermath
- The move is regarded as a tactical success for the Germans, as it took the Allies by surprise and delayed their advance, but is criticised for the disproportionate destruction that it caused.
- It is considered a propaganda disaster for Germany, and was presented by the Allies as an example of “Hun barbarism”.
- At the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed after the war, the Allies used Alberich to legitimize their claims for punitive reparations from Germany.
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Persons in news: Warren Hastings and his Impeachment Case
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Warren Hastings
Mains level: Read the attached story
Donald Trump’s impeachment trial started in the US Senate. A precedent being discussed is that of the Warren Hastings case — the famous failed attempt by the British Parliament to impeach India’s first governor-general.
Warren Hastings
- Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Bengal (and the first de facto Governor-General of India), is considered among the most significant colonial administrators to have ruled India.
- First as the governor of Bengal (1772-1774) and then as Governor-General (1774-1785), Hastings strengthened British rule in India and made profound changes in administration.
- Hastings’s conduct while in office was called into question after he returned to Britain in 1785, most prominently by Edmund Burke, the noted British parliamentarian and philosopher.
What was his impeachment case?
- In 1786, impeachment proceedings were initiated against Hastings, probing his alleged mismanagement, mistreatment of natives, and personal corruption while in India.
- William Pitt, the then British Prime Minister, first defended Hastings, but then joined the chorus against him.
- Hastings’s argued that ‘Western’ standards of legality could not be applied in the East.
- But Burke insisted that under the Law of Nature, people in India were entitled to the same protection as those in Britain.
- In 1795, however, the House of Lords acquitted Hastings, and the impeachment failed.
- Burke warned that such a verdict would live in “perpetual infamy”, and the trial gave rise to a wider debate on the role of the East India Company in India.
Back2Basics
Warren Hastings and his major works
From 1772, Warren Hastings served as Governor-General of Fort Williams and the regulating act was passed after his arrival.
Important events under his rule :
- Hastings abolished the Dual System that had been established by Robert Clive. In the Dual System, the company had Diwani rights (rights to collect revenue) and the Nizam or Indian chiefs had the administrative authority.
- The judicial powers of the Zamindars were abolished. Civil and criminal courts were established. Two appellate courts were established at Calcutta, one for civil (Sadar Diwani Adalat) and one for criminal (Sadar Nizamat Adalat) cases.
- Hastings abolished the system of dastaks which were misused by company officials and traders earlier.
- He implemented several reforms in all walks of administration. The Regulating Act 1773 and Pitts India Act, 1784 were important acts passed during his tenure.
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Person in news: Swami Vivekananda
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Swami Vivekananda
Mains level: Swami Vivekananda and his philosophy
January 12 is the birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, the famous spiritual leader and intellectual from the late 19th century. In his honour, the government of India in 1984 declared his birthday as National Youth Day.
Swami Vivekananda early life
- Vivekananda was born in Kolkata on January 12, 1863, as Narendra Nath Datta.
- From an early age, he nurtured an interest in Western philosophy, history, and theology, and went on to meet the religious leader Ramakrishna Paramhansa, who later became his Guru.
- He remained devoted to Ramakrishna until the latter’s death in 1886.
- In 1893, he took the name ‘Vivekananda’ after Maharaja Ajit Singh of the Khetri State requested him to do so, changing from ‘Sachidananda’ that he used before.
- After Ramakrishna’s death, Vivekananda toured across India, and set after educating the masses about ways to improve their economic condition as well as imparting spiritual knowledge.
The Chicago address
- Vivekananda is especially remembered around the world for his speech at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893.
- The speech covered topics including universal acceptance, tolerance and religion, and got him a standing ovation.
- He began delivering lectures at various places in the US and UK, and became popular as the ‘messenger of Indian wisdom to the Western world’.
Return to India
- After coming back to India, he formed the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 “to set in motion a machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest.”
- In 1899, he established the Belur Math, which became his permanent abode.
His legacy
- Through his speeches and lectures, Vivekananda worked to disseminate his religious thought.
- He preached ‘neo-Vedanta’, an interpretation of Hinduism through a Western lens, and believed in combining spirituality with material progress.
- ‘Raja Yoga’, ‘Jnana Yoga’, ‘Karma Yoga’ are some of the books he wrote.
- An important religious reformer in India, Swami Vivekananda is known to have introduced the Hindu philosophies of Yoga and Vedanta to the West.
- Subhas Chandra Bose had called Vivekananda the “maker of modern India.”
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Person in news: Manilal Doctor
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Manilal Doctor
Mains level: Indentured labour system in colonial period
An associate of Mahatma Gandhi, Manilal Doctor is known for his efforts towards helping abolish the indentured labour system that Indian immigrants in many parts of the British Empire were subjected to. He fought for the rights of Indian-origin people in Mauritius and Fiji.
The indentured labour system
- In 1833, the British Parliament banned slavery, and the practice became illegal throughout the Empire. However, to maintain the supply of labour in their territories, colonial authorities effectively replaced slavery with the indentured labour system.
- The ‘indenture’ (meaning contract) system required Indians to sign a legal agreement stating their consent to move abroad for a minimum of five years to work mainly on sugar estates.
- Many were lured to distant lands, such as the Caribbean, South Africa, Réunion, Mauritius, Malaysia, and Fiji, where they ended up living in miserable conditions.
- In the mid 19th century, over 35 lakh Indians were transported to British, French, and Dutch colonies around the world. The system was officially banned in 1917.
Manilal Doctor
- Born in 1881 in Vadodara, Doctor studied law in Bombay before travelling to Britain in 1905 for further studies.
- He became a member of the Indian Home Rule Society in London, and wrote in the monthly ‘Indian Sociologist’.
- In 1906, Doctor met Gandhi, who at the time was in London to meet imperial authorities on behalf of South Africa’s Indian origin people.
- During the meeting, Gandhi asked Doctor to move to Mauritius to assist the Indian community there in their struggle for equal rights. Doctor arrived in Mauritius the following year.
In Mauritius (1907-1911)
- Doctor organised the Indian community in the island colony, which consisted of indentured and non-indentured workers, and advocated for the abolition of discriminatory laws.
- He practised law at the Supreme Court in St Louis, and provided free legal service to bonded workers in need.
- Doctor visited plantations across the island and met indentured labourers, making them aware of their rights and encouraged them to agitate.
- He founded ‘The Hindustani’ newspaper in Mauritius, which had the motto “Liberty of Individuals! Fraternity of Men!!! Equality of Race!!!”
- Doctor also helped establish the Arya Samaj in Mauritius. He returned to India in 1911.
Next, Fiji (1912-1920)
- In 1912, Gandhi deputed Doctor to the Fiji Colony with the same objective. Like in Mauritius, Doctor emerged as the leader of the Indian community in Fiji in the coming years.
- In Fiji, Doctor started ‘The Indian Settler’ newspaper, and helped set up the Indian Imperial Association. Here too, he helped establish the Arya Samaj.
- In 1920, Doctor organised a major strike, which rattled colonial authorities.
- The imperial administration had Doctor deported to New Zealand, where he remained under surveillance and was barred from practising.
- In 1922, Doctor was able to move to Gaya in Bihar, where he could practise law. He later practised for many years in Aden, also then a British colony, and died in Bombay in 1956.
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Person in news: Revolutionary Ashfaqullah Khan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: HSRA
Mains level: HSRA and its revolutionary activities
The Uttar Pradesh cabinet has approved a proposal for a zoological garden spread across 121 acres in Gorakhpur, to be named after the freedom fighter and revolutionary Ashfaqullah Khan.
Ashfaqullah Khan
- Khan was a freedom fighter who, along with Ram Prasad Bismil, was sentenced to death for the Kakori train robbery, commonly referred to as the Kakori conspiracy of 1925.
- He was born on October 22, 1900, in Shahjahanpur, Uttar Pradesh.
- He grew up at a time when Mahatma Gandhi had launched the non-cooperation movement and urged Indians not to pay taxes to the government or co-operate with the British.
Moved by NCM withdrawal
- Within about 1.5 years of the movement’s launch, in February 1922, the Chauri Chaura incident took place in Gorakhpur — a large number of non-cooperation protestors clashed with the police and set the police station on fire, killing roughly 22 policemen.
- Opposed to violence, Gandhi called off the movement.
- The youth of the country were greatly disappointed and disillusioned with this. Khan was one among these youths.
- Subsequently, he joined the revolutionaries and became acquainted with Bismil.
Ashfaqullah Khan and the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
- In the mid-1920s, Khan and Bismil went on to found the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA), with the aim of winning freedom for the country through an armed revolution.
- HSRA published its manifesto titled “The Revolutionary” in 1925.
- It held that the immediate object of the revolutionary party in the domain of politics is to establish a federal Republic of United State of India by an organized and armed revolution.
- The final constitution of this Republic shall be framed and declared at a time when the representatives of India shall have the power to carry out their decision.
- But the basic principles of this Republic will be universal suffrage and abolition of all system which make the exploitation of man by man possible, e.g. the railways, the mines and other industries such as the manufacture of steel and ships all these shall be nationalised.
The Kakori Conspiracy
- In August 1925, an armed robbery took place on board the Kakori Express, going from Shahjahanpur to Lucknow, carrying money that had been collected at various railway stations and was to be deposited in Lucknow.
- In this planned robbery, carried out to fund the activities of the HSRA, Bismil, Khan and over 10 other revolutionaries stopped the train and fled with the cash they found in it.
- Within a month of the robbery, many members of the HSRA were arrested.
- In September 1926, Bismil was arrested however Khan was on the run and was later arrested.
- The trial for the case went on for about 1.5 years. It ended in April 1927, with Bismil, Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and Roshan Singh sentenced to death, and the others given life sentences.
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Places in news: Nankana Sahib
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nankana Sahib
Mains level: Significance of Nankana Sahib in Sikhism
Recently tension mounted in Pakistan after few goons vandalized the Nankana Sahib Gurdwara.
Nankana Sahib
- Nankana Sahib is a city of 80,000 in Pakistan’s Punjab province, where Gurdwara Janam Asthan (also called Nankana Sahib Gurdwara) is located.
- The shrine is built over the site where Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, was believed to be born in 1469.
- It was constructed by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, after he visited Nankana Sahib in 1818-19 while returning from the Battle of Multan.
- It is 75 kms to the west of Lahore, and is the capital of Nankana Sahib district.
- The city was previously known as Talwandi, and was founded by Rai Bhoi, a wealthy landlord.
- Rai Bhoi’s grandson, Rai Bular Bhatti, renamed the town ‘Nankana Sahib’ in honour of the Guru. ‘Sahib’ is an Arabic-origin epithet of respect.
Historical significance
- During British rule, the Gurdwara Janam Asthan was the site of a violent episode when in 1921, over 130 Akali Sikhs were killed after they were attacked by the Mahant of the shrine.
- The incident is regarded as one of the key milestones in the Gurdwara Reform Movement, which led to the passing of the Sikh Gurdwara Act in 1925 that ended the Mahant control of Gurdwaras.
- In 2014, Pakistan had a memorial for the massacre built.
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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities
In news: Partition of Bengal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Partition of Bengal
Mains level: Partition of Bengal and its significance
West Bengal Governor drew widespread condemnation over his tweet referring to a table, apparently used by Lord Curzon to sign papers pertaining to the Partition of Bengal in 1905, as “iconic”.
Who was Lord Curzon?
- Curzon, India’s Viceroy between 1899 and 1905, was one of the most controversial and consequential holders of that post.
- The partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency in 1905 was one of his most criticised moves, which triggered widespread opposition not only in Bengal but across India, and gave impetus to the freedom movement.
- Curzon was deeply racist, and convinced of Britain’s “civilizing mission” in India.
- In 1901, he described Indians as having “extraordinary inferiority in character, honesty and capacity”.
- He was deeply intolerant of Indian political aspirations.
The Partition of Bengal
- In July 1905, Curzon announced the partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency.
- The Presidency was the most populous province in India, with around 8 crore people, and comprised the present-day states of West Bengal, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Assam, as well as today’s Bangladesh.
- A new province of East Bengal and Assam was announced, with a population of 3.1 crore, and a Muslim-Hindu ratio of 3:2. Bengal, the western province, was overwhelmingly Hindu.
- While the move was ostensibly aimed at making the administration of the large region easier, Curzon’s real intentions were far less benign.
Aftermath of the partition
- The partition provoked great resentment and hostility in Bengal.
- It was clear to the Bengal Congress and patriotic Indians in both Bengal and elsewhere that Curzon’s motive was to crush the increasingly loud political voices of the literate class in the province, and to provoke religious strife and opposition against them.
- But the protests against the partition did not remain confined to this class alone.
- A campaign to boycott British goods, especially textiles, and promote swadeshi began.
- There were marches and demonstrations with the protesters singing Bande Mataram to underline their patriotism and challenge the colonialists.
- Samitis emerged throughout Bengal, with several thousand volunteers.
- Rabindranath Tagore led the marches at many places, and composed many patriotic songs, most famously ‘Amar Sonar Bangla’ (My Golden Bengal), which is now the national anthem of Bangladesh.
- The message of patriotism and Bengali nationalism was showcased in Jatras, or popular theatre.
Scrapping of the partition
- Curzon left for Britain in 1905, but the agitation continued for many years.
- Partition was finally reversed in 1911 by Lord Hardinge in the face of unrelenting opposition.
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